home > Mythology > Glossary of terms on history. Glossary of terms on the history of Russia until the middle of the 19th century Commonly recognized terms of scientists from the middle of the 19th century

Glossary of terms on history. Glossary of terms on the history of Russia until the middle of the 19th century Commonly recognized terms of scientists from the middle of the 19th century

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In the 19th century there was a revolution in optical representations. The English scientist James Clark Maxwell (1831-1879) put forward in 1865 the electromagnetic theory of light, which stimulated the experiments and theoretical constructions of many physicists. A follower of Oersted and Faraday, Maxwell developed the theory of the electromagnetic field. The mathematical expression of the new doctrine was a system of equations describing the structure of the magnetic field. The main consequence of Maxwell's equations was the conclusion about the existence of electromagnetic waves propagating at the speed of light, and the connection between light and electromagnetism was established. Later, the existence of electromagnetic waves was experimentally proved by Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) and became the basis for all radio engineering.

In the 19th century chemistry was established as a science - theoretical and practical. Scientific chemistry could be fully developed only as a result of the assertion of the theory of the molecular-atomistic structure of matter. The English scientist John Dalton (1766-1844) argued that the atoms of different substances must have different weights, that chemical compounds are formed by combinations of atoms in certain numerical ratios. Dalton's atomistic views were supported by the French chemist and physicist J. L. Gay-Lussac (1778-1850). They independently of each other came to the conclusion about the same expandability of gases and vapors at the same increase in temperature. In 1811, the Italian chemist A. Avogadro (1776-1856) put forward the idea that equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules. In 1848, Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), based on the studies of J. Liebig, F. Wöhler, I. Ya. Berzelius, came to the conclusion that there are chemically identical substances with different physical properties.

A new theory of the structure of matter put forward in 1850-1860. Russian scientist Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov (1828-1886).

Based on the research of the French chemist C. F. Gerard (1816-1856) and the Italian physicist S. Cannitsaro (1826-1910), who also owns the method of writing chemical formulas, the English chemist E. Frankland (1825-1899) ) introduced in 1852 the concept of valency, i.e., the properties of atoms of various substances to enter into a chemical compound with a strictly defined number of hydrogen atoms (the valence of which was taken as one).

A prominent place in theoretical and applied chemistry was occupied by the study of electrochemical phenomena, in particular the phenomenon of electrolysis, with the help of which it was possible to obtain pure substances from compounds that were previously considered indecomposable.

The largest event in the history of chemistry was the discovery in 1869 of the periodic system by Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907). Having arranged all the elements known at that time in ascending order of atomic weights, Mendeleev discovered that elements similar in their properties and in the type of compounds they create are placed at regular intervals, creating periodically repeating rows. Based on his periodic system, Mendeleev predicted the properties of several elements that were still unknown at that time. Three elements - gallium, scandium and germanium were discovered in the 1870-1880s, their properties were fully consistent with what Mendeleev foresaw.

The greatest achievement of biology in the 19th century was the development of the cellular theory, according to which the structure and development of animal and plant organisms is based on a single form of organization of living matter - the cell. The cell theory was the basis for the subsequent development of evolutionary theory.

Great successes in the 19th century were marked by research in the field of physiology, higher nervous activity and human psychology, as well as medicine.

1. "TALE OF TIME YEARS"- All-Russian annalistic code, compiled in Kiev in the second decade of the XII century. Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery, and then edited by Sylvester and others. Contains chronicles of the 11th century. and other sources, Russian history is linked with world and Slavic history, and is the basis of most of the surviving chronicles.

2. "RUSSKAYA PRAVDA"- the first set of ancient Russian laws, which included the norms of the "Law of the Russian", Pravda Yaroslav the Wise, Pravda Yaroslavichi, the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh, etc. Protected the life and property of princely warriors and servants, free rural community members and townspeople, established the position of feudal-dependent people and inheritance law, etc. There are three editions: Short, Long, Abbreviated. Lists XIII-XVIII centuries.

3. "SEMIBOYARSHINA"- Vasily III before his death (1533) singled out "seventh commission"- the council of trustees, which was supposed to rule for the young Ivan IV and stood over the Boyar Duma. The tradition remained: leaving, Ivan IV instructed her to rule. Fedor, going on a pilgrimage, left 7 boyars for himself. During the Time of Troubles, the “seventh commission” degenerated into an oligarchic boyar government in 1610 and nominally ruled until 1612, inviting the Polish prince Vladislav to the throne, giving Moscow to the Poles. It was liquidated by the militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky (the proverb "Seven nannies have a child without an eye" came from the Seventh Commission).

4. "A WORD ABOUT IGOREV'S POST"- a monument of ancient Russian literature of the late XII century. about the unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich of Novgorod-Seversky against the Polovtsians in 1285. An appeal to the princes to stop strife and unite against an external enemy. Published in 1800. It had a great influence on Russian culture.

5. "LESSONS AND PEGOSTS"- Princess Olga's laws on tax law in the 10th century. "Lesson" - a certain amount of tribute from a certain area - "graveyard", the place of collection and the time of the tribute were indicated.



6. ABSOLUTISM(absolute monarchy) - a form of a feudal state with unlimited monarchical power based on law; with the highest degree of centralization, developed, completely dependent on the monarch, the bureaucracy; high level of economy; a strong army and law enforcement agencies; liquidation of representative organizations; advanced diplomacy.

7. AUTONOMY(gr. - self-government) - broad internal management of a certain region of the state, as its integral part, operating within the framework of the Constitution.

8. ARISTOCRACY(gr. - the power of the best) - 1. A form of government in which power belongs to the tribal nobility. 2. The most privileged segments of the population.

9. Corvee- a form of feudal land rent (income not related to entrepreneurial activity), free forced labor of a serf working with his inventory on the feudal lord's farm. It appeared in Russia during the time of the Kievan state, became stronger in the second half of the 16th century, and was widely used until the first half of the 19th century. corvee system rested on subsistence farming, attaching peasants to the land, personal dependence on the feudal lord, who gave his peasants plots of land. The serfs fed themselves, paid dues to the feudal lord, and paid taxes to the state.

10. BASKAK- Representative of the Horde Khan in the Russian principalities to control local authorities and collect tribute. Basqueism was abolished under Ivan I Kalita in the first half of the 14th century.

11. WORKMAN- hired agricultural worker, usually from impoverished peasants.

12. BIRONOVSHINA- the dominance of the Germans in the middle. 18th century under Anna Ivanovna and her favorite E. Biron; a reactionary regime of plundering the wealth of Russia, general suspicion, espionage, and cruel persecution of the discontented.

13. BOYAR- the upper class of feudal lords in the Russian state in the IX-XVII centuries. They descended from the tribal nobility, senior combatants, large landowners of Kievan Rus. Participated in management, occupied the highest ranks, were part of the aristocracy.

14. BOYAR DUMA- in the Kiev state - a council under the prince, consisting of the senior squad and close associates. During the period of fragmentation - the Council of noble vassals under the prince. At the end of XV - beginning. 18th century - a permanent class-representative legislative body of the aristocracy under the prince (tsar). Duma ranks: duma boyars, okolnichie (headed orders, regiments), courtiers, duma nobles, duma clerks.

15. BOURGEOISIE(capitalists) - owners of private ownership of the means of production, using hired labor. The bourgeoisie played a progressive role in the struggle against feudalism, contributed to the rapid growth of the productive forces, led the bourgeois revolutions and established its rule.

16. BOURGEOIS-DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTION- a social revolution, as a result of which the power of the bourgeoisie is strengthened and broad democratic transformations are carried out. The masses of the people (the peasantry, the urban poor, the proletariat) take part in the movement, acting independently and putting forward their demands. If in the early bourgeois revolutions the bourgeoisie acted as the hegemon (leader), then in the bourgeois-democratic revolutions the bourgeoisie often loses its revolutionary role, which passes to the proletariat as the advanced part of the working people, although the victory of the revolution strengthens the political positions of the bourgeoisie.

17. BURLAKI- hired workers in Russia XVI-XIX centuries. mainly from quitrent peasants who moved riverboats by hand with the help of string and oars.

18. RED- in the literal sense - working cattle; figuratively, people who wordlessly and obediently perform hard work for someone.

19. EPIC(old times) - Russian folk songs-tales, which took shape in the 9th-13th centuries, sang heroes and heroes, reflected the moral and social ideals of the people.

20. BUREAUCRACY- the power of officials, the system of government, carried out with the help of the apparatus of power, which has certain functions and privileges, standing above society. Differs in arbitrariness, formalism, bribery, eyewash. Words: bureaucrat, apparatchik, official have become common nouns.

21. VASSAL(lat. - servant) - a feudal lord, dependent on a larger feudal lord (senior), who received a land plot from him and is obliged to serve him for this. The large feudal lord, in turn, was subordinate to the feudal lord standing above him (suzerain). There was a so-called feudal ladder - vassalage. In Russia, the appanage princes were subordinate to the Grand Duke, and the boyars were subordinate to them.

22. VOUCHER– in 1992 – 1994 special-purpose security intended for free transfer to citizens of objects of state property.

23. GRAND DUKE- the head of the Grand Duchy in Russia in the X-XV centuries. and the Russian state XV - ser. 16th century In the Russian Empire - a member of the imperial family, who was addressed - "your imperial highness." The name was included in the full title of the emperor (for example, "Grand Duke of Finland").

24. GREAT EMBASSY 1697-1698 Russia to Western Europe, led by F. Lefort, F. Golovin, P. Voznitsin, with the participation of Peter I (under the name of Peter Mikhailov) to create an anti-Turkish military alliance, train military, naval, engineering, invite craftsmen to Russia, get to know Europe , purchases of necessary goods. Prepared the conditions for the war with Sweden for the Baltics.

25. ROPE- the name of the community in Ancient Russia.

26. VECHE- the national assembly in Russia in the X-XIV centuries, played a big role in the cities of the second half of the XI-XII centuries. (in Novgorod, Pskov, Vyatka land, it survived until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries). It solved the main issues of management, was used by the feudal lords to limit the power of the princes.

27. OWNING PEASANTS- peasants owned by private individuals and organizations (for example, churches).

28. VOIVOD- the head of a military detachment, the ruler of a province, a city in Russia from the 10th century.

29. REGION- in Ancient Russia, the territory of the principality, which was ruled by the volost; semi-independent possession - destiny; rural area subordinate to the city. From the end of the XIV century. - part of the county, since 1861 - a unit of peasant administration, headed by the board, which included the volost foreman, village elders and other persons elected by the volost gathering.

30. VOLUNTARISM- activity that does not take into account the objective laws of development, imposes its will, ignores real possibilities, when the desired is presented as real.

31. EASTERN QUESTION- a term denoting those that arose in the XVIII - early. XX centuries international contradictions associated with the beginning of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the growth of the national liberation movement of the peoples inhabiting it and the struggle of European countries for the division of the empire's possessions. Russian tsarism wanted to resolve this issue in its own interests: to dominate the Black Sea, the Bosphorus and Dardanelles and the Balkan Peninsula.

32. patrimony- hereditary land holdings.

33. TEMPORARY PEASANTS- in Russia in 1861-1883. former serfs, not transferred for redemption, because they did not execute a redemption operation after the reform of 1861. They carried duties (limited corvée, sharecropping, dues) for the use of land.

34. STATE PEASANTS- an estate in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, formed from former black-haired (personally free community members) peasants, ladles (feudally dependent peasants who paid half of the harvest to the feudal lord), single-dvortsev, etc. They lived on state lands, carried duties to the state, were personally free. From 1842 they were managed by the Ministry of State Property. All R. 19th century they accounted for approximately 45% of all peasants. In 1866 they were subordinated to the general system of rural management. In 1886, they received the right to full ownership of the land for a ransom.

35. STATE COUNCIL- the highest deliberative body of the Russian Empire in 1810-1917. Considered bills before their approval by the emperor. The composition was appointed by the supreme power. After the creation of the State Duma (1906), he played the role of the upper house of parliament and was partially elected, discussed the bills adopted by the Duma before being approved by the tsar.

36. STATE- the main political system of society, establishing power, order, control, relationships between citizens, social groups and strata in a certain territory, carrying out domestic and foreign policy in favor of the ruling structures. It has a management apparatus, protection and law enforcement agencies, developed legal and moral norms that regulate the life of society.

37. CIVIL WAR- the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state (the war of citizens) for power and solving the main life problems of the warring parties (for example, the civil war in the early 17th century, associated with the campaign of False Dmitry to Moscow and subsequent events; in 1918 1922 there was a clash of anti-Bolshevik forces with the regime of Soviet power).

38. LITERATURE- a written document in Russia in X - beg. XX centuries Certificate of given rights, awards, transactions, establishment of any relations (Given, Complaint, Bill of Sale, Statutory letters, etc.).

39. GRID- in Ancient Russia, princely warriors, bodyguards of the prince (IX-XI centuries), lived in palace premises - grid houses.

40. LIPS- territorial district in Russia XVI-XVII centuries. headed by the labial warden. Approximately coincided with the parish, and with the middle. 16th century - with the county.

41. LIP REFORM- carried out in the 30-50s. 16th century on the removal of cases of robbers from the court of the governors and their transfer labial institutions - local government in Guba. First, they were in charge of the investigation and the criminal court, then the issues of current management.

42. PEOPLE WALKING- in Russia XVI - beg. 18th century the general name of freed serfs, fugitive peasants and townspeople, other persons without a specific occupation and place of residence. They did not carry duties, they lived by work for hire and robbery.

43. HUMANISM(lat. - human) - a direction that takes as a basis the realization of human interests and values, the development of secular freethinking as opposed to the spiritual dominance of the church, the recognition of a person's right to freely manifest their abilities, the affirmation of the good of people as the highest assessment of relations in society.

44. Tribute- natural or monetary requisition from conquered tribes and peoples. Known in Russia since the 9th century. In the XI-XV centuries. - tax and feudal rent. In the XIII-XV centuries. - tribute ("exit") was collected from the Russian lands in favor of the Golden Horde.

45. DATE PEOPLE- in Russia XV-XVII centuries. persons from the draft population, given to lifelong military service. From Ser. 17th century were part of the regiments of the military system. Replaced by recruits.

46. ​​YARD PEASANTS- feudal dependent persons (servants, serfs, etc.) who lived at the court of the feudal lord, serving him and his family.

47. YARD PEOPLE- in Ancient Russia, the court staff of the great princes. At the end of the XVII - the first half of the XIX centuries. category of serfs (yard peasants). By 1861, there were less than 7% of the serfs, they did not receive land during the liberation.

48. PALACE PEASANTS- dependent population living in the XII-XVIII centuries. on the lands of the great princes and kings, carried feudal duties in their favor. Enslaved together with all the peasants. Since 1797 - specific peasants.

49. PALACE REVOLUTION- a change of power as a result of the struggle of groups within the ruling class, with reliance on the privileged sections of the army. In Russia - the period of palace coups 1725-1762, when six rulers were replaced. In 1801, as a result of the seventh coup, Paul I was killed and the throne passed to Alexander I.

50. ASSEMBLY OF NOBILITY- body of estate self-government in 1785-1917. There were provincial and county districts, they met once every 3 years, decided noble and public affairs, elected leaders of the nobility, police officers, etc.

51. NOBILITY- in Russia arose in the XII-XIII centuries. as the lowest part of the military service class, which constituted the court of a prince or a major boyar. From the 14th century began to receive land for service - the estate, in the 17th century. constituted the bulk of the landowners, in whose interests serfdom was legally formalized. Under Peter I, it finally developed into a class - an estate. According to the "Table of Ranks" it was replenished with people from other classes for promotion. Privileges were secured by Catherine II according to the "Charter granted to the nobility" (1785). After 1861, the economic role weakened, but continued to dominate politically until 1917.

52. DECABRISTS- revolutionary nobles, who were the first in Russia to raise an uprising against autocracy and serfdom in 1825, advocated bourgeois-democratic transformations. They had a great influence on the social life of the country.

53. DECLARATION(lat. - proclamation) - an official statement on the domestic and foreign policy of the state, the program settings of political parties, international organizations.

54. DEMOCRACY(gr. - Democracy) - one of the main forms of government, a political regime, usually associated with a republican structure of the state, based on the recognition of the people as a source of power, as the power of the majority, elective power structures, the rule of law. So, in Novgorod XII-XV centuries. veche meetings elected the posadnik, the thousandth, the archbishop, invited the prince, and decided the main issues of domestic and foreign policy. Democracy is characterized by social and political freedom, representativeness of power, sovereignty of the people, the expansion of publicity, the right of public criticism and control from below, and the strengthening of local self-government. It can be direct, when the main issues are decided by all citizens, and representative, when decisions are made by elected bodies. Associated with the principles of collectivism, the formation of the rule of law.

55. DEnationalization transfer of state property to private ownership.

56. DESPOTISM(gr. despot - lord) - arbitrariness, cruel suppression of rights, freedoms, independence. Absolute and lawless power, arbitrariness, tyranny. Despotism is one of the forms of autocratic, unlimited power.

57. TITH- Russian measure of area, equal to 2400 square meters. fathoms (1.09 ha). In the XVIII - early. 19th century used sovereign (economic), amounting to 3200 square meters. fathoms (1.45 ha).

58. DYNASTY(gr. - dominance) - a number of monarchs from the same family, replacing each other by the right of kinship and inheritance.

59. ANCIENT RUSSIA- the general collective name of the East Slavic principalities of the 9th-13th centuries.

60. DUMNY BOYARS- in the XV-XVII centuries. members of the Boyar Duma, its first rank. In addition to them, it included devious, duma nobles, duma clerks.

61. DYAK(gr. - minister) - head and clerk of the office of various departments in Russia until the 18th century. Supervised the work of local institutions (moving huts) and orders. From the 15th century clerks - landowners, entered the Duma with the lowest fourth rank.

62. DEACON- the lowest rank of the Orthodox Church, assistant priest.

63. HERESY(gr. - a special dogma) - a trend that deviates from the dogmas of the official church, advocating its transformation. It appeared in Russia from the 12th century. as an accusation of the clergy of perverting the word of God. In the XIV-XVI centuries. the speech of the strigolniks, non-possessors, the new teaching of Theodosius Kosoy, etc. It was used by the masses in the struggle against feudal oppression.

64. BISHOP- the highest clergyman in the Orthodox and other churches, the head of the church district.

65. GENDARMERIE- the police, which has a military organization and performs security tasks within the country and the army. The first gendarme units in the Russian army were created in 1815.

66. PURCHASE- in Kievan Rus, a community member who took a loan ("kupu") on a contractual basis, for a certain period. Failure to fulfill obligations turned the debtor into a slave.

67. WESTERS- supporters of the development of Russia along the path Zap. Europe, which in the first half of the XIX century. advocated the abolition of serfdom, the allocation of land to the peasants, the restriction of autocracy, and bourgeois transformations. They rejected the revolutionary path of development. At the head, T. N. Granovsky, V. P. Botkin, K. D. Kavelin and others rejected the views of the Slavophiles, who believed that Russia was developing in an original way. Both directions supported the ideas of bourgeois liberalism.

68. RESERVED SUMMER- the years of the end of the 16th century, in which the transition of peasants from one feudal lord to another on St. George's Day (November 26) was prohibited, which became an important stage in enslavement. Introduced by Ivan IV in 1581

69. ZAPORIZHIA SICH- organization of Ukrainian Cossacks in the XVI-XVIII centuries. beyond the thresholds of the Dnieper in the form of freemen - a Cossack republic with a Sich Rada headed by a ataman. It was divided into 38 kurens (a kuren is a military unit).

70. ZEMSKIY SOborS- the highest estate-representative institutions in Russia ser. XVI - late XVII centuries. They included members of the Consecrated Cathedral, the Boyar Duma, the sovereign's court, elected from the provincial nobility and wealthy citizens. Introduced by Ivan IV, ceased to operate under Alexei Mikhailovich. They considered the most important issues of the state (Council Code of 1649, etc.).

71. ZEMSHCHINA- the main part of the territory of Russia, not included in the oprichnina (1565-1572) by Ivan IV. Center - Moscow. It was controlled by the Zemstvo Boyar Duma and orders, had its own treasury and army.

72. IDEOLOGY(gr. - doctrine) - a system of views, ideas, expressing the attitude of people, classes, groups, parties to reality, constituting their worldview, developed by theorists, ideologists. It has an active influence on society.

73. JESUIT- members of a Catholic monastic organization (order), which aimed to strengthen and spread Catholicism and the power of the Pope.

74. HIERARCHY(gr. - sacred power) - in the Christian church, the order of the clergy from the highest to the lowest. Hierarch - the highest clergyman (bishop). The bureaucracy has a system of subordination.

75. CHOSEN RADA- the unofficial government of Russia under Ivan IV and the late 40s and 50s. 16th century (A. F. Adashev, Sylvester, Makariy, A. M. Kurbsky and others). For a compromise between different layers of feudal lords, reforms of central and local government, annexation of the Volga region, struggle with the Crimea.

76. EMPIRE(lat. - imperious, powerful) - a monarchical state headed by an emperor, pursuing a tough policy of centralization and autocracy (in Russia since 1721).

77. INTERVENTION(lat. - intervention) - the forcible intervention of one or more states in the internal affairs of another state, the violation of its sovereignty. It can be military (aggression), economic, diplomatic, ideological. Prohibited by international law.

78. INFLATION- an increase in prices caused by an excessive increase in money in circulation compared to the real supply of goods.

79. OFFICE OF HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY- state institution of Russia 1704-1727, 1741-1917 vols. The personal office of the emperor, later the administration of the imperial treasury and property (cabinet lands), since 1826 as part of the ministry of the imperial court.

80. CABINET- the supreme state body of 3 cabinet ministers, the official council under Anna Ivanovna in 1731-1741.

81. COSSACKS- the military class in Russia in the XVIII - early. XX centuries In the XIV-XVII centuries. - free people who were hired, served in the border areas on the Don, Volga, Ural, Terek, in Poland on the Dnieper. They created self-governing communities - Cossack freemen with an elected foreman. Part of the Cossacks from the former fugitive peasants. Used to protect borders, in wars. In the XVIII century. became a privileged estate, abolished in 1920. Separate Cossack formations participated in the Great Patriotic War. In recent years, the Cossacks have been restored.

82. CAPITALISM- a society based on private ownership of tools and means of production and the use of hired labor. In the struggle against feudalism, the bourgeoisie played a revolutionary role, leading the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries, and then in the 19th century. Capitalism has significantly developed the productive forces, improved technical progress, and led to the growth of culture. Passed the pre-monopolistic stage of the domination of free competition, from the end of the 19th century. entered the monopoly stage (imperialism). Tries to solve acute social contradictions, adapting to modern conditions of development of society.

83. PRINCE- the leader of the tribe, the head of the squad; with the development of feudal society - the ruler, the head of the principality. In Russia, the eldest of the princes was called great, the rest - specific; honorary hereditary title of nobility, which since the XVIII century. complained to the tsar for special merits (A. D. Menshikov, G. A. Potemkin, A. V. Suvorov and others).

84. COLLEGE- central institutions for the management of branches of government, introduced by Peter I in 1717-1721. instead of orders, they were headed by the presidents of the collegiums. Replaced by ministries in 1802

85. CONDITIONS- terms.

86. CONSERVATISM- a trend whose supporters defend the ideas of preserving traditions, continuity in political and cultural life.

87. CONTINENTAL BLOCCADE- Introduced by Napoleon I in 1806, the ban on maintaining relations with Great Britain. According to the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, Russia was forced to join the blockade, which had a negative impact on the Russian economy. After the defeat of Napoleon I in Russia in 1812, it ceased to be observed, canceled due to the abdication of Napoleon I in April 1814.

88. CONTRABUTION- during the war - forced extortions from the population, levied by the enemy in the occupied territory; after the war - payments from the defeated state to the victorious state. Prohibited by international law, but provides for the payment of reparations for the damage caused.

89. FEEDING- in Russia, the system of keeping officials (governors, volostels, etc.) at the expense of the local population. It was liquidated under Ivan IV by the Zemstvo reform of 1555-1556.

90. serfdom(serfdom) - a form of feudal dependence of the peasants: attachment to the land and personal submission to the feudal lord. In the Russian state, it was legally formalized by the Code of Laws of Ivan III of 1497, decrees on reserved and lesson years, the Cathedral Code of Alexei Mikhailovich of 1649. Having an allotment, tools, farming, the peasant fed himself, worked for the feudal lord (corvee), paid the feudal lord ( dues), taxes to the state, carried certain duties. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the entire non-free population became serfs. It existed for several centuries, abolished by the peasant reform of 1861.

91. LIBERALISM(lat. - free) - a trend that advocated parliamentarism, bourgeois rights and freedoms, the democratization of society, and the expansion of entrepreneurship. He rejected the revolutionary path of transformations, sought changes by legal means, reforms.

92. LIVONIAN ORDER(Livonia) - a Catholic state and a military organization of German crusader knights in the Eastern Baltic on the lands of the Livs and Estonians (1237-1561), brutally suppressed the Latvians and Estonians, led aggressive campaigns against Lithuania and the Russian state. Defeated and liquidated in the Livonian War by Russian troops in 1561.

93. MAGISTRA- the class body of city government, introduced by Peter I in 1720, was in charge of judicial, administrative and tax affairs. In 1727-1743. was called the town hall, since 1775 it was mainly engaged in court cases. Abolished by the Judicial Reform of 1864

94. MANUFACTURE(lat. manus - hand, invoice - manufacturing) - a large enterprise with manual labor, divided into specialties. It originated in Russia in the second half of the 17th century. and operated until the first half of the 19th century. If in Europe it is based on hired labor, then in Russia serf labor prevailed, and manufactories were state-owned (state-owned). In the beginning. 18th century under Peter I, manufactories are transferred to private ownership using the labor of state peasants assigned to them. In 1721, it was allowed to buy people for enterprises and attach artisans (1736). Manufactories with bought working people became sessional(lat. - possessio - possession). It contributed to the development of commodity-money relations, strengthening the social division of labor, prepared the transition to machine production.

95. FREEMASONRY(fr. - freemason) - a religious and ethical movement, arose in the beginning. 18th century in the UK, spread to many countries, including Russia. Considering God the Great Architect of the Universe, Masons call themselves his masons, erecting a building to the glory and wisdom of God, unite in lodges, strive to create a secret worldwide organization of fraternal religious union.

96. LOCALITY- 1. The system of distribution of official places among the feudal lords in the Russian state of the XIV-XVI centuries. upon appointment to military, administrative, court service according to their nobility of the family, the position of their ancestors, proximity to the authorities, often without taking into account abilities, personal qualities. Canceled in 1682. 2. Activities aimed at solving local interests to the detriment of the common cause.

97. PETERISTICS- taxable class (1775-1917) of former townspeople (artisans, small merchants, homeowners). They united in communities with their own self-government.

98. MINISTRY(lat. - I serve, I manage) - the central body of state administration, which manages a certain industry, headed by a minister. Introduced under Alexander I in 1802 instead of the Petrine colleges. In Soviet times, until 1946, there were people's commissariats - people's commissariats headed by people's commissars, and then ministries, divided into union, union-republican and republican.

99. METROPOLIT- the title of the head of the Russian Orthodox Church.

100. MOBILIZATION- the transfer of the armed forces from a peaceful state to combat readiness.

101. MOSAIC- an image made from a set of colored stones, marble, ceramics, smalt (colored opaque glass in the form of small pieces). It was used in temple decoration, icon painting, used to decorate buildings.

102. MONARCHY- state led by monarch- the sole ruler, mainly receiving power by inheritance (prince, king, king, emperor, etc.). Distinguish between unlimited (absolutism) and limited (constitutional, parliamentary), where the power of the monarch is delimited by parliament and articles of the Constitution.

103. MONASTERY(gr. - hermit's cell) - a community of monks (nuns) with certain rules (charter). Monks renounce secular life, take tonsure, a vow of celibacy, abstinence, and are required to strictly comply with the charter. He owned lands, monastic serfs. Abbot of the monastery hegumen (abbess). In 1650-1725. acted Monastery Order- the central state institution in charge of administrative, financial and judicial issues of church administration.

104. GOVERNOR- an official in Russia in the XII-XVI centuries, who headed the local government. In the XVIII - early. XX centuries chapter governorships, consisting of 2-3 provinces, in the Kingdom of Poland (1818-1874), in the Caucasus (1844-1883, 1905-1917).

105. PEOPLE- the entire population of the country. The following forms of historical community are known: tribal community, tribe, nationality, nation.

106. POPULARITY- the final stage of the revolutionary movement of raznochintsy in Russia in the 70s. 19th century Supported the ideas of A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, advocated a peasant revolution, the destruction of the autocracy, believed that Russia could bypass capitalism and immediately move from feudalism to socialism, idealized the peasant community as a ready cell of socialism. Ideologists - M. A. Bakunin, P. A. Lavrov, P. N. Tkachev. The name is associated with "walking among the people" - mass movement of revolutionaries to the village with a call for an uprising. Has been defeated. After the assassination of Alexander II in 1881, revolutionary populism degenerates into a liberal movement and revives in the beginning. 20th century in the activities of the Socialist-Revolutionaries.

107. PEOPLE'S GUARD- a military formation consisting of citizens and created on a voluntary basis in the event of hostilities.

108. NATIONALISM- the ideology and policy of subordinating some nations to others, preaching national exclusivity, superiority, inciting national enmity, distrust, conflicts. Especially dangerous in multinational states.

109. NIHILISM(lat. - nothing) - the denial of generally accepted values, norms, principles, laws. I. S. Turgenev applied the term "nihilist" to the hero of the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1862) Bazarov. Nihilist- a representative of the raznochin intelligentsia of the 60s. XIX century, which denied serfdom, opposed tsarism, noble life and customs. The authorities used the word as a curse against revolutionary democracy.

111. quitrent- annual collection of money and products from serfs by landowners. The food quitrent was abolished in 1861, and the cash quitrent remained until 1883 for temporarily liable peasants.

112. MILITIA- a military formation during the war to help the regular army. In Russia, it was recruited from free peasants, nobles, townspeople, etc. It operated in 1611-1612, 1812, 1855-1856, as well as during the Great Patriotic War. In 1874-1917. state militia - part of the Russian army, intended to replenish the armed forces in wartime.

113. OPPOSITION(lat. - opposition) - opposition, resistance, opposition of one's actions, views, policies to any other policy, views, actions. Speaking contrary to the opinion of the majority, with the prevailing attitudes, putting forward its own alternative (parliamentary, intra-party opposition, etc.).

114. OPRICHNINA(old Russian - oprich - except) - in the Russian state in the XIV-XV centuries. special specific possession of women of grand princely families. Ivan IV singled out for himself a personal inheritance (1565-1572), where he established a terrorist regime of military dictatorship, carried out by guardsmen in the fight against alleged treason among the feudal lords (repressions, executions, confiscations, etc.). It had grave consequences for the country, weakened it politically and economically.

115. HORDE- the Turkic and Mongolian peoples have a military-administrative organization, later - a camp of nomads, the headquarters of the ruler of the state. Numerous crowds of people.

116. OSTROG- a wooden fortification in the border zone of the Old Russian principalities from the 12th century. In the XIV-XVII centuries. distributed on the southern borders, in Siberia. Some later became major cities. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. is the name of a walled prison.

117. PATRIOTIC WAR- nationwide, just, liberation struggle against the aggressor for the expulsion of the interventionists (1611-1612, 1812, 1941-1945).

118. PACT(lat. - treaty) - an agreement, an international treaty (for example, the "Pact of Four" 1933 of France, Great Britain, Germany and Italy on consent and cooperation with the goal of creating an anti-Soviet bloc. Not ratified due to contradictions between its participants).

119. PATRIARCH(gr. - ancestor) - head, elder of the clan, community, family. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the highest spiritual rank, the head of an independent (autocephalous) church in 1589-1703, was restored in November 1917.

120. PLURALISM(lat. - plural) - a democratic right granted by the political system of power to openly express positions, opinions, demands, both to individuals and organizations and groups. The expression of the interests of various sections of society is carried out by political parties, trade unions, church and other organizations in parliament, the media, etc.

121. POVOZ- a type of feudal duty, consisting in transportation by order of the feudal lord, in the issuance of horses for his guests, etc. From the 15th century. cash quitrent and yamskaya duty.

122. Graveyard- the center of a rural community that paid tribute - a lesson established by the prince. Later the center of the administrative tax district, a large village with a church and a cemetery. Since the 18th century the name of a separate church with a cemetery; rural cemetery.

123. SUPPLY- monetary taxes from the taxable estates - the feudal-dependent population (household taxation, poll tax). In the second half of the XIX century. taxes were replaced by a system of taxes covering the entire population of Russia.

124. TABLES- groups of the population (peasants, bourgeois), in the XVIII - first half of the XIX centuries. who paid the poll tax, were subjected to corporal punishment, performed recruitment and other in-kind duties, limited in freedom of movement. Legal incompleteness was eliminated mainly in the second half of the 19th century.

125. CAPITATE TITLE- the main direct tax in the XVIII-XIX centuries, introduced in 1724 instead of household taxation. Was charged from all men of taxable estates of any age. Canceled at the end of the 19th century.

126. ELDERLY- cash collection from peasants in the XV-XVII centuries. when leaving the feudal lord on St. George's Day on November 26 (a week before and after a week). The peasant exit was established by the Sudebnik of Ivan III (1497), the size of the elderly was increased by the Sudebnik of Ivan IV (1550). Disappeared with the complete enslavement of the peasants. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the name of the fine imposed for the reception of fugitive peasants.

127. POLYUDIE- in Kievan Rus, a detour by a prince with a retinue of his lands to collect tribute. Later - a tribute of indeterminate size. Olga in the 10th century established a fixed tribute - "lessons" from a certain area - "graveyard".

128. GREEN- East Slavic tribal union VI-IX centuries. along the middle course of the Dnieper from Pripyat to Ros. They played a major role in the creation of the early state association "Russian Land" (the first half of the 9th century), which became the core of the Old Russian state.

129. LOCAL ORDER- central government agency with ser. 16th century until 1720. He endowed the nobles with estates, controlled changes in land ownership, conducted an inventory of land and a census of the population, and search for fugitive peasants. Central court for land issues.

Absolutism(absolute monarchy) - a form of feudal state in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. Under absolutism, the feudal state reaches the highest degree of centralization, a bureaucracy, a standing army and police are created. In Russia, it was finally approved in the 18th century.

avant-garde- an artistic movement of the 20th century, advocating a break with the principles of the past and the search for new forms and means of expressing the surrounding world, which manifested itself in such movements as cubism, expressionism, surrealism, etc.

Autocephaly- In Orthodoxy, the administrative independence of the church. Autocephalous church in Russia since 1589

Autonomization- the idea put forward by I.V. Stalin in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR as autonomies, which violated their independence and equality.

Autonomy- the right of independent existence, the ability to resolve issues related to the conduct of a particular autonomous entity (republic, district, national, religious or territorial community). Autonomy does not have state sovereignty (complete independence). Cultural-national autonomy implies self-government in matters of culture (including religion, language and education).

autochthonous- indigenous peoples who lived on their lands before the formation of existing state borders, associated with a certain territory and living on it from time immemorial; original population.

Aggression- military violation of the sovereignty of the state, its independence and integrity of borders. It can be economic, ideological, psychological, etc.

Alternative- one of several mutually exclusive possibilities; the need to choose a single solution from a number of possible ones.

Empire- an original version of Russian classicism of the first quarter of the 19th century, which has features of an external, formal resemblance to the French Empire style.

Anarchism- a political movement that advocates the destruction of the state as a coercive form of power and its replacement by a free, voluntary association of citizens.

Annexation- forcible annexation, the seizure by one state of territory belonging to another state or people.

Antagonism(antagonistic contradiction) - one of the types of contradictions of social development, characterized by the highest sharpness of the struggle of irreconcilably hostile tendencies, forces, social classes, which inevitably leads to such a radical way of resolving the contradiction as a revolution.

Arakcheevshchina- the internal political course of the autocracy in 1815-1825, which seeks to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of life in Russian society (planting military settlements, tightening discipline in the army, intensifying persecution of education and the press).

Bishop- the general name of the highest Orthodox clergy (bishop, archbishop, metropolitan).

Assembly- balls in the homes of the Russian nobility, introduced by Peter I.

"Velvet Revolutions"- a special type of revolutions, as a result of which there is a transition from a socialist to a liberal system.

Baroque- artistic style in Russia in the 40s-50s. XVIII century, distinguished by decorative splendor, dynamic complex forms, emotional expressiveness and picturesqueness.

Corvee- all types of forced labor performed by dependent peasants on the feudal lord, primarily on the master's land for several days a week.

Baskak- a representative of the Horde Khan in Russia, who exercised control over the actions of the princes and was in charge of collecting tribute.

Basma- a plate of gold, silver, wood, issued by the Golden Horde khans as a pass.

white guard- military formations of anti-Bolshevik forces that opposed the Soviet republic after the October Revolution. White color was considered a symbol of "lawful order".

Secular clergy- the general name of the lower clergy of the Orthodox Church (priests, deacons). Unlike the black clergy, the white clergy are allowed to create a family and run a personal household.

"White settlements"- urban settlements exempted from state duties.

Bipolar system of international relations- a system based on the confrontation between the two superpowers (USSR and the USA) and the military-political blocs created by them.

Bironovshchina- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), named after her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features: political terror, omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, strict taxation, drill in the army.

Blitzkrieg- a strategy based on the fastest achievement of victory by delivering concentrated strikes on the enemy and defeating his main forces in the first days of a military campaign.

beekeeping- collection of honey from wild bees from the ancient Slavs.

Boyars- in Kievan Rus, senior warriors of the prince, who helped him govern the state. From the 15th century boyars - the highest rank among service people.

boyar- a representative of the upper stratum of society in Russia in the XI-XVII centuries. Initially, the boyars were vassals of the princes, who were obliged to serve in their troops, but later became an independent political force in a number of Russian principalities. In the XIV century. were divided into introduced boyars (closest advisers to the prince) and worthy boyars (who headed separate branches of government). From the end of the XV century. the title of boyar became the highest duma rank, its bearers were directly involved in government along with the monarch.

Boyar Duma- the highest council under the prince in Russia.

Bourgeois Democratic Revolution- a social upheaval, as a result of which the power of the bourgeoisie is strengthened and broad democratic transformations are carried out, while the bourgeoisie itself often loses its revolutionary role.

Bylina- a work of oral folk art in Ancient Russia, based on real events. Tells about the exploits of Russian heroes.

Bureaucracy- the power of officials, the system of government, carried out with the help of the apparatus of power, which has certain functions and privileges and stands above society.

Varangians- so in Ancient Russia they called the Normans (Vikings), immigrants from Scandinavia, participants in predatory campaigns.

Voucher- in 1992-1994. a security intended for free transfer to citizens of objects of state property.

Great Migration- the era of grandiose ethnic movements during the IV-VII centuries. n. e., an integral part of which was the resettlement of the Slavs.

rope- a community of free peasants ("rope" - with its help, the boundaries between communities were determined).

Supreme Privy Council- the highest advisory state institution in the Russian Empire in 1726-1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body consisting of six prominent dignitaries.

Veche- a meeting of all free-born men of the tribe, who have the right to bear arms, to resolve issues of intra-tribal life.

Vikings- Scandinavian navigators of the Middle Ages, the ancestors of modern Swedes, Norwegians, Danes and Icelanders.

Vira- a fine in favor of the prince in the Old Russian state, imposed for the murder of a free man.

Governor military leader in ancient Russia. Subsequently (since the end of the 15th century), governors were appointed commanders of the main regiments in the Moscow army. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. The governors also headed the local government in the Russian state (they were royal governors in the cities), they had in their hands the full administrative and military executive power in the city and district.

Voivodeship is a territorial unit of the Principality of Lithuania. The voivode is the head of the voivodship.

Military democracy- one of the initial forms of political organization among a number of tribes and nationalities during the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system; The organs of military democracy were: a popular assembly, in which warriors participated, a council of leaders (or elders) and an elected or appointed military leader, the main distinguishing feature of whose power is military leadership.

military settlements- a special organization of part of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857. The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and creating a reserve of trained troops.

war communism- the economic policy of the Soviet government in the context of the civil war and foreign military intervention in 1918-1921, which was a system of emergency measures, such as: food allocation, complete nationalization of industry, state monopoly on certain types of goods (salt, sugar, manufactory, matches etc.), militarization of labor, labor front, military general education, free provision of certain types of services (including public transport, pharmacies, telephone, etc.).

Volostel- an official in the Russian state of the 11th-16th centuries, managing the volost on behalf of the great or specific prince, in charge of administrative and judicial affairs. Volostels did not receive a salary, they "fed" at the expense of taxes from the population.

Free cultivators- in Russia, peasants freed from serfdom with land by decree of 1803 on the basis of a voluntary agreement with the landowners.

Magus- a pagan priest, a clergyman in Ancient Russia; a person who was recognized for supernatural abilities, a magician, a sorcerer. With the introduction of Christianity, they began to be considered opponents of state power, led a number of social performances.

Voluntarism- an activity that does not take into account the objective laws of development, imposes its will, ignores real possibilities, when the desired is presented as real.

Eastern Question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in the history of international relations in the last third of the 18th - early 19th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the rise of the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples, the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region.

Votchina- type of land ownership (hereditary family or corporate ownership with immunity).

Redemption operation- a state credit operation carried out by the Russian government in connection with the peasant reform of 1861.

Exit(Horde) - a tribute paid by the Russian principalities in the XIII-XV centuries.

Ghazavat(jihad) - the holy war of Muslims against the infidels.

Hegemony- a dominant position, the use of political force to obtain a leading role in the movement, the struggle (the hegemony of the proletariat).

Geopolitics- a concept in the theory of international relations, according to which geographical factors play a major role in the development of a state or a group of states: the presence of minerals, access to the sea, climate, etc.

Publicity- a concept developed by domestic political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of state bodies.

The State Duma- 1) Representative legislative institution (1906-1917), established by the manifesto of Nicholas II on October 17, 1905.

2) According to the Constitution of 1993, one of the chambers of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.

State capitalism- socio-economic structure with state intervention in economic life to establish control and accelerate the development of production.

State Council- the highest legislative body of the Russian Empire since 1810; since 1906 - the upper house with legislative rights. He considered bills submitted by ministers before they were approved by the emperor, estimates and staffs of state institutions, complaints about the definitions of departments of the Senate and other bodies.

Guests- merchants engaged in long-distance and international trade.

Civil War- large-scale armed confrontation between organized groups within a state (less often between two nations that were part of a previously unified united state) with the aim of seizing power in a country or in a separate region or changing government policy.

Gridney

Lip- a territorial district in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries, as a rule, coinciding with the parish, from the middle of the XVI century. - with the county.

Province- the main administrative-territorial unit in Russia since 1708, divided into counties.

Lip headman- an official who headed the lip institutions, local governments (from the 30-50s of the 16th century to 1702), who were in charge of the detective, the criminal court on the scale of the lip.

Gulag(Main Directorate of Correctional Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Detention) - was established in 1934 under the jurisdiction of the NKVD (People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs), to which all correctional labor institutions of the People's Commissariat of Justice were transferred. Existed until 1956

Tribute- natural or monetary collection from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax from subjects.

"Date People"- soldiers who, on the basis of the Code of Service of 1556, were to be armed and equipped by the landowner from a certain amount of land. Military service was carried out only in wartime.

dual faith- a mixture of pagan and Christian rites and beliefs.

The Butler- courtyard man of Russian princes and Moscow tsars. With the development of the command system in the XVI century. becomes the head of the order of the Grand Palace. From 1473 to 1646 there was only one butler in Moscow. Since 1646, 12 boyars had this title; then he was annually granted to one or several boyars. As a result, this position has become an honorary title.

Yard peasants- in the Russian state, dependent people (serfs), who lived at the court of the landowner and served the family of the feudal lord. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. domestic serf servant in a landowner's house.

nobles- a feudal service estate that owned land on the condition of compulsory military service without the right to sell its land property, which was a reward for this service.

Nobility- the privileged class of secular landowners and civil servants. In the XIII-XIV centuries. these are persons who are obliged to the princes for military service and the execution of orders. From the 15th century the nobles were endowed with land and merged with the feudal lords. In the XVI-XVII centuries. there were Moscow and elected (city) nobles, from the beginning of the XVIII century. formed a single nobility.

Decree- a normative act of the highest bodies of the state.

Demilitarization- liquidation on the basis of an international treaty of military installations in a certain area and the prohibition to keep military bases and troops on it.

Democratization- recognition of the need for and implementation of democratic principles, reorganization of social and political life on the basis of democracy.

Denationalization- transfer of state property into the ownership of individuals or collectives.

Cash quitrent- a form of payment by the peasant to the feudal lord in the form of money.

Denomination- changing the face value of banknotes in order to stabilize the currency, simplifying calculations.

Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 1920-1940s. violent and illegal expulsion of many peoples of the USSR from their territories.

De-Stalinization- the process of abolition, destruction of the Stalinist system.

tithe(church) - one tenth of the harvest or other income given by the population to the maintenance of the church.

Dictatorship- unlimited political, economic and ideological power, exercised by a limited group of people or one person.

Dynastic marriage- marriage between representatives of the ruling dynasties in different countries in order to strengthen the alliance between states.

Dynasty- a series of rulers who successively succeeded each other according to the principle of kinship and the tradition of succession to the throne.

Dissident- a dissident who opposes his beliefs to the official ideology of the country. In 1950-1970. in the USSR, the activities of dissidents were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, protecting human rights and democracy, carrying out fundamental economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state. The struggle contributed to the transition of the USSR from totalitarianism to democracy.

Doctrine- a philosophical, political, religious concept, theory, doctrine, belief system, guiding theoretical or political principle.

Druzhina- a detachment of warriors united around the leader; in Ancient Russia - an armed cavalry detachment under the prince, participating in military campaigns, managing the principality, as well as the personal household of the prince.

Duma nobles- in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. the third "by honor" Duma rank after the boyars and okolnichy; participated in the meetings of the Boyar Duma. Most of them come from noble families. They served as the backbone of tsarist power in the fight against the boyar aristocracy in the Duma.

Spiritual regulation- the legislative act of Peter I (1721) on the reform of the church institution, according to which the church was subordinate to the state.

clerk- from the 15th to the 18th centuries. official (official): manager of affairs of the order, clerk, head of the office of various departments. The clerks constituted the top layer of the bureaucracy (“order people”) in the Muscovite state; from the second half of the 16th century. the rank of a duma clerk was assigned the responsibility of maintaining current office work in central institutions, as well as at local governors. The clerks were mostly from non-noble strata of society.

Deacon- in Orthodoxy, a person who has a lower level of priesthood, an assistant to a priest who participates in a church service. The senior deacon is called a protodeacon.

Smoke- a hut, a peasant's yard.

Diocese- in the Russian Orthodox Church, a church-administrative territorial unit, the boundaries of which are determined by the Holy Synod, taking into account the administrative-territorial division of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The management of the diocese is carried out by the bishop (bishop, archbishop, metropolitan) together with the bodies of diocesan administration (assembly, council).

Heresy— 1) dogma that deviates from the dogmas and organizational forms of the dominant religion; 2) deviation from generally accepted rules, delusion.

The heresy of the "Judaizers"- the Orthodox Church name for a number of heterogeneous heresies from the point of view of the official Orthodox Church, is used mainly in relation to a breakaway religious group that arose in Novgorod in the last quarter of the 15th century.

Letter of Complaint- a document issued by the highest authority in Russia on the provision of any rights or benefits to individuals, monasteries (from the 12th century) or groups of the population (from the 17th century).

"Iron curtain"- a term denoting the isolation of the USSR from the capitalist world. As a political concept for the first time in the XX century. introduced by G. Wells in the book "The Time Machine", and in Russia - by the philosopher V.V. Rozanov after the revolution of 1905-1907. to mark the end of history and culture. In Soviet times, the term was used as the concept of a wall separating socialism and capitalism - irreconcilable systems. After World War II, the term came to mean the boundary between the "free" and "communist" worlds.

life- a work, a biography of a spiritual or secular person, as a rule, canonized by the Christian church as a saint.

Strike- one of the ways to resolve a labor conflict, the promotion of both economic and political demands by a team of workers and employees who stopped working before satisfying them.

Procurement- communal peasants who became dependent by borrowing a "kupa" (loan).

Westerners- the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path, opposed the Slavophiles. They criticized the theory of official nationality, serfdom and autocracy; put forward projects for the liberation of peasants with land. Leaders of the movement: P. A. Annenkov, V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, M. N. Katkov, I. S. Turgenev, P. Ya. Chaadaev and others. "Domestic Notes", "Russian Bulletin", etc.

reserved summers- the period during which the peasant exit was prohibited on the autumn St. George's Day (provided by Sudebnik, 1497). Protected years began to be introduced by the government of Ivan IV from 1581 simultaneously with the activities of the general census of land, which was carried out to determine the extent of severe economic ruin in the 70-80s. 16th century

Zaporizhzhya Sich- the name of a number of successive military and administrative centers of the Dnieper Cossacks from the 16th to the 18th centuries. Liquidated by decrees of Catherine II.

Zemsky Sobors- the highest class-representative bodies in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. They included members of the Holy Cathedral, the Boyar Duma, the "sovereign court", elected from the provincial nobility and merchants.

Zemstvos- elected bodies of local self-government in Russia since 1864.

Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of Russia, not included in the oprichnina by Ivan IV. The center - Moscow, was controlled by the Zemstvo Boyar Duma and orders.

Architecture- building art in Russia.

Elected Rada- the unofficial government of the Russian state in the late 40-50s. 16th century Proponents of compromise between different strata of landowners.

hegumen head (priest) of a Russian Orthodox monastery.

Idol- an image of a deity worshiped by the pagans, most often made of stone or wood.

outcasts- people who left their social group (peasants who left or were expelled from the community, princes who lost their possessions) for various reasons.

Icon- a picturesque image of God or saints in Orthodox Christianity.

icon painting- Church painting.

Impeachment- the procedure for prosecution, including criminal prosecution, of persons of municipal or state execution, officials, up to the head of state, with their subsequent removal from office.

Investment- long-term investment of capital in sectors of the economy within the country and abroad with the aim of making a profit.

Indo-European group of peoples- a generalizing concept for the tribes of the Indo-European language family, which at an early stage of their development have common roots (English, Germans, French, Greeks, Iranians, Armenians, Irish, etc.).

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in all major sectors of the economy.

Inoki- monks.

Integration- rallying, merging public, state structures for joint activities both in the field of politics and in the economy.

Intervention- forcible intervention of one or more states in the internal affairs of another state, violation of its sovereignty. It can be military (aggression), economic, diplomatic, ideological. Intervention is prohibited by international law.

Intelligentsia- the social stratum of people professionally engaged in mental, mostly complex creative work, the development of culture. It arose in connection with the division of physical and mental labor, the accumulation and generalization of knowledge. The term was introduced in the 1860s. writer P.D. Boborykin and became international.

Josephites- church-political trend in the Russian state of the late XV - mid-XVI century. (ideologist Iosif Volotsky), who defended the principle of a “rich church”; defended the church-monastic land ownership.

kagan- the title of the head of state among the ancient Turkic (nomadic, tribal) peoples.

Cadets(Constitutional Democrats) - members of the Constitutional Democratic Party, founded in 1905 and which was the party of the liberal bourgeoisie. Officially, the Cadets called themselves the "party of people's freedom" and moderately criticized the existing order in Russia.

Cossacks- free residents of the outskirts of the Russian state, who carried out military service, and were also engaged in agriculture, hunting, and sometimes robbery.

Canonization- reckoning someone to the saints for a righteous life and charitable deeds.

Capitalism- a socio-economic formation that replaced feudalism, which is based on private ownership of the means of production and the use of hired labor of workers. Having arisen in the 16th century, capitalism played a progressive role in the development of society, ensuring, in comparison with feudalism, higher labor productivity and more perfect social relations.

Surrender- the cessation of armed struggle and the surrender of the armed forces of one of the belligerent states.

Cyrillic- the ancient Slavic alphabet, created by the Orthodox missionaries brothers Cyril and Methodius.

Classicism- the artistic style in Russia in the 18th - early 19th centuries, focused on ancient art as the norm and ideal model; characterized by a desire for clarity and purity of proportions, balance, harmony of forms.

prince- the head of a tribe, clan, leader of a military squad, and with the development of feudalism - the highest representative of the class of feudal lords, the ruler of a feudal state; an honorary title that was inherited in some noble families.

Coalition- a political or military alliance of states for joint action (anti-Hitler coalition); the formation of a government of representatives of several parties (the coalition Provisional Government in Russia in 1917).

Collectivization- the transformation of agriculture in the USSR at the end of 1920-1930. through the mass creation of collective farms (collective farms).

Kolkhoz(collective farm) - a cooperative organization of peasants in the Soviet era, based on collective ownership of land and severe state regulation.

combos- Committees of the poor, created in 1918 in Russia as state authorities. They participated in the implementation of the food dictatorship together with food detachments: they distributed landowners' lands, agricultural implements, carried out food appropriations, and recruited into the Red Army. Disbanded early 1919.

Convention- an international treaty on a specific issue.

Convergence- the theory of peaceful rapprochement between socialism and capitalism. Academician AD Sakharov was an active supporter of this theory.

Conversion- the process of transition of defense enterprises to the production of civilian products.

Conditions- the conditions for the accession to the throne of Anna Ioannovna, drawn up in 1730 by the Supreme Privy Council with the aim of limiting the monarchy in favor of the aristocracy.

Conservatism- a political ideology focused on the protection of the traditional foundations of public life, unshakable values, the denial of revolutionary changes, distrust of the popular movement.

Constructivism- an artistic trend in the art of a number of European countries at the beginning of the 20th century, which proclaimed that the basis of the artistic image was not composition, but construction.

Contribution- payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.

confessional principle- formation of authorities taking into account the interests of population groups professing different religions in a single state; solution of political issues, problems of education, culture.

confession- a feature of religion within a certain religious doctrine, as well as the unification of believers who adhere to this religion.

Confrontation- confrontation, clash of opposing interests, opposing sides.

Concession- an agreement on the transfer of natural resources, enterprises or other objects belonging to the state to a foreign state or company for a certain period of time.

Cooperation- voluntary partnership for joint management of the economy, organization of fishing, small-scale production, intermediary activities. Main forms: consumer, supply and household, credit, production.

Feeding- the territory and the system of maintenance of the boyar governors at the expense of extortions from the local population.

feeder- a representative of the local princely administration of the XIII-XV centuries, whom the population was obliged to support ("feed") during the entire period of service. The princes sent boyars to cities and volosts as governors, giving them the right to collect duties in their favor. As a result of the Zemstvo reform of 1555-1556. the feeding system was abolished, and the government converted fees for the maintenance of feeders into a special tax in favor of the treasury.

Corruption- use by officials of their official position for the purpose of personal enrichment.

Cosmopolitanism- the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of the narrow limits of national patriotism and the praise of their originality, the isolation of their national culture. The term was used by the Stalinist regime to bait "rootless cosmopolitans" who were accused of "groveling" before the West.

Red Guard- armed detachments, consisting mainly of workers from industrial cities of Russia, formed from March 1917, were the military force of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution of 1917, in March 1918 joined the Red Army (Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army - RKKA, official name of the Soviet armed forces from 1918 to 1946).

Serfdom- a system of non-economic dependence, in which a person is deprived of the right or opportunity to freely dispose of himself, choose a place of residence, move, determine the type of his occupation, dispose of the results of his activities, move from one social state to another, etc.

Serfdom- a set of legal norms that fix the most complete and severe form of peasant dependence. Includes a ban on peasants leaving their land plots (that is, attaching peasants to land or a “fortress” of peasants to land; fugitives are subject to forced return), hereditary submission to the administrative and judicial power of a certain feudal lord, depriving peasants of the right to alienate land plots and acquire real estate, sometimes the opportunity for the feudal lord to alienate peasants without land.

Serfs- farmers attached to the land and a certain landowner were considered his personal property, subject to sale and purchase and even deprivation of life.

Fortress- a written document on the ownership of a peasant, a serf, property.

Cross-domed building- architectural structures, more often temples, the plan of which is based on the principle of central symmetry in the form of a Greek cross with a large dome in the center.

Peasants- in the XIII-XIV centuries. the name of rural and urban residents, from the 15th century. - a generalized name only for rural residents, in contrast to the previous division (people, smerds).

Mutual responsibility- the guarantee of all members of the community for the performance of the service, payment of taxes, etc.

Cult of personality- exalting the role of one person, attributing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, when a person replaces the leadership of the party, eliminates democracy, establishes a dictatorial regime. The sources of the cult of personality are rooted in both objective and subjective conditions.

Kupa- in ancient Russia, a cash or in-kind loan issued to someone on credit by a usurer or landowner on the condition that, in order to return it, the debtor (“purchase”) becomes dependent on his creditor for a certain time and works in his household, performs various assignments etc.

Lavra- the name of some of the largest male Orthodox monasteries, as a rule, subordinate directly to the patriarch.

Legalization- Permitting the activities of previously banned political organizations, parties that come out of the underground and begin to operate legally (openly).

lend-lease- a state program under which the United States transferred weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, food and other material resources to its allies in the anti-Hitler coalition during the Second World War.

ladder right- the custom of princely inheritance in Kievan Rus. All the Rurik princes were considered brothers (relatives) and co-owners of the whole country, so the eldest in the family was in Kyiv, the next in importance in smaller cities. They reigned in this order: the elder brother, then the younger ones in order, then the children of the older brother, followed by the children of the next brothers, followed by grandchildren in the same sequence, then great-grandchildren, etc.

Chronicle- a collection of chronicles.

chronicle- Old Russian historical works in which events are described by years (years).

Liberal- a supporter of progressive views, individual freedom and freedom of enterprise.

Price liberalization- the establishment by the authorities of free prices in the market while encouraging private entrepreneurship. Introduced in the Russian Federation on January 2, 1992.

Liberalism- a political movement that advocated parliamentarism, political rights and freedoms, the democratization of society, and the expansion of entrepreneurship. Rejecting the revolutionary path of transformation, he sought changes in society by legal means, reforms.

The League of nations- an international organization (1919-1946), founded as a result of the Versailles-Washington system, whose main goals were: disarmament, prevention of hostilities, ensuring collective security, settling disputes between countries through diplomatic negotiations, as well as improving the quality of life on the planet.

People- free peasants-communes.

Magistrate- a class body of city government in Russia since 1720, originally had administrative and judicial functions. Abolished by judicial reform of 1864

Manifesto- 1) Appeal of public organizations, parties, groups of persons, which has a programmatic character. 2) An act of supreme power in the form of a solemn appeal to the people.

Manufactory- large-scale production based on the division of labor and handicraft technology.

Outcasts- groups of the population that have changed their status and have not sufficiently adapted to the new environment.

Marxism- a theory developed by Marx and Engels in the middle of the XIX century. Marxism proved the inevitable death of capitalism, the role of the proletariat and the victory of the socialist revolution, the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the building of socialism and communism.

Small commodity production- production by artisans of goods - products intended for sale on the market.

Mercantilism- an economic policy based on the predominance of exports of goods over imports according to the principle "buy cheaper, sell more expensive." Associated with the policy of protectionism.

Localism- the order of appointments to the position according to the nobility of the family and the limitation of service to the Grand Duke.

month- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. a six-day corvée of serfs, primarily yard people, deprived of land allotments. Remuneration for work was carried out in kind on a monthly basis.

Memorandum- a diplomatic document that sets out the essence of any international issue.

Metropolis- a state that has colonies is a metropolis in relation to them.

Militarism- a policy aimed at increasing the military power of the state to solve internal and external problems by military means.

Ministry- the central body of executive power in charge of certain sectors of the economy or certain areas of public life (culture, education, etc.). In Russia, the ministries were formed by the Decree of Alexander I in 1802 instead of collegiums.

Metropolitan- one of the highest ranks of the Christian church hierarchy. From the end of the X century. and before the establishment of the patriarchate, the metropolitan headed the church organization in Russia. Until the middle of the XV century. The Russian metropolis was one of the provinces of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

Conciliator- an official in Russia during the period of the peasant reform of 1861, appointed from the nobility to approve charters and resolve disputes between peasants and landlords.

Modernization- updating, improvement that meets modern requirements, tastes (for example, equipment upgrades).

Modernism- the general name of the directions of literature and art of the late XIX-XX centuries, moving away from traditional concepts and advocating a new approach to reflecting life (expressionism, avant-garde, surrealism, futurism, etc.).

Mosaic- images made up of multi-colored pieces of glass or pebbles.

Monarchy- a form of government in which the supreme state power partially or completely belongs to one person - the monarch (king, king, emperor, duke, sultan, emir, khan, pharaoh, etc.) and is inherited.

Monastery- a religious community that lives separately according to uniform rules (charter) and conducts its own economy.

Monopoly- exclusive right to something; an alliance of capitalists who have seized the exclusive right to produce and sell certain goods in order to dominate the market, the establishment of high monopoly prices regulated by the market. The formation is associated with the development of free competition capitalism into monopoly capitalism at the end of the 19th century. Basic forms: cartel, syndicate, trust, concern. In Russia, monopolies arose in the 1980s. XIX century.

Monotheism- monotheism.

"Moscow—Third Rome"- a theory created by Abbot Philotheus at the beginning of the 16th century, which claimed that the center of world Christianity after the fall of the Byzantine Empire moved to Moscow, since Russia remained the only independent Orthodox state, the guarantor of the preservation of the true Christian faith.

Muzhi- in the pre-state and early state period - free people.

Allotment- after the reform of 1861, communal or household land peasant property.

taxes— obligatory payments established by the state, collected from the population.

Naryshkin baroque- the conventional name for the style of Russian architecture of the late 17th century, which combined the traditions of Russian white-stone patterning with new trends in European architecture.

Natural economy- a type of economy in which the products of labor are produced to satisfy needs, and not for sale on the market.

natural quitrent- payments of peasants in favor of the feudal lord in the form of natural products.

Nazism- one of the names of German fascism, derived from the name of the National Socialist Party of Germany (Nazi), which operated in 1919-1945. led by Hitler (since 1921), who seized power in 1933 and established a fascist regime. After the defeat of German fascism in World War II, the party was liquidated. Reborn as neo-Nazism.

Nationalization- the transfer of private enterprises, land holdings and other sectors of the economy into the ownership of the state.

Nationalism- ideology, politics, as well as psychology in the national question. It is based on the ideas of national exclusiveness and national superiority, which develop more or less depending on the historical situation, on the relationship of a given nation with others.

Nation- a historical community of people, the characteristic features of which are a common language, territory, culture, awareness of a common historical destiny.

merchant- a wholesale merchant, a merchant who conducts large-scale trade deals mainly with other countries.

Nonpossessors- adherents of the religious and political movement at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, who preached the need for the church to refuse "acquisition" (acquisition of land and property values) as contrary to the principles of the Gospel. Ideologists: Nil Sorsky, Vassian Kosoy and others.

New political thinking- a new philosophical and political concept, the main provisions of which provided for: the rejection of the principle of socialist internationalism and the recognition of the priority of universal human values ​​over class, national, ideological, religious and others; the proclamation of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible.

Nomenclature- a circle of officials selected on the basis of personal loyalty to the leader and ideological verification. The appointment or approval of officials falls within the competence of a higher authority.

Norman theory emerged in the second quarter of the 18th century. direction in Russian and foreign historiography, whose supporters credited the Normans (Varangians) with the creation of a state among the Eastern Slavs.

NEP(new economic policy) - the economic policy pursued in Soviet Russia and the USSR in the 1920s, replacing the policy of "war communism". The goal is the restoration of the national economy and the subsequent transition to socialism; the main content is the replacement of surplus appropriation with a tax in kind in the countryside, the use of the market and various forms of ownership, the attraction of foreign capital in the form of concessions, and the implementation of a monetary reform. Diversity of the economy while maintaining the "commanding heights" (banks, railways, foreign trade, engineering, mining) in the hands of the state.

Free servility- complete serfs in Ancient Russia. The sources of private servility were: marriage to a slave, the acquisition of slaves. Purchasing as a punishment for escaping from the master also became serfs.

quitrent- a form of payment by a dependent peasant to a feudal lord for the use of land in the form of money (cash) or natural products (natural).

ognischanin- estate manager.

okolnichiy- the second (after the boyar) most important duma rank (Boyar Duma) in the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries, later they head orders and certain branches of government.

Oligarchy- political and economic domination, the power of a small group of people.

militia- a military formation created for the duration of the war, a military campaign.

Opposition- opposition, resistance, opposition of one's actions, views, policies to other policies, views, actions. Speaking contrary to the opinion of the majority, with the prevailing attitudes, putting forward its own alternative (parliamentary, intra-party opposition, etc.).

Opportunism- opportunism, conciliation, unscrupulousness.

Oprichnina- a system of measures taken by Ivan IV in 1565-1572. to combat the alleged betrayal of the boyars, which included: the creation of a special territory with a special army, state apparatus, mass repressions, confiscation of land and property.

Horde- a form of community of nomadic peoples, uniting several genera.

"Horde Exit"- a tribute to the Golden Horde, which was collected by the Baskaks with the help of armed detachments.

Orthodox- in the church understanding - corresponding to the official dogmas of the Christian denomination.

Working off- the work of the peasants after the abolition of serfdom on the landowner with their tools and livestock for rented land, received a loan.

Youths- junior warriors who accompanied the prince.

Otkhodnichestvo- temporary departure of peasants to work in cities or agricultural work in other areas (it was common in Russia among landlord quitrent peasants).

Fatherland(patrimony) - the hereditary possession of the princes.

Pantheon- a set of gods of any religion; temple of all gods.

"Parade of sovereignties"- the process of the collapse of the USSR, which entailed the formation of new states in the post-Soviet space; a tendency towards isolation of some former parts of the RSFSR from a common center.

Parsuna- the conditional name of the works of Russian portrait painting of the 17th century.

Patriarch- the highest spiritual rank in Orthodoxy, the head of an independent (autocephalous) church, is elected by the church council. Established in the Russian Orthodox Church in 1589.

Pacifism- an international anti-war movement that opposes all wars.

Parchment- material for writing, made from the skin of domestic animals - small and large cattle.

Wanderers- Russian artists who were members of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, created by I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov in 1870.

perestroika- the policy of perestroika assumed the introduction of structural and organizational changes in economic, social, political mechanisms, as well as in ideology in order to achieve the same acceleration of social development

Tribe- the type of ethnic community and social organization of the era of the primitive communal system (several clans living together in the same territory, speaking the same language and connected by common customs, a single leader, traditions and religious cult).

Pluralism- a concept according to which various parties, trade unions, church, business and other organizations interact in society while observing democratic norms of tolerance, mutual respect, and the rejection of violence as a means to achieve an end.

"Graveyards"- certain places where tribute (tax) was to be brought within the specified period, as well as the name of the administrative units from which a certain amount of tax was levied.

Slash-and-slash farming system- a primitive management system in which trees were cut down in a forest area and left to dry on the vine, and then uprooted and burned. The site was used until it was completely depleted, and then a new one was cleared. It demanded collective management of the economy by the whole family and even the tribe.

Poll tax- in Russia of the XVIII-XIX centuries. main direct tax. Replaced in 1724 household taxes. The poll tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age. Canceled in the 80s and 90s. 19th century

Elderly- a collection of money from peasants when they transfer from one owner to another, established by the Sudebnik of 1497.

Polytheism polytheism, worship of many gods.

Shelves of the "foreign system"(regiments of the "new system") - military units formed in Russia in the 17th century. on the model of Western European armies. Mostly cavalry: Reiter and dragoon.

polyudie- a detour by the prince and a squad of territories (tribes) subject to him in order to collect tribute.

Estate- a form of feudal land tenure in Russia in the XIV-XVII centuries, based on the conditional right to dispose of property. Estates were given to their owners (nobles) on the condition of performing military service in favor of the suzerain - first the Grand Duke, then the Tsar. By the beginning of the XVIII century. the legal status of the estate merges with the estate, so that their owners acquire all the rights of unconditional disposal of property.

landowners- a new kind of nobles that arose in the XIII-XIV centuries, endowed with land (estate) on certain conditions (most often on the condition of military service).

Posad- a trade and craft part of the Russian city, inhabited by merchants and artisans.

Posadnik- an elected official in the ancient Russian city-republics (Novgorod, Pskov), head of the executive branch, city government.

Possession peasants- in Russia of the XVIII-XIX centuries. a category of peasants who belonged to the private enterprises in which they worked.

Pososhnoe- in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. state land tax on plows; Replaced by yard tax.

Poshny people- in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. temporary service people recruited in the order of duty (staff) from the draft population. They were used in the infantry and in military construction work.

"Funny Troops"- detachments of young people created in the early 80s. 17th century for the "military fun" of Tsar Peter. At the end of the XVII century. of these, the Guards Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments were formed.

preemptive strike- a preemptive attack on a potential enemy.

Privilege- special rights or benefits.

Orders- bodies of central government in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries; local palace administration in the 16th-17th centuries; names of archery regiments in the XVI-XVII centuries.

Ascribed peasants- in Russia in the 17th - first half of the 19th centuries. state, palace peasants, who, instead of paying the poll tax, worked at state and private factories, i.e., attached (assigned) to them.

Provinces- administrative-territorial units in Russia in 1719-1775. as part of the province, were divided into shares and districts.

food detachment(food detachment) - during the period of war communism, an armed detachment that participated in the food requisition. The food detachments consisted mainly of workers, soldiers and sailors.

Prodrazverstka(food distribution) - the system of procurement of agricultural products in the Soviet state in 1919-1921, an element of the policy of "war communism": the obligatory delivery by the peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surpluses (in excess of the established norms for personal and household needs) of bread and other products. With the introduction of the New Economic Policy (1921), it was replaced by a tax in kind.

Producing economy- type of economy, the purpose of which is the creation of material values.

industrial revolution- a leap in the development of productive forces associated with the transition from manufacture to machine production and the formation of the two main classes of the new capitalist society - the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

Enlightened absolutism- the name of the policy of the second half of the XVIII century. in Russia, aimed at the destruction and transformation of the most obsolete feudal institutions; depicted the activity of the monarch as a union of philosophers and sovereigns and was aimed at strengthening the dominance of the nobility.

Protectorate- one of the forms of dependence of economically and politically weak states on large ones; a country that has received the state legal status of a protectorate from a protector country (“patron”) transfers to the protector state the right to determine its foreign policy and represent it in foreign relations. The protectorate was usually established as a result of unequal treaties imposed on a weak state, which led to the complete or partial deprivation of this state of independence not only in external, but also in internal affairs.

Protectionism- state policy of protecting the domestic market from foreigners by strengthening exports and restricting imports, high customs duties and a number of other measures.

Putsch- the actions of a group of conspirators to carry out a coup d'état.

glad- the council of the highest nobility under the Grand Duke of Lithuania, as well as the national assembly in Lithuania and Poland.

Raznochintsy- in Russia at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. inter-class category of the population, people from different classes (legally, this category was not formalized).

Split- a socio-religious movement that arose in the middle of the 17th century, as a result of which a part of the believers separated from the Russian Orthodox Church, who did not recognize the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon (1653-1656) and broke with the official church.

Dissenters- the official name of the supporters of the Old Believers in Russia.

Ratification- approval by the supreme body of state power of an international treaty signed by an authorized representative of the state, as well as international conventions.

Rat- Russian army.

Rehabilitation- restoration of rights, the return of a good name, the reputation of an incorrectly accused, defamed person.

Reaction- active resistance in politics to the development of social progress in order to preserve and strengthen obsolete social orders.

Revolution- deep, qualitative changes in society, the economy, worldview, science, culture, etc. Social revolution is the most acute form of struggle between new and old, obsolete social relations during sharply aggravated political processes, when the type of power changes, the winners come to leadership revolutionary forces, new socio-economic foundations of society are being established.

Regency- in monarchical states, temporary collegiate (regency council) or sole (regent) exercise of the powers of the head of state in the event of infancy, illness, incapacity of the monarch.

Redoubt- field fortification, a place surrounded by a moat and a rampart.

Residence- residence of a high-ranking person.

Requisition- compulsory, gratuitous seizure of property into the ownership or temporary use of the state.

Recruitment duty- a method of manning the Russian regular army in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Recruitment duty was subject to tax-paying estates (peasants, burghers, etc.), who nominated a certain number of recruits from their communities. In 1874, it was replaced by universal military service.

Craft- production of various goods by artisans - craftsmen.

Reparations Compensation by the defeated state for damage to the victorious state.

Repression(political) - punishment, punitive measure applied by state bodies in order to protect and preserve the existing system. Any political repression is a manifestation of political violence; an important element of control under totalitarian and authoritarian regimes.

Republic- a form of government in which the supreme power belongs to the representatives elected by the population.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth- the traditional name of the Polish state since the end of the 15th century. A special form of estate monarchy headed by an elected king (since the Union of Lublin in 1569, which finally united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, until 1795), the official name of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

tribal community- settlement of people connected with each other by blood ties and leading a joint economy on the basis of collective property.

Russification- the forcible introduction of the Russian language, Russian traditions in the national outskirts of Russia.

Russophobia- a contemptuous attitude towards the Russian people, its history, culture.

"Russian Truth"- the first written code of laws in Kievan Rus.

Row- treaty, agreement in Ancient Russia.

Ryadovichi- in Ancient Russia, persons who served the landowners under a number (contract), as a rule, became dependent on him for a monetary debt, help with seeds or tools, forced to work part of their time with the master; close to buying.

Autocracy- an unlimited monarchical form of government of the power of the Russian tsar (emperor), which finally took shape by the beginning of the 18th century.

Secret Committees in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. temporary state institutions created in the reign of Nicholas I to discuss projects of various reforms, and in 1857-1858. - projects for the abolition of serfdom.

Secularization- the transformation of church property into state property.

Seven Boyars- the government of Russia after the overthrow of V. Shuisky in 1610

Separate peace- a peace treaty or a truce concluded with the enemy by one of the states that are part of a coalition of countries waging war, without the knowledge or consent of their allies.

Symbolism- philosophical concepts built on the basis of the interpretation of the concept of a symbol as the fundamental principle of the connection between being, thinking, personality and culture. In a narrow sense, the aesthetic direction and artistic style in European culture from the 1880s to the 1920s.

Synod- the highest state governing body, created by Peter I in 1721, united the highest church hierarchs, headed by a civil official appointed by the emperor (chief prosecutor), was in charge of the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church: he was engaged in the interpretation of religious dogmas, supervision of observance of rituals, issues of spiritual censorship and enlightenment, fought against "heretics" and "schismatics".

Slavophiles- representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, substantiated and approved a special path of the historical development of Russia, different from Western Europe. Slavophile leaders: S. Khomyakov, I. V. Kireevsky, P. V. Kireevsky, K. S. Aksakov, I. S. Aksakov, Yu. F. Samarin, A. I. Koshelev. Western culture was criticized for the ideas of individualism, the contractual nature of social relations, the imperfection of the regulation of social life, the departure from the true faith (Orthodoxy).

Sloboda- type of settlements in feudal Russia, the first mentions date back to the 9th century; in the XII - 1st half of the XIV century. Settlements - individual settlements, including those near a fortress city, or a group of settlements, sometimes a whole district, whose inhabitants were exempted from taxes and duties imposed on the taxable population.

Service people- in the Russian state of the XIV-XVIII centuries. persons in public service. From the middle of the XVI century. were divided into service people according to the “fatherland” (boyars, nobles, boyar children), who owned land with the peasants, who had legal privileges, who held senior positions in the army and government, and service people according to the “device” (archers, gunners, city Cossacks and etc.) from peasants and townspeople who received monetary and grain salaries, and were exempted from state taxes and duties.

Smenovekhovism- a socio-political trend among the Russian bourgeois intelligentsia in 1920-1922, which meant the turn of a certain part of the intelligentsia from the struggle against Soviet power to its actual recognition. The ideologists of Smenovekhism counted on the rebirth of Soviet power under the NEP.

Smerdy- communal peasants in Ancient Russia (free, then personally dependent).

Troubles/Time of Troubles(the term was introduced by the writer G.K. Kotoshikhin in the middle of the 17th century) - the period from 1598 (the year of the death of Fedor Ivanovich) to 1613 (the election of Mikhail Fedorovich by the Zemsky Sobor), marked by natural disasters, the Polish-Swedish intervention, the most difficult political , economic, state and social crisis.

Tips- elective political organizations that arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. as Soviets of Workers' Deputies, Soviets of Peasants' Deputies, Soviets of Soldiers' (Sailors') Deputies. In the February Revolution of 1917, there were Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which in 1918 merged with the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies.

Neighborhood (territorial) community- settlement of people who are not related by blood relations, based on the community of economic interests and jointly owning land, but leading an individual economy.

estate- a group of people with the same rights and duties, inherited.

estate monarchy- a form of state in which the power of the monarch was combined with the bodies of estate representation of the nobility, clergy, townspeople. Estate monarchy preceded absolutism.

hundreds- merchant associations (corporations).

sokha- a unit of taxation in Russia in the XIII-XVII centuries, from which the state land tax was collected - per field. Initially, it was measured by the number of labor force. From the middle of the XVI century. The "big plow" consisted of one or another number of quarters of the earth (soshnoe letter). In 1679, the field tax was replaced by a household tax.

Elder- the elected head of the community, who ensured order and fair distribution within the clan or tribe.

Old Believers- a set of religious groups and churches in Russia that did not accept the church reforms of the 17th century. and become oppositional or hostile to the official Orthodox Church.

Warden- in the XVI - early XX century. an elected official to lead small administrative-territorial units or public groups (headman of a labial, rural, artel, etc.).

Warden of the mouth- an elective position introduced by Ivan III in order to limit the powers of governors - feeders. The functions of the labial warden are the protection of public order, legal proceedings in criminal cases.

Headman Zemsky- an elective position introduced by Ivan IV in 1555 instead of governors - feeders in order to eliminate the centers of princely separatism and strengthen the central government. The main functions of the zemstvo head: tax collection, criminal proceedings. Under the zemstvo headman, there was a staff of assistants, as well as kissers.

Strategy- a part of military art dealing with the preparation, planning and conduct of war.

archers- in the 16th - early 18th centuries. - a standing army armed with firearms. Created in 1540-1560. based on squeaker squads.

Sudebnik- the name of the code of laws in the XV-XVI centuries.

"Table of Ranks"- the law on the order of public service, finally approved by Peter I in 1724. The "Table of Ranks" unified and systematized the administrative service on the principle of not origin, nobility of the family, but serviceworthiness, merit.

Tactics- part of military art, strategy; the art of commanding troops in battle.

customs duty(duty) - a fee collected by the state for the transportation of foreign goods across the border.

Shadow economy- a term denoting all types of economic activity that are not taken into account by official statistics and are not included in the GNP (gross national product).

Terror- violent actions with the aim of intimidating, suppressing political opponents, competitors, imposing a certain line of behavior.

Tiun- a servant who managed the boyar or princely household.

TOZ- partnership for joint cultivation of the land, a form of agricultural cooperation in the 1920s; reorganized into collective farms.

Totalitarianism- a political regime striving for complete (total) control of the state over all aspects of society; a form of relationship between society and power, in which political power takes society under complete (total) control, forming a single whole with it, completely controlling all aspects of human life

Three fields- a farming system in medieval Russia, when arable land was divided into three plots, of which only one was sown annually (in turn), and the other two remained untouched in order to restore soil fertility.

Trizna- part of the funeral rite among the Eastern Slavs of the pagan period (until the 11th century), accompanied by war games, dances, songs, feast. After Christianization, it was preserved in the form of funeral songs and a feast.

Tushino camp- the residence of False Dmitry II, the "betrothed patriarch" Filaret, located in the village of Tushino near Moscow in 1608-1610.

Tysyatsky- in Novgorod he was the closest assistant to the posadnik, he was in charge of trade and taxes. He is also the elected head of the city militia.

"One thousand"- city militia.

tax- the totality of all monetary and natural duties of peasants and townspeople in favor of the state, hence the "hard peasants" - "black-haired" and privately owned, who paid state taxes and carried duties in favor of the state (participation in various public works).

lot- land, part of the state, which the prince allocated to his sons or relatives.

Specific period- the era of fragmentation, when the possessions of the princes began to separate from a single state.

Counties- territorial units of the Russian state of the XVI century.

Laid commission- a temporary collegial body convened by Catherine II with the aim of creating a new Code (code of laws) 1767-1768.

unitary state- a form of government in which the territory of the state does not include federal units (states, lands), but is subdivided into administrative-territorial units (districts, regions).

Union- the unification of two monarchical states by a common monarch or the unification of churches.

Lessons- the amount of taxation (tribute) introduced by Princess Olga.

Lesson summers- in the XVI-XVII centuries. terms (5 and 15 years) during which the landowners could bring a claim for the return of fugitive serfs. The "Council Code" of 1649 established an indefinite investigation, which meant the legal registration of serfdom.

strife(civil strife) - wars between princes for the grand princely throne.

Acceleration of social and economic development- an attempt to bring the country out of the systemic crisis and correct the country's economic situation. The main acceleration factors were to be scientific and technological progress, the technical re-equipment of mechanical engineering, and on this basis the entire national economy, and also the activation of the "human factor".

constituent Assembly- a representative institution created on the basis of universal suffrage to establish the form of government and develop the constitution of Russia.

Favorite- a person who enjoys the favor of the ruler (influential person), who has received privileges and exerts influence.

Favoritism- Orders in which everything is determined by the influence of favorite favorites. In Russia, the flowering of favoritism is observed in the era of palace coups (1725-1762).

Fascism- the most reactionary political trend that arose in the capitalist countries (Italy, Germany) in 1920-1930. The policy of fascism is characterized by: terrorist dictatorship, the use of extreme forms of violence, chauvinism, racism, anti-communist ideology, the elimination of democratic freedoms, the use of state-monopoly methods of regulating the economy. In the late 1930s distributed in Portugal, Spain and several Eastern European countries.

Federation- a form of government in which the state forms federal units - subjects. In the Russian Federation, according to the Constitution of 1993, the subjects (89 units of the federation) are the republics within Russia, territories, regions, cities of federal significance (Moscow, St. Petersburg), autonomous regions and autonomous districts.

feud- hereditary possession, granted by the prince-seigneur to his vassal, who is obliged to carry out court, military service for this.

Feudal lord- the owner of the feud, the landowner who exploited the peasants dependent on him.

Feudal fragmentation- a period in the history of feudalism, a natural process of separating individual lands led by princes claiming political independence, during which the power of the supreme ruler was significantly weakened.

feudal rent- one of the forms of land rent. It existed in the form of labor (corvee labor), grocery (natural dues) and money. It was finally abolished in 1881.

Fiscal- in 1711-1729. civil servant to supervise the activities of government agencies and officials.

Fusee- flintlock gun

Futurism- a trend in literature and art of the early 20th century, which sought to create an "art of the future" that denied traditional culture.

"Journey to the People"- mass movement of democratic youth to the countryside in Russia in the 1870s. The slogan "To the people!" put forward by A. I. Herzen in connection with the student unrest of 1861. In 1860 - early 1870s. attempts to rapprochement with the people and revolutionary propaganda among them were made by members of the Land and Freedom, the Ishutin circle, the Ruble Society, and Dolgushinites.

cost accounting(economic accounting) - a method of planned economic management in the USSR, which consisted in comparing the costs of production with the results of economic activity on the basis of self-sufficiency (costs are reimbursed by income), self-financing, self-government.

"Cold War"— the state of military-political confrontation between the USSR and its allies, on the one hand, and the United States and its allies, on the other, in the period from 1946 to 1991. Signs of the Cold War: an arms race, the organization of opposing military political blocs, the creation of military-strategic bases and footholds, the widespread use of economic pressure measures (embargo, economic blockade, etc.).

Tsar- in Russia in 1547-1721. the official title of the head of state.

Tselovalniki- an elective position in the Russian state at the end of the 15th-18th centuries, which participates in the court of governors and volostels. There were three types of kissers: 1) customs and taverns at the heads, 2) labials at the labial elders, 3) zemstvos at the zemstvo elders. As a result of the Peter's reforms, the province and zemstvo institutions were liquidated, and in 1754 - internal customs taxation. Only the tavern kissers remain. Later, sellers of state-owned wine shops were called kissers.

centralized state- a state in which political (gathering together lands with common legislation and central government bodies) and economic (creating a single market) unification around a strong central government takes place. There is a narrowing of the powers of local authorities, their strict subordination to the central ones. In Russia, the process of forming a centralized state begins in the second half of the 15th century. and ends at the end of the 17th century.

petition- request, complaint, denunciation in writing (clerical work of the 15th - early 18th centuries).

Servants domestic: women, children, servants, slaves.

"Human factor"- a specific designation of the functioning of a person in the system of social, economic, industrial, scientific and technical, organizational and managerial and other relations; everything that relates to a person as a subject of activity in various spheres of public life. During the period of perestroika, the successful solution of the tasks of the country's socio-economic development, the qualitative renewal of society is associated with an increase in the role of the "human factor" as an inexhaustible reserve of such development, a decisive factor in all changes.

Striped stripes- a system of peasant use of landlords' land, in which the peasant allotment was not concentrated in one place, but consisted of strips remote from each other. It was liquidated as a result of agrarian reforms (1906-1911).

Black Hundreds(black hundred) - 1) In Muscovite Russia - part of the urban population, which included small merchants and industrialists who were not included in the highest ranks (hundreds) of the merchant class (i.e., in trading, cloth, etc.). 2) Extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1907, consisting of different strata of society (from the lumpen to the nobles) and speaking from the positions of monarchism and anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”), were aimed at fighting with the revolutionary movement, carried out Jewish pogroms, dispersed rallies and demonstrations.

Black-nose peasants- personally free peasants, owned by the state.

black lands- Possessions of black-mowed peasants and taxed urban population in the XIV-XVII centuries. From the beginning of the XVIII century. began to be called "state" (state) lands.

"Black" people- the general name of the urban and rural population in the XII-XVII centuries, who carried the tax in favor of the state.

"Black redistribution"- an organization of populists that arose in St. Petersburg after the split of the "Land and Freedom" (1879). They advocated an egalitarian division of land among the peasants according to the labor norm, for communal socialism; denied the tactics of terror, leaned towards propaganda. Leaders: G. V. Plekhanov, P. B. Axelrod, V. I. Zasulich.

Serif features- a system of defensive structures on the southern and southeastern outskirts of the Russian state in the 16th-17th centuries. to repel the raids of the Nogai and Crimean Tatars. Consisted of notches, ramparts, ditches and palisades. They had strongholds - forts and fortified cities. In the XVIII century. fortified border lines were formed.

Number- the system of taxation in the XIII-XV centuries. in the territories subject to the Mongolian state and the Golden Horde (China, Central Asia, Iran, North-Eastern Russia, etc.). Based on a census (calculus, "number") of the population. Taxes were levied without exception, in proportion to the property of the payer.

Extraordinary commissions(Cheka) - commissions to combat counter-revolution, sabotage and speculation (1918-1922), were local bodies (provincial, district, transport, army), subordinate to the Cheka (All-Russian Emergency Committee). The main methods of struggle: confiscation of property, expulsion from Russia, withdrawal of food cards, judicial repression, etc.

Chauvinism- a policy consisting in the preaching of national exceptionalism. Expresses false patriotism and excessive national pride.

Evacuation- the withdrawal of troops, military property, enterprises, institutions from places under threat during the war, natural disasters or from areas intended for economic transformation.

Eclecticism- in art, the combination of incompatible, various alien phenomena in one artistic image.

Extensive- directed not in depth, but in breadth. The term means an increase, an expansion quantitative, not qualitative.

Ethnos- a historically emerged type of stable social community of people, represented by a tribe, nationality, nation.

Ethnogenesis- the process of the formation of an ethnic community (ethnos) on the basis of various ethnic components.

Yuriev day- a single period (a week before November 26 and a week after) the transition of peasants from one owner to another, established by the Sudebnik of 1497.

language family- association of related languages.

Paganism- religious beliefs, which are characterized by polytheism (polytheism) and the deification of objects and animals (fetishism and totemism).

Label- Khan's charter for reigning, giving the right to Russian princes to rule in their lands. It is also a khan's letter to church hierarchs for certain rights.

Fair— auctions organized periodically (1-2 times a year) in one established place.

Yasak- a tax in kind from the peoples of the North and Siberia, consisted mainly of furs, so the population (the so-called foreigners), subject to such a tax, was called "yasak" people. In the 17th century they became personally free.


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