Formation of the Galician-Volyn principality. Galician and Volyn principalities and their unification under the reign of Roman Mstislavich. Culture and education

The territory of the Galicia-Volyn land stretched from the Carpathians to Polissya, capturing the course of the rivers Dniester, Prut, Western and Southern Bug, and Pripyat. The natural conditions of the principality favored the development of agriculture in the river valleys, in the foothills of the Carpathians - the extraction of salt and mining. An important place in the life of the region was played by trade with other countries, in which the cities of Galich, Przemysl, Vladimir-Volynsky were of great importance.

An active role in the life of the principality was played by a strong local boyars, in a constant struggle with which the princely government tried to establish control over the state of affairs in their lands. The processes taking place in the Galicia-Volyn land were constantly influenced by the policies of the neighboring states of Poland and Hungary, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups applied for help or in order to find asylum.

The rise of the Galician principality began in the second half of the 12th century. under Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187). After the turmoil that began with his death, the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich managed to establish himself on the Galich throne, who in 1199 united the Galich land and most of the Volyn land as part of one principality. Leading a fierce struggle with the local boyars, Roman Mstislavich tried to subdue other lands of Southern Russia.

After the death of Roman Mstislavich in 1205, his eldest son Daniel (1205-1264), who was then only four years old, became his heir. A long period of civil strife began, during which Poland and Hungary tried to divide Galicia and Volhynia among themselves. Only in 1238, shortly before the invasion of Batu, Daniil Romanovich managed to establish himself in Galich. After the conquest of Russia by the Mongol-Tatars, Daniil Romanovich became a vassal of the Golden Horde. However, the Galician prince, who possessed great diplomatic talents, skillfully used the contradictions between the Mongolian state and Western European countries.

The Golden Horde was interested in preserving the Principality of Galicia as a barrier from the West. In turn, the Vatican hoped, with the assistance of Daniel Romanovich, to subjugate the Russian Church and for this promised support in the fight against the Golden Horde and even the royal title. In 1253 (according to other sources in 1255) Daniil Romanovich was crowned, but he did not accept Catholicism and did not receive real support from Rome to fight the Tatars.

After the death of Daniel Romanovich, his successors could not resist the collapse of the Galicia-Volyn principality. By the middle of the XIV century. Volhynia was captured by Lithuania, and the Galician land - by Poland.

Novgorod land

Novgorod land from the very beginning of the history of Russia played a special role in it. The most important feature of this land was that the traditional Slavic occupation of agriculture, with the exception of growing flax and hemp, did not give much income here. The main source of enrichment for the largest landowners of Novgorod - the boyars - was the profit from the sale of craft products - beekeeping, hunting for fur and sea animals.

Along with the Slavs who lived here since ancient times, the population of the Novgorod land included representatives of the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. In the XI-XII centuries. Novgorodians mastered the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland and held in their hands the exit to the Baltic Sea, from the beginning of the XIII century. Novgorod border in the West went along the line of Lake Peipus and Pskov. Of great importance for Novgorod was the annexation of the vast territory of Pomerania from the Kola Peninsula to the Urals. Novgorod sea and forest industries brought enormous wealth.

Novgorod's trade relations with its neighbors, especially with the countries of the Baltic basin, became stronger from the middle of the 12th century. Furs, walrus ivory, lard, flax, etc. were exported to the West from Novgorod. Cloth, weapons, metals, etc. were imported to Russia.

But despite the size of the territory of the Novgorod land, it was distinguished by a low level of population density, a relatively small number of cities compared to other Russian lands. All cities, except for the "younger brother" Pskov (separated from 1268), were noticeably inferior in terms of population and importance to the main city of the Russian medieval North - Lord Veliky Novgorod.

The economic growth of Novgorod prepared the necessary conditions for its political separation into an independent feudal boyar republic in 1136. The princes in Novgorod were left with exclusively official functions. The princes acted in Novgorod as military leaders, their actions were under the constant control of the Novgorod authorities. The right of the princes to court was limited, their purchase of land in Novgorod was prohibited, and the income they received from the possessions determined for the service was strictly fixed. From the middle of the XII century. the Novgorod prince was formally considered the Grand Duke of Vladimir, but until the middle of the 15th century. he did not have the opportunity to really influence the state of affairs in Novgorod.

The supreme governing body of Novgorod was veche, real power was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod boyars. Three or four dozen Novgorod boyar families held in their hands more than half of the privately owned lands of the republic and, skillfully using the patriarchal-democratic traditions of the Novgorod antiquity to their advantage, did not let go of their control over the richest land of the Russian Middle Ages.

From the environment and under the control of the boyars, elections were carried out posadnik(heads of the city government) and thousandth(head of the militia). Under boyar influence, the post of head of the church was replaced - archbishop. The archbishop was in charge of the treasury of the republic, external relations of Novgorod, the right of court, etc. The city was divided into 3 (later 5) parts - "ends", whose trade and craft representatives, along with the boyars, took a significant part in the management of the Novgorod land.

The socio-political history of Novgorod is characterized by private urban uprisings (1136, 1207, 1228-29, 1270). However, as a rule, these movements did not lead to fundamental changes in the structure of the republic. In most cases, social tension in Novgorod was skillfully

used in their struggle for power by representatives of rival boyar groups, who dealt with their political opponents with the hands of the people.

The historical isolation of Novgorod from other Russian lands had important political consequences. Novgorod was reluctant to participate in all-Russian affairs, in particular, the payment of tribute to the Mongols. The richest and largest land of the Russian Middle Ages, Novgorod, could not become a potential center for the unification of Russian lands. The boyar nobility ruling in the republic strove to protect the "old times", to prevent any changes in the existing correlation of political forces within the Novogorod society.

Strengthening since the beginning of the XV century. tendencies in Novgorod oligarchy, those. the usurpation of power exclusively by the boyars played a fatal role in the fate of the republic. In the context of increased from the middle of the XV century. Moscow’s offensive against Novgorod independence, a significant part of Novgorod society, including the agricultural and trading elite that did not belong to the boyars, either went over to the side of Moscow, or took a position of passive non-intervention.

The Galicia-Volyn principality, geographically located in Eastern Europe, is an interesting symbiosis of close cultures. It arose in 1199, after the unification of the Galician and Volyn lands. Recognized as the largest principality of Southern Russia during the feudal fragmentation.

Geographical position

The Galicia-Volyn principality is located on the fertile lands of Southwestern Russia. And what interesting neighbors surrounded the young state! In the north, the Galicia-Volyn principality bordered on Lithuania, in the south - on the Golden Horde, in the east - on Kiev and Turov-Pinsk principalities, in the west - on the Kingdom of Poland. And behind the mighty ridge of the Carpathians, Hungary was already spreading.

After the fall of the Galicia-Volyn principality, the fate of the two lands was largely determined by the western neighbors of South Russia. In the 14th century, Galicia was captured by Poland, and Volhynia came under the control of Lithuania. Then a single Commonwealth arose, which again captured these territories.

For many years the population of Galicia and Volhynia was influenced by Polish and Lithuanian cultures. Also, the Ukrainian language of Western Ukraine is somewhat similar to Polish. This makes it clear why Western Ukrainians have always wanted to become independent.

The Galicia-Volyn principality was formed in 1199 as a result of the capture of Galich by Roman Mstislavovich Volynsky. Prior to this, the two principalities existed separately. The state existed until the end of the XIV century, when it was captured by Lithuania and Poland.

Between West and East

The location of the Galician-Volyn lands turned them into a link between Western Europe and Russia. This feature led to the instability of the state - its territory was constantly claimed by neighbors who wanted to take advantage of natural advantages.

At the same time, such a geographical position of the Galicia-Volyn principality was favorable for trade. During the heyday of the state, it was the largest supplier of bread to Europe, and had more than 80 cities, which is quite a lot according to the concepts of that time.

Nature and territories

The territory of the Galicia-Volyn principality was located in the valleys of the rivers Western Bug, San, Danube, Dniester. Thanks to this location, it was possible to enter the Black Sea. Initially, these lands were inhabited by tribal unions of streets, Volhynians, White Croats, Tivertsy, Dulebs. The principality bordered on Hungary, Poland, Lithuania, the Teutonic Order, Berlady (after the Mongol invasion - the Golden Horde), and from the Russian lands - on Kiev, Turov-Pinsk and Polotsk principalities. The borders were unstable. The reason was both strife between Russian princes and frequent conflicts with southern and western neighbors. For a long time the principality was directly dependent on the Golden Horde.

Natural and climatic conditions were favorable. In general, they corresponded to the classics of central Europe. Significant areas of chernozem in the region of the western Bug contributed to the development of agriculture. There were significant forest reserves (part of the Carpathians also belonged to the principality). Natural conditions stimulated not only agriculture, but various crafts - hunting, fishing, beekeeping.

Administrative nuances

In addition to the Galician and Volhynian territories proper, the Terebovlyansk, Kholmsk, Lutsk, and Belz lands also belonged to the principality. A significant part of them was annexed during the reign of Daniil Romanovich (1205-1264), both by military and peaceful means (for example, the prince inherited the Lutsk lands).

The capital of the united principality is Galich, although the Volyn prince stood at the origins of the unified state. Later, the functions of the capital were partially transferred to Lvov (it was also built by Daniil Romanovich and named after the son of the prince).

Russian lands and principalities in the XII - mid-XV centuries. The main political centers during this period: in the northeast Vladimir-Suzdal principality, north Novgorod Republic, in the West Galicia-Volyn principality.

Galicia-Volyn principality
(the center was consistently Galich, Holm, and then Lvov).

There was a strong boyars, opposing the power of the princes. The main occupation was agriculture, developed trade.

Significant political events: the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities by Roman Mstislavovich of Galicia (1199). The reunification took place under Daniel (1238).

In 1254 the prince Daniel took the title King of Russia from the Pope.

In 1303 Yuri 1 Lvovich obtained from the Patriarch of Constantinople the recognition of a separate Little Russian Metropolis.

In 1349 Galicia was conquered by the Polish king Casimir III the Great.

In 1392, Volyn became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Consequences of political fragmentation Russia:

• negative- weakness of the central government, vulnerability to external enemies, weakening of the country's economic power due to constant civil strife;
• positive- the establishment of political stability in large regions, the growth and development of cities, the development of the original culture of individual regions.

Lesson summary " Galicia-Volyn principality (1199-1392)«.

Galicia-Volyn Principality

Since ancient times, the region of Galicia-Volyn Rus has been known under the common name of the Cherven Cities. This is actually Galicia with the cities: Przemysl, Zvenigorod, Trebovl, Galich, Berlad and others, as well as Volyn with the cities: Vladimir-Volynsky, Lutsk, Brest, Belz, Dorohochyn and others.

Even during the time of St. Vladimir, the Poles claimed the "Chervensky Cities" and they were under constant threat of capture or invasion from Poland.

During the division of Russia into appanages, Yaroslav the Wise separated the Galician "Cherven cities" from Volyn and gave them as inheritance to his grandson Rostislav, the son of his son Vladimir, who died during the life of Yaroslav.

During the princely civil strife after the death of Yaroslav the Wise, Rostislav was expelled from Galicia and died in exile in the Crimea, leaving three sons, who only in 1087 managed to return to reign in Galician Rus.

At the congress of princes in Lyubech in 1097, Galician Rus was recognized as a "patrimony", that is, the hereditary possession of the descendants of Rostislav, who retained power over it for a whole century, giving two prominent princes: Vladimir I and Yaroslav (Osmomysl), his son .

During the reign of these two princes, which lasted 62 years (1125–1187), Galician Rus grew and strengthened economically and politically, and many settlers from the Dnieper region rushed there, suffering from “constant princely civil strife and raids of the Polovtsians. Under the influence of its western neighbors - Hungary and Poland, with which Galician Russia was in close trade and cultural relations, a social system was formed there that was in many respects different from the rest of Russia. A characteristic feature of this system was the very strong importance of the boyars, who took an example from the Western European feudal lords and sought to limit the power of the prince and influence state affairs. Both Vladimir I and Yaroslav Osmomysl fought against these aspirations of the boyars quite successfully and ruled their principality with a firm hand, always having support from the northwestern Russia, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, that began to strengthen. Yaroslav Osmomysl was married to the daughter of the Prince of Suzdal Yuri Dolgoruky.

Dying, Yaroslav Osmomysl divided his principality between two sons: legitimate - Vladimir (II) and illegitimate - Oleg. A struggle soon began between them, from which, with the support of the boyars, Vladimir emerged victorious and expelled Oleg.

But soon Vladimir II himself had to flee from the unauthorized boyars. He ran for help to the Hungarian king Bela III. Instead of helping, Bela III imprisoned Vladimir, invaded Galician Rus and installed his son Andrei there to reign, giving the boyars enormous rights. The population, as the chronicle reports, suffered from the zhupants of the Hungarians and the self-will of the boyars, but was powerless to overthrow their power.

Only two years later, in 1189, Vladimir, who had fled from Hungary, managed to return to reign. Poland, dissatisfied with the fact that Galician Rus actually turned into a Hungarian province, invaded there, expelled the Hungarian Andrei and returned the throne to Vladimir, who reigned there until his death (1198). Vladimir II died childless. With him, the dynastic branch of the Rostislavovichs ceased and the question arose of occupying the princely throne of Galician Rus.

The contender for it was the prince of neighboring Volhynia - Roman Mstislavovich, also a direct descendant of Monomakh, like the extinct branch of the Rostislavovichs. But against him there was a strong opposition of the Galician boyars, who were afraid that this strong-willed, strong-willed prince would curtail their rights, as was the case in the Volyn principality. Only with the support of the Poles, who were afraid that Galician Rus would fall back to the Hungarians, Roman Mstislavovich managed to take the Galician throne and thereby initiate the unification of Galician and Volyn Rus into one large state with the hereditary power of the Romanoviches.

Having at his disposal the faithful and reliable forces of the Vlyn, Roman could disregard the opposition of the boyars and with a firm hand take the reins of government of the united principalities. Immediately, he had to face his own father-in-law, the Kiev prince Rurik, who was dissatisfied with the unification of the two principalities. In an armed clash, Rurik was defeated and fled to the Polovtsy, with the help of which he managed to capture Kiev in 1203 and cause terrible devastation and massacre in it. However, soon he and his allies - the Polovtsians were defeated by the troops of Roman Mstislavovich, after which Rurik was forcibly tonsured a monk. Characteristically, Roman did not want to take the throne of Kiev either, but returned to his united principality. The attraction for the princes of Kiev, as the grand-ducal capital, then already lost its strength, and possession of it, without bringing any benefits, imposed the obligation to protect the Kiev principality from the constant raids of nomads.

As a result of the unification of two densely populated principalities, where new settlers from the east were constantly arriving, and the successful struggle against Kiev, Prince Roman became the strongest prince in Russia. The Polish historian V. Kadlubek writes: "Prince Roman rose so high that he ruled almost all the lands and princes of Russia." And the Novgorod Chronicle calls him “the Sovereign of All Russia”.

The beginning of Roman's reign coincided with major historical events in Europe. At the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, under the onslaught of the crusaders, inspired by the Pope, Byzantium fell and in 1204 the “Latin Empire” was created instead of it, which lasted more than half a century (until 1261) Having achieved success in the fight against Byzantium , the former stronghold of Orthodoxy, Catholicism did not stop there. His attention was attracted by Orthodox Russia, which he already then (as now) strove to Catholicize. The first obstacle in its advance to the east was the Orthodox Galicia-Volyn Rus, whose neighbors were purely Catholic Poland and Hungary.

The rapid strengthening of the state of Roman Mstislavovich gave rise to hopes that it could become not only the most militant and authoritative principality of Russia, but also its formal unifier, like Kiev once was. If this happened, Catholicism would lose all hope of spreading to the east, and Poland and Hungary would receive a powerful, many times stronger neighbor in the face of united Russia. The state interests of Hungary and Poland and the interests of Catholicism dictated in every possible way to prevent both the unification of all of Russia and the strengthening of its Galicia-Volyn part. For only a divided and weakened huge Russia could become their prey. Given this, Rome and Poland and Hungary pay special attention to the strong state of Prince Roman and systematically begin aggression against him. On the one hand, instigated by Rome, Poland is waging an armed struggle against Roman; on the other hand, the Pope of Rome offers Roman a royal crown, the adoption of which would be a symbolic recognition of the power of the pope. Rome and Poland had reliable allies in the person of part of the Galician boyars, who strongly gravitated towards the West with its feudal system, which gave enormous rights to the boyars.

Considering that the ground for “cooperation” with Rome had been prepared, the pope sent a special embassy to Galich in 1206 with a proposal to Prince Roman to recognize the primacy of the pope, promising for this the royal crown and “the help of the sword of St. Peter,” as the Roman ambassadors said. Prince Roman not only categorically, but also very sharply rejected this proposal.

The chronicler makes the assumption that the death of Prince Roman is the result of the betrayal of the boyars, who were dissatisfied with the firm course of the politician and the prince in matters of domestic and foreign policy, as well as in the matter of religion.

Troubles after the death of Prince Roman

After the death of Prince Roman, power formally passes to his widow, as the guardian of young children. In fact, everything is captured by a handful of the boyar oligarchy, headed by the noble boyar family of the Kormilichs. Feeling helpless before the greedy and powerful boyar clique, the widow of Prince Roman turns to the King of Hungary for protection, who willingly agrees to this and since 1206 introduces into his title: “King of Galich and Vladimir”. The consequences of this addition to the title were felt many centuries later: in 1772, when the Polish state was divided between Austria, Prussia and Russia, Austria received Galicia. The Austrian emperor was then also the “King of Hungary”, and as such was recognized by Russia and Prussia as the “legitimate” heir of Galician Rus.

But the patronage of the Hungarian king could not curb the self-will of the Galician boyars, who forced the widow of Prince Roman to flee with their children to Hungary, and invited the Seversky princes, the three Igorevich brothers, to the vacated princely throne, hoping that they would not encroach on the “boyar freedoms”. In their calculation, the boyars were cruelly mistaken. The Igoreviches, accustomed in their Seversky principality to look at the boyars as obedient employees, did not tolerate the willfulness of the Galician boyars and dealt with them mercilessly: more than 500 boyars were executed, their daughters were married to commoners (as the chronicle of “slaves” says), and the rest brought into obedience or fled to Hungary.

The Hungarian king again interferes in the affairs of Galician Rus, comes there with an army and restores the power of the children of Roman Mstislavovich. In 1211, his nine-year-old eldest son Daniel was proclaimed prince, and his mother regent. The Igoreviches were hanged. The surviving boyars are not satisfied with this solution of the issue, and soon they are forced by various intrigues and squabbles to force the widow of Prince Roman with her children to flee again, and the leader of the boyar party, Kormilich, is proclaimed the prince. This was the only case in the history of Russia when a person who did not belong to the ruling dynasty from the founding of the state sat on the throne.

Worried about the boyar anarchy in Galician Rus, Poland and Hungary conspire about its future fate. The young son of the Hungarian king Koloman is married to the young daughter of the Polish king, Salome, and they are proclaimed King and Queen of Galician Russia, which thus falls under the influence of aggressive Catholicism on the one hand and emerging Polish chauvinism on the other. Galician Russia is threatened with complete absorption by Catholicism and Polish nationalism, that is, its disappearance as an integral part of Great Russia, albeit torn apart by princely anarchy, but still remaining faithful to the unity of Russia and, inextricably linked with Russia, Orthodoxy.

The distant Novgorod prince Mstislav intervenes in her affairs, having given his daughter in marriage to Prince Daniel, expelled by the boyars. With the support of the entire population of Galician Rus, Mstislav expels the “king and queen” Koloman and Salome, and in 1221 proclaims himself the Galician prince and ends the 16-year turmoil. After his death (1228), the young prince Daniil Romanovich occupies the princely throne and opens a new page in the history of the Galicia-Volyn Principality.

Prince Daniel and his reign

As already mentioned, the first half of the 13th century saw events of exceptional importance and historical significance. The fall of powerful Byzantium under the double blow of the crusaders and Muslim aggression; the complete decline of the greatest state in Europe - Kievan Rus; the Tatar invasion, which penetrated far into Europe; the special activity of the Catholic Church, which inspired both the Crusades against Byzantium and aggression in the east of Europe. All these events took place in the first half century of the 13th century and radically changed the balance of power. In this half-century, Daniel Romanovich had to reign in the Galicia-Volyn principality. As a young man, he took part in the famous battle on the Kalka River in 1223, in which the Tatars, who had just appeared from Asia, defeated the combined forces of numerous Russian princes. Later, in the seventeen-year period from the battle on the Kalka River to the invasion of Batu, Daniel wages a continuous struggle for the unification and restoration of the Galicia-Volyn principality, weakened during the boyar turmoil, reflecting the inclinations of Poland and Hungary to interfere in his affairs. This struggle ends with complete success, and by the middle of the 30s, Daniel becomes the same strong and authoritative prince as his father, Prince Roman, was. The broad masses of the population support Daniil in every possible way, seeing in him the bearer and promoter of order and justice and the protector from the willfulness and excesses of the boyars and foreigners. In a clash with Kiev, Daniel wins a decisive victory, but, having captured the decayed and devastated Kiev, he does not remain in it, but appoints his governor.

But Daniel failed neither to unite Russia, which he aspired to, nor to protect his principality from enemies for a long time. In 1240, hordes of Tatars moved to Russia under the leadership of Batu Khan. On December 6, 1240, after a desperate resistance, Kiev was taken by the Tatars, burned, devastated, and almost the entire population was either slaughtered or taken into slavery. From Kiev, Batu moved west to Galicia-Volyn Rus, devastating and devastating everything on his way. The city of Galich was destroyed to the ground, and the population was slaughtered almost without exception. Prince Daniel at that time was in Hungary, where he went in search of allies to fight the Tatars, but he did not receive any real help in the west.

Seeing the hopelessness of the situation, after long hesitation, Daniel, following the example of other Russian princes, went to the Horde with an expression of submission and obedience to the Khan. The Khan treated him mercifully and gave him a label for the administration of his Galician principality, which gave him the opportunity to use all his strength and energy to restore the land ravaged by the invasion. Leaving his capital Galich unrestored, Daniel built and fortified a new capital - Hill, and also restored many destroyed cities and founded new ones, including Lvov, named after his eldest son, Leo.

Realizing the impossibility of fighting the Tatars on his own, Daniel was looking for allies in the West, primarily in Hungary, Poland and the Crusaders. But, inspired by the Catholic Church, the West, instead of helping, led aggression against Russian lands in order to spread Catholicism and subjugate Rome. It was during the years of the Tatar invasion, probably not by chance, that the West also attacked Novgorod, the only survivor of the Tatars, which, if not for these attacks, could have helped in the fight against the Tatars. Only thanks to the military talent of the Novgorod prince Alexander Nevsky (cousin of Daniil Romanovich) and the sacrifice of the Novgorodians, it was possible to repulse these attacks and defeat the aggressors: the Swedes on the Neva, and the crusaders on the ice of Lake Peipus (Battle on the Ice of 1242).

Rome understood the plight of Prince Daniel and decided to use him to spread its influence over his principality. He was promised the full support of the Catholic states and the royal title if he agreed to accept the crown from the Pope. After much hesitation, Daniel agreed to this. But, knowing the repulsion of the people from Catholicism, Daniel was not crowned magnificently in his new capital - the Hill, but quietly and modestly in the small town of Dorogichin.

Daniel, after the coronation, in the hope of the promised help from the West, undertook a campaign to liberate Novgorod-Volynsky (Vodzvyagel) and Kiev from the Tatar garrisons, but did not receive any help. Instead of help, he had to fight the Lithuanians who attacked his possessions. The hike was terminated. But he caused a quick reaction of the Tatars: in 1259, their numerous army under the command of Burundai invaded Volyn-Galician Rus and forced Daniil to tear down all the cities he had fortified and imposed a large indemnity on him.

Daniel did not receive any help from the Pope, nor from the Catholic neighboring states obedient to him, and was forced to unquestioningly submit to all the requirements of the Tatars. Outraged by the treachery of the West, Daniel breaks all ties with him, renounces the royal title received from the pope and relies on coexistence with the Tatars, which he succeeds at the cost of considerable humiliation and material sacrifices.

Broken by failures, Daniel dies in 1264, only one year outliving his cousin, Alexander Nevsky, who so brilliantly repelled Western aggression on the Neva and Lake Peipus.

After the death of Daniel and his brother Vasily, with whom he amicably and jointly ruled the Golitsko-Volyn Rus, their sons Lev and Vladimir separately, but also amicably, as their fathers, Lev owned Galician Rus, and Vladimir Volyn Rus. They not only did not quarrel with the Tatars, but sometimes resorted to their help in the fight against their western neighbors. So the Carpathian Rus was recaptured from Hungary, and the Lublin land from Poland.

After their death, the entire Galicia-Volyn Rus, without any civil strife, was again united under the rule of one prince - Yuri Lvovich (son of Leo), who began to call himself the "King of Russia", although his grandfather refused this title.

Living between the Tatar hammer and the Western Catholic anvil, cut off from the rest of Russia, Yuri understood the impossibility of any all-Russian policy and tried to live in peace with both the Tatars and the Poles and Hungarians and took care of the improvement of his principality, where more and more began penetrate Catholic influence. Therefore, in order to strengthen Orthodoxy, he obtained from the Patriarch of Constantinople the consecration of a metropolitan for Galicia-Volyn Rus (1303).

The Kiev Metropolitan, who was considered the Metropolitan of "All Russia" back in 1299, left Kiev and moved to remote Vladimir on the Klyazma, in Suzdal Rus. But, the newly appointed metropolitan (a Galician by birth - hegumen Peter) did not stay long in his Galicia-Volyn metropolis and moved to Vladimir of Suzdal, and then to Moscow. This Galician was the first Metropolitan of Moscow and, with his high authority, greatly contributed to her exaltation.

The two sons of Yuri the First, Anrey and Leo the Second, could not get along with the Tatars and both died in the fight against them in 1323. With their death, the male line of the Romanovichs turned and the question arose of replacing the princely throne. According to the practice established since the time of Yaroslav the Wise, the throne should have passed to one of the princes of the descendants of Monomakh, but the international situation then was such that the boyar party managed to put on the throne, semi-encircled by strong Poland and Lithuania, Galicia-Volyn Rus, a Pole, the son of Mazovian Prince Treyden, married to the sister of Andrei and Leo II - Maria.

This new prince, named Boleslav (Troidenovich), formally converted to Orthodoxy when he took the princely throne and even changed his name to Yuri. But soon Yuri II returned to Catholicism and, being the prince of the Orthodox Russian land, began to offend the religious and national feelings of his subjects, and surrounded himself with Catholic Poles. By his behavior, he pushed away even those boyar circles that contributed to his calling to reign. All Galicia-Volyn Rus hated their prince. In 1340, he was poisoned, and a wave of anti-Polish and anti-Catholic pogroms swept across the principality, accompanied by great atrocities.

With the death of Yuri the Second Troidenovich, or rather, with his calling to power, its southwestern part is torn off from the united Kievan Rus for many centuries, falling into the orbit of the aggressors of the West - Catholic Poland and Lithuania, Galicia-Volyn Rus becomes the subject of disputes and struggle between those who presented rights to it - Hungary, Poland and Lithuania. This struggle has been going on for 37 years and ends only in 1387 with the fact that Galicia retreats to Poland, Volhynia to Lithuania, and Carpathian Rus to Hungary. The opinions and desires of the population of the divided principality were not taken into account by its rasgels, trying only to nationally depersonalize and to catholicize with various benefits and win over its upper ruling classes to their side.

The aggression of the West against Russia, repelled by Alexander Nevsky on its northwestern borders, was crowned with success on its western and southwestern borders.

Here it would be appropriate to mention that subsequently this aggression against the Moscow part of Russia, and later against Russia, was repeatedly renewed and ended, presumably, forever only with the end of the Second World War. Suffice it to recall the Polish-Lithuanian aggression of the 17th century, when even Moscow was occupied, the Swedish invasion in 1708-9, the French invasion in 1812, the British and French attack in 1854, and two German invasions during the current century.

An objective study of the relationship between Russia and the West gave grounds to the well-known historian of our time, Toynbee, to say: “Throughout its history, Russia has never attacked the West, but only defended itself against it.”

This concludes our brief summary of the fate of Galicia-Volyn Rus, starting from the allocation of Galician Rus to the inheritance of the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise - Rostislav (1052), and securing this inheritance in the hereditary possession of the Rostislavovichs by the congress of princes in Lyubech (1097), and ending division of the Galicia-Volyn principality between the Western aggressors (1387).

Being under the Tatar yoke, fragmented and disunited, the rest of Russia did not have the opportunity to defend Galicia and Volyn, its original Russian lands, and then gradually began to forget it, busy with other problems: the struggle against the Tatars, the struggle for access to the Baltic and Black Seas, and its own spread to the east.

But the people of the enslaved Galicia-Volyn principality did not forget their national unity and preserved it for many centuries of separate life. He did not allow himself to be either Catholicized or Polished, which was what Poland was striving for. Orthodoxy, which became inseparable from Russianness, played a huge decisive role in the success of this popular resistance.

And the stronger was the pressure of Catholicism and Polish national chauvinism, the stronger became the rebuff of the broad masses of the people. At the end of the 16th century, it turned into an armed struggle led by the Ukrainian Cossacks and led in our time to the national liberation of Russia from foreign power and the introduction of Poland, which tried to dismember Russia, into its ethnographic borders. How strong was the desire for national unity and how deep was the feeling among the population of the torn off parts of Russia of their Russianness, the latest data on this issue eloquently testify. During the census in Poland in 1931, it was also carried out in Galicia, which was then part of Poland. When asked about their nationality, 1,196,855 Galicians answered that they were “Russians”, while 1,675,870 identified themselves as “Ukrainians”. We must not forget that the “Ukrainians” were then favored by the Polish administration, and the Ukrainian separatists had in their hands all the key positions in the social and cultural life of the non-Polish population of Galicia. The above data were given in articles by S. Medveditsky and in Carpatho-Russian newspapers in the USA and have never been refuted by independentists, because it is difficult to refute facts taken from official Polish census data.

Second example. As already mentioned, in 1937, in the Carpathian Rus, which was then part of Czechoslovakia, under the influence of Ukrainian separatist propaganda, the question arose - in what language - Russian or Ukrainian to teach in schools. The plebiscite produced the following results: for teaching in Russian - 86%; in Ukrainian - 14%.

The above data eloquently testify to the extraordinary national stamina of the population of this part of the once united Kievan Rus. Despite the denationalization and catholicization of their upper classes, the intensified Polish colonization, the forced introduction of the union, despite the propaganda of Ukrainian separatism-chauvinism, the broad masses of the people retained a sense of their Russianness and unity with the rest of Russia. The dynastic and cultural unity of Galicia-Volyn Rus with the rest of Rus is diligently hushed up and confused by Ukrainian separatist historiography, which has a purely political goal to prove that “Muscovites” and “Ukrainians” are foreign and alien peoples. But one can only deceive either ignorant foreigners or those who, apart from the works of historians of the “Grushevsky school”, have not read anything and accept the statements of separatist historians - “party organizers” on faith.

With any attentive, thoughtful and conscientious attitude to historical events, it is possible to prove with complete certainty the unity of Galicia-Volyn Rus with the rest of Rus.

First of all, dynastic unity. Not dynastic kinship or connections, but unity, which meant a lot in those days. It should not be forgotten that the specific system existed, although it was often violated. And, according to this system, each prince was temporary and had to be ready to move in connection with the death of any of the princes of the expanded dynasty. Indeed, we know many cases of princes moving from the principalities of northwestern Russia to reigning in southwestern Russia and vice versa. And Yaroslav the Wise and Vladimir Monomakh and the founder of the Galicia-Volyn branch, Roman Mstislavovich, before getting to the southwest, reigned in the northeast. Changing the principality, they did not go to a foreign country, not to a foreign people, but only changed, so to speak, administrative posts on the territory of one and the same people. In addition, frequent marriages between distant relatives - the descendants of Igor, Svyatoslav and St. Vladimir brought the northern and southern Russian princes even closer. Daniil Galitsky, for example, was a cousin of Alexander Nevsky, therefore, the grandson of the founder of the Moscow dynastic line, Vsevolod the Big Nest, and the uncle of the first Moscow prince Daniil, father of Ivan Kalita.

Even more important than dynastic unity was the unity of religion and, inseparable from religion at that time, cultural life in general. Both northwestern Russia and southwestern Russia were Orthodox, and all cultural life was concentrated mainly in Orthodox monasteries and culture spread through the Orthodox clergy. There was only one Metropolitan for all of Russia - in Kiev, and he bore the title of Metropolitan of “All Russia”. And when in 1299 the Metropolitan of Kiev moved from the decayed Kiev and the Dnieper region to Suzdal Rus, the religious and cultural center of all Rus was thereby transferred there. The cultural language - the ancient Russian language - was single and common for all of Russia, which everyone can easily be convinced of by reading the annals that have survived to this day. Most chronicles have been preserved in the northeast, immeasurably less in the southwest, and not at all preserved in the Dnieper region - the center of present-day Ukraine. It is not difficult to explain this phenomenon, knowing that the Dnieper region was empty by the end of the 13th century, the southwest was under the constant aggression of Catholicism and Polonism, and the northeast developed religious and culturally completely unhindered because the Tatars did not interfere in religious affairs.

The unity of the dynastic and religious and cultural, and, consequently, the national unity of all Russia irrefutably proves completely undeniable historical documents and, if they are available, to say that “Muscovites” are Great Russians and “Ukrainians” are Little Russians are alien and alien to each other peoples can only or completely not knowing the history of Russia, or deliberately distorting it. In the dispute over who is the heir to the statehood and culture of the Kiev state, which is claimed by both the Great Russians and the Ukrainian separatists, several points can be clearly distinguished.

The Dnieper region is the political and cultural center of the former Kievan State, currently inhabited by Ukrainians or Malaros - the point is not in the name - and no one is going to dispute this. But this cannot at all serve as proof of the continuity of culture and statehood that existed in this territory before it was settled by those who live on it at the present time. And, on the contrary, the Great Russians, who do not live on the territory of Ukraine, have preserved the epics of the era of the Kiev State, and the annals, and the continuity from the Kiev religious and cultural hierarchy, and the continuity of political power (dynasty), including its symbol - Monomakh's Cap. Ukrainian applicants cannot present all this, because in the Dnieper region they are not returned refugees - deportees, but new refugees - immigrants from the western and northwestern outskirts of the former Kiev State, who never lived in the Dnieper region. Hence the isolation of their folk epic from Kievan Rus, hence their everyday and linguistic differences with the Great Russians.

There is no doubt that the dialectical differences that existed in different parts of Kievan Rus over many centuries of separate life and external influence intensified and, in the end, led to the formation of the Great Russian and Ukrainian languages. The inhabitants of the Dnieper region of the era of Kievan Rus, who went to the northeast, assimilating the Finnish and Turkic-Tatra tribes, adopted from them quite a few linguistic and everyday features and had their own original way of developing the folk language and culture. Settlers who came to the Dnieper region several centuries later - refugees from the west and north-west, brought with them the linguistic and cultural features of those outskirts of Kievan Rus, from where they came. And the way of development of their folk language and way of life was greatly influenced by the West, under whose rule they were for many centuries, being completely cut off from communication with northeastern Russia. But the linguistic and everyday differences between Ukrainians and Great Russians, which undoubtedly exist and whose existence no one disputes, are not at all proof that these two peoples, “alien” and “alien” to each other, as Ukrainian separatists claim. History, not distorted, but conscientiously studied, with complete categoricalness and evidence, says that these are two branches of one people, grown out of the common root of Russia. These branches, close now, firmly preserving the feeling of their unity in the depths of the people's consciousness, were immeasurably closer 600 years ago, when historical events tore southwestern Russia (the Principality of Galicia-Volyn) from the rest of Russia and placed it under the rule of aggressive Catholicism and Polish chauvinism.

But, as subsequent events showed, they failed to either Polish or Catholicize this part of Russia. As soon as the chains of Catholic-Polish slavery fell, Galicia-Volyn Rus showed its all-Russian face.

Finishing with this a brief outline of the three-hundred-year existence of the Galicia-Volyn principality - the end of the 11th - the end of the 14th centuries, we give the main chronological data of this period.

Chronological table of the most important events of Galician-Volhynian RUSSIA for three centuries of its existence (1052-1386)

Rostislavovichi (1054-1198)

1054 - Receipt by Rostislav (grandson of Yaroslav the Wise) of Galicia - "Cherven cities".

1097 - Giving by the congress of princes in Lyubech Galician Rus "patrimony" of the Rostislavoviches.

1125 - 1153 - The reign of Vladimir - the unification of all Galician destinies.

1153 - 1187 - The reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich - "Osmomysl". Further strengthening of Galician Rus.

1187 - 1189 - The struggle between the "new" Yaroslav. Hungarian intervention. x exile.

1189 - 1198 Reign of Vladimir II. Its close connection with Vladimir-Suzdal Rus

Romanovichi (1199-1323)

1199 - Prince Volynsky Roman Mstislavovich unites the Galician and Volyn principalities.

1205 - 1221 - Death of Prince Roman. The beginning of trouble. Intervention of Hungary and Poland.

1221 - 1228 - The reign of Mstislav (Novgorodsky) with his son-in-law Daniil Romanovich. In 1228, the death of Mstislav.

1228 - 1264 - The reign of Daniel Romanovich. In 1253 coronation as king

1239 - 1240 Invasion of the Tatars. The ruin of Kiev and Galician Rus.

1259 - The second invasion of the Tatars - Burundai.

1264 - Death of Daniel of Galicia.

1264 - 1301 - Lev I Danilovich - Coexistence with the Tatars.

1301 - 1308 - Yuri I, son of Leo I. - Establishment of the Metropolis of Galicia-Vodynskaya Rus.

1308 - 1323 - The reign of the sons of Yuri I, Andrei and Leo II and their death in 1323

1323 - 1340 - Boleslav Troydenovich (Yury II) - son of the Mazovian prince.

1340 - 1387 - Troubles. The fall and division of Galicia-Volyn Rus.

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