(1533-1538), daughter of Prince Glinsky - a native of Lithuania. Under Elena Glinskaya, a number of reforms and measures were carried out that contributed to the centralization and security of the state: a monetary reform that established a single monetary system in the country, the construction of new and reorganization of old fortresses, the strengthening of the army, the restriction of feudal immunities (the rights of patrimonials to collect taxes and use them for their own needs). ); granting privileges and lands to Orthodox settlers from Lithuania, etc.

Both during the reign of Elena Glinskaya, and after her death (there is an assumption that she) the struggle for power between the boyar groups of Belsky, Shuisky, Glinsky did not stop. The boyar rule (1538-1547), which began after the death of Elena Glinskaya, led to a weakening of the central government, and the arbitrariness of the estates caused widespread discontent among the people and open mass demonstrations in a number of Russian cities.

In 1547, Ivan IV (born 1530) came of age and was married to the kingdom, officially taking the title of Tsar and Grand Duke of "All Russia". Even in the old days, the most powerful independent ruler in Russia was called "tsar". Such a title was used by the Russians in relation to the Byzantine emperor, and then to the Mongol khan. The first Russian Tsar was a very controversial person. According to G. V. Vernadsky, endowed with great intellectual abilities, being a ruler with a broad outlook, at the same time he was quick-tempered, cruel, and besides, he suffered from persecution mania, which was especially clearly manifested in the last twenty years of his life.

In the late 40s - 50s. 16th century The government of the so-called Chosen Rada (1549 - 1560) carried out numerous reforms of central and local government. It is worth recalling that this is a system of measures carried out by the state and aimed at transforming certain areas of public life while maintaining the foundations of the existing system. The people who were members of the Chosen Rada enjoyed not only the support, but also the personal sympathy of Ivan IV: Alexei Adashev, Tsar's confessor Sylvester, deacon of the Ambassadorial Department Ivan Viskovaty, father and brother of Tsarina Anastasia of the boyars Zakharyina, childhood friend Andrei Kurbsky, Metropolitan of All Russia Macarius. In 1549, the Zemsky Sobor was convened in Moscow for the first time as an advisory body under the tsar, which included, first of all, members of the Boyar Duma, the highest clergy. In addition to the Boyar Duma and the top clergy, Zemsky Sobors included representatives of the local nobility and
townspeople: the local nobility was the main service class, the basis of the royal army, and the top of the townspeople was an important source of cash income for the treasury.

Zemsky sobors (“all-Russian meetings”), which were periodically convened by the tsar to discuss the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy, occupied a special place in the system of state authorities, starting from the middle of the 16th century. The appearance of Zemsky Sobors testified to the formation of the institutions of a class-representative monarchy in the Russian state. A class-representative monarchy is a type of power when a monarch rules the country, relying primarily on class-representative institutions that exist in the vertical of central power.

However, unlike similar Western European institutions (parliament in England, "states general" in France, Cortes in Spain), the Zemsky Sobors in Russia, on the contrary, served as an instrument for strengthening the autocracy and were often convened to legitimize (approval and support) the domestic and foreign policy of Moscow kings. In particular, in 1565 the Zemsky Sobor agreed to the introduction of Tsar Ivan IV.

The general trend towards the centralization of the state necessitated the publication of a new code of laws - the Sudebnik of 1550. He streamlined and supplemented the Sudebnik of 1497. The new Sudebnik confirmed the right of the peasants to move on St. George's Day, but the payment for the "elderly" was increased. The Sudebnik of 1550 somewhat increased the power of the feudal lord over the peasants, since he made them responsible for the crimes of the peasants.

In 1551 a church council was convened. The answers of the council to one hundred royal questions were - a code of legal norms for the inner life of the Russian clergy and its relationship with society and the state, called "Stoglav". "Stoglav" approved earlier decisions on the canonization of local saints and their recognition as all-Russian saints; banned innovation in icon painting; unified the procedure for performing church rites; scheduled the opening in Moscow and other cities of special schools for the training of priests; condemned vices in secular and church life; forbade monasteries to buy patrimonial possessions "without a report" to the king. Serious changes during the reign of the Elected Rada were introduced into the system of central government.

Instead of the two former central departments - the Sovereign's Palace and the Treasury, which had different, often intertwined management functions, a system of specialized orders was created, that is, central executive agencies in charge of branches of government or individual regions of the country. The prikazka system of central administration, which was based on the principles of centralism and estates, went through a number of stages in its development: from the “prikaz” as a one-time order from the boyars or literate unborn officials to carry out certain state functions, to the “prikaz” as a permanent state body of central authority with independent structural units.

In the middle of the XVI century. there were almost two dozen orders. Military affairs, for example, were managed by the Discharge Order (local army), Pushkarsky Order (artillery), Streltsy (archers), Armory Chamber (arsenal). Foreign affairs were managed by the Posolsky order, and the state lands, which were distributed to the nobles, were handled by the Local order.

At the head of each order was a boyar or clerk - a major government official. Orders were in charge of administration, tax collection and court. The design of the order system made it possible to centralize the administration of the country. During the reign of the Chosen Rada, a reform of local government was carried out, in accordance with which in 1556 the feeding system was abolished, and local administration was transferred to the hands of the labial elders (lip - district), elected from local nobles, as well as zemstvo elders, elected from among the wealthy strata of the black-haired population.

Chernososhnye (state) and palace peasants in volosts, as well as townspeople in cities, received the right to choose from among their “favorite heads” (zemstvo elders) and “best people” (tsolovalnikov, or zemstvo judges), who headed local government bodies - zemstvo and labial huts, which performed, respectively, financial-tax and police-judicial functions.

These local authorities replaced the feeding system, which was the main part of the activities carried out in the Russian state in order to strengthen autocracy and strengthen political centralization. Zemsky and labial huts became in the middle of the 16th century. estate-representative authorities at the local level. The tendency to strengthen the autocratic power of Moscow sovereigns in the XVI century. intertwined with another - the beginning of the formation of estate representation bodies both in the center and in the field.

In essence, this meant that the degree of centralization of the state achieved by the middle of the century was still insufficient for the Russian tsars to do without the participation of the estates in governing the country. The combination of autocracy, serfdom and the enormous role of the state distinguished Russia from other European countries from the 16th century. until the middle of the 19th century. Of great importance was the military reform aimed at strengthening the noble militia, which formed the basis of the Russian army at that time. Near Moscow, a “chosen thousand” was planted on the ground - 1070 provincial nobles, who, according to the tsar's plan, were to become his support. In 1556, the Code of Service was drawn up for the first time, according to which the votchinnik or landowner could start service from the age of 15 and pass it on by inheritance, and from 150 acres of land, both the boyar and the nobleman had to put up one warrior and appear at the “horse, crowded and armed.

In 1550, instead of a detachment of pishchalniks that appeared at the beginning of the 16th century, a permanent archery army was created (at first, three thousand archers were recruited). The archery army was created from archer warriors armed with firearms. The army also began to attract foreign mercenaries, the number of which was insignificant. The Cossacks were used to carry out the border service. The boyars and nobles who made up the militia were called "servicemen of the fatherland", that is, by origin.

The other group was made up of "service people according to the device" (i.e., according to recruitment). In the middle of the XVI century. An official guide has been compiled "The Sovereign Genealogy", streamlining local disputes and somewhat limiting localism. The reforms of the Chosen Rada led to increased political centralization and strengthening of the central government. However, by the end of the 1950s Serious contradictions arose between Ivan IV and the government of A. Adashev. The policy of compromise ("reconciliation of the estates"), which was pursued by the Elected Rada, contributed to the strengthening of the power of the king. However, as it strengthened, Ivan IV showed less and less desire to share it with those to whom he owed much of his power.

The balance of power between the tribal nobility and the nobility, achieved thanks to the reforms of the Chosen Rada, not only strengthened the royal power, but also made it possible to ruthlessly suppress both competing social groups. In 1560 Ivan IV finally broke with the government of A. Adashev. Historian S. Veselovsky even believes that it was from that time that unrest began in the Muscovite state, which lasted 70 years. The first open quarrel between the tsar and members of the Elected Rada occurred in 1558 due to disagreements in foreign policy: Adashev, Sylvester and their supporters considered it necessary to continue an active foreign policy in the south and east, and the tsar turned his gaze to the west, to Livonia.

The further fate of the members of the Chosen Rada was unenviable: A. Adashev was arrested, and Sylvester was exiled to Solovki. Feeling the obvious approach of the “royal thunderstorm”, in 1564 Prince A. Kurbsky, close to the leaders of the Chosen Rada, fled to Lithuania. The tsar blamed the "traitors" of the boyars and his cousin, the appanage prince V. A. Staritsky, for all the "troubles". were aimed, in general, at the gradual centralization of the formed at the beginning of the 16th century. Muscovy, that is, to strengthen the central government, the power of the monarch. These reforms, ultimately, were designed to ensure the creation in Russia of a strong monarchy "with a human face." But as an alternative to this method of centralization of the state in the mid-60s of the XVI century. another policy came forward - the policy of the oprichnina, the initiator and conductor of which was Ivan the Terrible himself.

Around 1549, a new government was formed from people close to the young John, later called the Chosen Rada by Prince A. Kurbsky. It included: Alexei Adashev, a representative of the humble but large landowners, who headed the Chosen Rada, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Priest Sylvester, Metropolitan Macarius, and clerk Ivan Viskovaty.

The Rada was not an official state body, but in fact it was the government for 13 years and ruled the state on behalf of the tsar.

Reforms of the Chosen Rada. The new level of political organization of the country, which had developed by the middle of the 16th century, had to correspond to new state institutions - class and representative institutions that defended the interests of large regions. The Zemsky Sobor became such a body.

The Council of 1549 was the first Zemsky Sobor, that is, a meeting of class representatives with legislative functions. Its convocation reflected the establishment of a class-representative monarchy in Russia. However, the first Council did not yet have an elective character, and representatives of the urban trade and craft population and peasants were not present there. However, both of these categories of the population did not play a big role at the cathedrals in the future either.

From 1550 to 1653, 16 councils were convened, and after the closing of the last of them, neither living memory nor regret remained.

Adoption of a new judge. Undoubtedly, the largest undertaking of the government of Ivan the Terrible was the drafting of a new legislative code in June 1550, which replaced the obsolete code of law of 1497. Of the 99 articles of the code of law, 37 were completely new, and the rest were subjected to radical processing. The social legislation included in the Code of Laws of 1550 deals with two most important issues - land ownership and the dependent population (peasants and serfs). For the first time in the code book there was a chapter about the king, which stipulated the king's rights, title, form of government. A clause on high treason was also introduced.

The new Sudebnik fully met the needs of the time. It was the first time that punishment for bribery was introduced, there are rules of law that still exist.

Local government reforms. The zemstvo reform was destined to take on special significance - the introduction of zemstvo institutions and the transition to the abolition of feeding. Lands not assigned to the princely palace were included in the circle of local government. This administration was carried out by governors and volosts. The position of manager was called feeding, since he was fed at the expense of the governed. Viceroys were given not for government work, but for court service.

The reform was supposed to lead to the final elimination of the power of the governors by replacing it with local governments selected from the prosperous black-haired peasantry and townspeople. Zemstvo reform, conceived as a nationwide reform, was fully implemented only in the black-moss territories of the Russian North. As a result of the elimination of the feeding system and the creation of class-representative institutions on the ground, the Russian government was able to achieve the solution of the most important tasks in strengthening the centralized apparatus of power. As a result of the reform, the bulk of the nobles was freed from "fed" functions, which increased the combat effectiveness and increased the personnel of the Russian army; the nobility strengthened its position - for the proper performance of military service, it received regular remuneration.

Army reforms. The reform of the army, which began in 1556, was also connected with the Kazan war. As a result of several unsuccessful campaigns, it became clear that the old way of organizing the army was no longer suitable for such a state, that is, the army needed to be reformed.

The army was already completed not only from Russian soldiers. In the second half of the 16th century, the Cossacks who lived on the Don joined the army. Cossacks were used to carry out border service.

Having created such a recruiting system, Ivan receives a solid base for further changes in the structure of the army. The equestrian noble militia becomes the core of the army.

A permanent type of troops appears - archers. They were formed as permanent contingents of infantry (partly cavalry) armed with firearms. They were provided collectively with land, city yards (tax-free), a small monetary award, while retaining the right to small trade and craft.

Modernization and good living conditions for archers in the second half of the 16th century made the permanent archery army the most powerful fighting force of the Russian state.

Thanks to the changes carried out in the army, its weapons have acquired some uniformity. Each warrior had an iron helmet, armor or chain mail, a sword, a bow and arrows.

The appearance of artillery is added to the changes in the army. The artillery park serving guns and squeakers is being enlarged.

The military reform also included the prohibition of local disputes between governors, now they were all subordinate to one commander in chief. Appointment to the highest voivodship posts on the basis of “breed” and nobility led to disastrous consequences on the battlefield. New laws made it possible to appoint less noble, but more brave and experienced commanders, as comrades to the commander-in-chief.

As a result of the reforms, a powerful combat-ready army was created, capable of withstanding a strong and large enemy.

Church reforms. Religious reform began with the Cathedral of the Russian Church in 1551, which is known in history as the Stoglavy Cathedral. At the Stoglavy Council, the government raised the question of the future fate of the monastic land ownership, which met with strong opposition from the militant churchmen - the Josephites. In May 1551, a decree was issued on the confiscation of all lands and lands transferred by the Boyar Duma to bishops and monasteries after the death of Vasily III. The implementation of the new land legislation allowed the government to replenish the fund of manorial lands.

Carrying out the church reform was also aimed at educating "competent" ministers of the church, changing the service itself, its unification, because. within the church organization itself there were differences in the composition of the "saints" and there was no strict order in the performance of church rites, there was no strict system of internal regulations.

Change in the tax system. The reform period of the 1950s coincides with the Kazan War. As you know, war and reforms required huge funds and therefore various financial transformations are being carried out. In addition, Russia inherited the tax system from the time of the fragmentation of the state into principalities, which is morally outdated and did not meet the requirements of the time.

Tax reform took several directions. The first reform hit the monasteries the hardest. In 1548-1549, it began, and in 1550-1551, the abolition of financial withdrawals for the payment of basic taxes and various travel and trade duties - the main source of income for the monasteries - was carried out.

A single measure for determining profitability was established - "plow" - a land unit. Not only are new taxes being introduced (“food money”, “polony”), but the old ones are also being increased. For example, there is an increase in the rates of one of the main land taxes (“pit money”).

According to tax changes, we can conclude that they were aimed at increasing state revenues. There is a sharp and noticeable increase in the monetary tax pressure. These transformations were complete and constructive. As a result of the reforms, the authorities achieved uniformity in the tax sphere.

The results of the reform. These were the reforms of Ivan the Terrible, worked out together with the members of the Chosen Rada. The main feature of the reforms during the reign of the Chosen Rada was the disorder of their implementation and at the same time their complexity. The reforms cannot be called unsuccessful, since the main institutions and institutions, the main regulatory norms, survived both the oprichnina and Ivan IV himself, which means they achieved their goal. As a result of the reforms, Russia received a new code of laws - the Sudebnik of 1550, a new system of government in the localities and in the center. The military service system acquired its final form and became the foundation of the Russian monarchy. The reforms were reinforced by the development of trade and diplomatic relations with the West. Science and art are developing, the state is flourishing, and if the reforms had not run into opposition from the aristocracy, whose rights were infringed, they would have led to even greater results. But the hostility of the boyars leads to the oprichnina.

The main reforms of the elected council

The turbulent events that took place in 1547 necessitated cardinal state reforms. The young tsar, as well as his entourage, created, as one of its participants (Prince Kurbsky) called it, the Chosen Rada

Archpriest Sylvester (Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin), as well as a rather wealthy nobleman from an ignoble family, Adashev A.F., stood at the head of this political circle of serving courtiers and nobility. They were joined by such noble princes as Vorotynsky, Odoevsky, Kurbsky and others. In addition, the composition of the Chosen Rada included the first head of the Polish order Viskovaty, as well as an active figure in this circle, Metropolitan Macarius.

Formally not a state institution, the Rada remained, in fact, the Russian government for thirteen years, ruling the state on behalf of the tsar himself and implementing a series of significant major reforms.

In the middle of the sixteenth century, the Chosen Rada established for the entire state a single measure of tax collection called "plough".

Military reform

In order to strengthen the country's weapons in 1550, Ivan the Terrible began to implement military reforms. It was then that localism was abolished - the procedure for filling positions in the army according to the degree of nobility (for the duration of campaigns).

Also in the Moscow district, on the orders of the tsar on October 1, 1550, the “chosen thousand” was introduced (more than a thousand provincial nobles, constituting the core of the noble militia, as well as the support of autocratic power). But this project was not completed.

One order of service was determined: according to the device (by recruitment) and by fatherland (by origin). Boyar children and nobles served in the fatherland. Military service was regulated by the Code of Service, passing by inheritance and starting at the age of fifteen (a nobleman who did not reach this age was considered undersized). Nobles and boyars had to put up a warrior, and if this was not done, then it was punishable by a large fine.

Creation of the archery army

Also in 1550, a streltsy army (from among the servicemen) was formed, armed with both cold (sabers and reeds) and firearms (squeaked) weapons. At the very beginning, three thousand people were recruited into this army, disbanded into six separate "orders" (regiments). It was they who made up the personal royal guard.

In addition, the government of the Chosen Rada strengthened the tsarist state apparatus, improving the order system and thus building up the bureaucracy.

"The Chosen Rada" is a term introduced by Prince A. M. Kurbsky to refer to the circle of people who made up the informal government under Ivan the Terrible in 1549-1560. The term itself is found only in the work of Kurbsky, while Russian sources of that time do not give this circle of people any official name.

Creation

The formation of a select circle of people around the tsar takes place after the events in Moscow in the summer of 1547: fire, and then the uprising of Muscovites. According to Kurbsky's version, during these events, Archpriest Sylvester, and “threatened the king with a terrible spell from the Holy Scriptures,<...>to<...>stop his rampages and temper his violent temper.

Compound

The composition of the Chosen Rada is the subject of discussion. Definitely, the priest of the Kremlin's Annunciation Cathedral, the tsar's confessor Sylvester and a young figure from a not very noble family A.F. Adashev participated in the "Rada".

On the other hand, some historians deny the existence of the Chosen Rada as an institution led exclusively by the three above-mentioned persons.

Activity

The elected Council lasted until 1560. She carried out transformations that received the names of the reforms of the middle of the 16th century.

Reforms of the Chosen One are glad:

First Zemsky Sobor 1549 - an organ of class representation, providing a link between the center and places, Ivan IV's speech from the frontal place: condemnation of the wrong boyar rule, announcement of the need for reforms.

Sudebnik 1550 - development of the provisions of the Code of Laws of Ivan III, limiting the power of governors and volosts, strengthening the control of the tsarist administration, a single amount of court fees, preserving the right of peasants to go to St. George's Day.

Stoglavy Cathedral 1551 - unification of church rites, recognition of all locally revered saints as all-Russian, the establishment of a rigid icon-painting canon, requirements for improving the morals of the clergy, a ban on usury among priests.

Military reform 1556 - the Code of Service was adopted: the restriction of localism for the period of hostilities, in addition to the equestrian local militia, the organization of a permanent army - archers, gunners, a single order of military service.

Formation of the command system.

In 1556, a reform of local government was carried out.

The reforms of the Elected Rada outlined the path to strengthening, centralization of the state, contributed to the formation of a class-representative state.

Fall of the Chosen Rada

Some historians see the reason for the royal disfavor in the fact that Ivan IV was dissatisfied with the disagreements between some members of the Rada and the late Anastasia Zakharyina-Yuryeva, the first wife of the tsar. This is also confirmed by the fact that after the death of his second wife, Maria Temryukovna, Ivan the Terrible also arranged the executions of those who were objectionable to the tsarina and accused the boyars of having "exterminated" (poisoned) Maria.

In 1553 Ivan the Terrible fell ill. The disease was so severe that the Boyar Duma raised the question of the transfer of power. Ivan forced the boyars to swear allegiance to their infant son, Tsarevich Dmitry. But among the members of the Rada, an idea arose to transfer the Moscow throne to the tsar's cousin, Vladimir, Prince Staritsky. In particular, Sylvester noted that Vladimir's quality is that he loves advisers. However, Ivan recovered from his illness, and the conflict, at first glance, was settled. But the king did not forget this story and later used it against Sylvester and Adashev.

The main contradiction was the radical difference between the views of the tsar and the Rada on the issue of centralization of power in the state (the process of centralization is the process of concentrating state power). Ivan IV wanted to force this process. The elected Rada chose the path of gradual and painless reform.

The main goals of the reforms of the elected council

The elected council was a circle of people who were close to Tsar Ivan the Fourth, actively participating in the government activities of the state during his reign. At the same time, during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, this body did not have its own name, and this term appeared only later in the writings of Kurbsky.

The actual composition of this organ has caused and continues to cause a lot of controversy among researchers. However, it is believed that the activist Adashev, as well as the royal confessor Sylvester, were its constant participants.

The very reign of the Chosen Rada falls mainly on the middle of the sixteenth century. During this period (1549-1560), a long-term policy was formed, which consisted in carrying out innovative reforms of the Chosen Rada in every sphere of public life in Russia. At the same time, the activities of the board of this body could affect legal activities, the church system, military affairs, the organization of local government, the financial system of the state, etc. The main goal of these reforms of the Chosen Council was to strengthen the central government.

The ruler Ivan the Terrible himself was able to convince himself of the need for reforms only after the events that were associated with a huge fire in Moscow. Then the society, convinced that the Glinskys were involved in the arson, rebelled and the masses rushed to the court. The Glinsky yard was completely plundered, and the tsar's uncle was killed. The monarch with great difficulty managed to convince the people to calm down and disperse.

So, as the most important reforms introduced by the Chosen Rada, historians single out:

· Adoption of a new Sudebnik at the First Zemsky Sobor in 1550;

· In 1550, a military reform was carried out, which formed non-disbanded troops, as well as a special part of the army called the "Chosen Thousand";

· Administrative reform, which marked the beginning of the formation of orders, which are central government bodies in charge of issues of service people, issues of diplomacy, etc .;

· Stoglavy Cathedral from 1551, also called “Stoglav” by historians, where the norms and canons of the church were adopted. This title refers to the actual number of issues or chapters that have been resolved;

· Military reform of the Chosen One from 1556. According to it, the Code of Service is adopted, and exact service standards for landowners are established, etc.