Lexicology as part of the science of language. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics: the object and subject of research, the main issues of lexicology. Reasons for the transition of words to the passive stock of the language

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language. Vocabulary is the most fluid part of a language. Any changes in the life of a people - a native speaker are immediately reflected in the vocabulary. So, in connection with the changes that have occurred in our life over the past few years, such words as "management", "hot dog", "voucherization", "yogurt" have appeared in the Russian language.

Words that have recently appeared in the language are called neologisms. Some linguists define neologisms as words that have arisen from the memory of the generation that uses them. In other words, the word remains a neologism, as long as people are alive who remember the time when this word did not exist. Neologisms are especially active in the years of active changes in the life of society. So, for example, a huge number of new words entered the Russian language in the 20s of the twentieth century - in the period immediately following the October Revolution.

Occasionalisms should be distinguished from neologisms. Occasionalisms are words that were created by the author of a work of art and did not go beyond the scope of this work, which did not receive use outside of it. Occasionalisms are especially abundant in the poetry of the twentieth century. So, in Andrei Voznesensky we meet "displayboy" (display + playboy), chills (getting cold + cold), cabarens (wild boar + young lady):

Kabaris flutter between the candlesticks,
Their hooves are tender as snowdrops.

The opposite of neologisms are words that have fallen out of active use - historicisms and archaisms. Historicisms are words that have fallen out of active use due to the fact that the realities indicated by these words have disappeared from our lives. Examples of historicisms are: "boyar", "caftan", "shooter", "chain mail"; English: helm (helmet), lance - knight (spearman, landsknecht), tumbrel (two-wheeled cart).

Archaisms are words that have gone out of use due to the fact that the realities previously designated by them have received new names. Examples of archaisms are the words "yahont" (ruby), "sail" (sail), "bribe" (bribe), "clerk" (seller), "in vain" (in vain), "right hand" (right); English: teen (misfortune - "misfortune, misfortune"), grandsire (ancestor - "ancestor"), and many others. dr.

Among archaisms, we find words of all significant parts of speech (with the exception, perhaps, of numerals), and historicisms are almost exclusively nouns. This is due to the fact that first of all objects go out of use, while signs and actions (phenomena denoted by adjectives and verbs), as a rule, do not disappear. If the reason for the appearance of historicisms in the language is easily explainable - it lies in the changes that are taking place in the life of society, then it is much more difficult to explain the origin of archaisms. No one can say why, at a certain period in the development of the Russian language, the original word "eye" was replaced by the word "eye".

There are times when a word from neologisms almost immediately passes into the number of outdated vocabulary. So, for example, happened with the abbreviation "shkrab" (school worker), which in the first years of Soviet power tried to replace the word "teacher". Having existed for several years, this abbreviation fell out of use, remaining a linguistic sign of the era of revolutionary transformations.

It also happens the other way around: a word that seems to have firmly passed into the category of obsolete, returns to active life. So, for example, the noun "bailiff" for the Soviet era was undoubted historicism, since this position disappeared in our country immediately after the revolution of 1917, but it has been almost ten years since the institution of bailiffs has been restored in Russia, and this word itself has returned to the mainstream. vocabulary fund of the Russian language.

A.Yu. Garbage. Fundamentals of the Science of Language - Novosibirsk, 2004

The structure of the vocabulary is considered in two aspects: the systemic relations between lexical units and the stratification of the vocabulary. Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language as a system of systems. The groups of words that form a system can differ in volume, in what lies at the basis of their generality (form or content), in the degree of similarity of the forms or meanings of lexical units, in the characteristics of relations (paradigmatic or syntagmatic) between lexical units. The minimal groupings of individual lexical units, based on the similarity of form, form homonyms (see Homonymy) or paronyms (with incomplete similarity; see Paronymy); when relying on the content, groupings of words are distinguished based on conceptual logical relations or paradigmatic type - equivalence (synonyms), opposition (antonyms, conversions: "give" - ​​"receive"), juxtaposition (semantic series: "pine" - "birch" - "Oak", "warm" - "hot"), inclusions (hyper-hyponymic relations: "tree" - "birch"; see Hyponymy), or syntagmatic type (object - sign, part - whole, etc.) ...

Lexicology also explores larger groupings of words - fields, which are also formed on the basis of form (for example, a nest of words) or content and are built on the basis of paradigmatic or syntagmatic relations. The totality of paradigmatic and syntagmatic fields forms a thematic field that reflects a certain sphere of extra-linguistic reality (for example, means of transport, animal husbandry, art, etc.). When taking into account the form and content (polysemy, synonymy, word-formation connections, etc.), not a single part of the vocabulary is isolated, relations are established between any lexical units.

The lexical composition of the language is heterogeneous and stratified. It distinguishes categories of lexical units for various reasons: according to the sphere of use - common (interstyle) and stylistically marked vocabulary, used in certain conditions and spheres of communication (poetic, colloquial, scientific, professional vocabulary, vernacular, argotisms, regionalisms, dialectisms); in connection with the study of variants of literary languages ​​- their specific vocabulary; for emotional coloring - neutral and emotionally colored (expressive) vocabulary; from a historical perspective - neologisms, archaisms (see Obsolete words); by the origin of words or the realities they denote - borrowings, xenisms (designations of other people's realities), barbarism, internationalism; in relation to the language system and functioning - active and passive vocabulary, potential words, occasionalisms. The lexical system is the least rigid of all the subsystems of the language, the boundaries between the groupings of words are fuzzy, the same word can, in different meanings and uses, refer to different categories of lexical units.

When studying vocabulary in its functioning, the following problems are considered: frequency of vocabulary in texts; vocabulary in speech, in the text, its nominative function, contextual shifts in meanings and features of use (many of the lexicological categories are refracted in a peculiar way in speech, in connection with which they distinguish between linguistic and speech synonyms, antonyms; lexical polysemy and homonymy in speech is usually eliminated or takes the form puns or semantic syncretism); the compatibility of words, which is considered at the semantic levels (compatibility of the concepts denoted by these lexical units: "stone house", "fish swims") and lexical (compatibility of lexemes: "give a lecture", but "make a report"). There are free and connected combinations, and within the latter - idiomatic, which is the subject of the study of phraseology.

Lexicology examines the ways of replenishing and developing the vocabulary of the language, distinguishing 4 ways of creating nominations, three of which are based on the use of internal resources of the language - the creation of new words (see Word formation), the formation of new meanings (polysemy, transfer of meanings, and the patterns of filiation of meanings are studied) , the formation of word combinations, and the fourth - on attracting the resources of other languages ​​- borrowings (lexical borrowings and tracing papers). The factors and forms of integration of borrowed words are investigated.

An important aspect of lexicology is the study of words in their relation to reality, since it is in words, in their meanings that the life experience of a collective in a certain era is directly fixed. In this regard, such problems as vocabulary and culture, the problem of linguistic relativity (the influence of vocabulary on the “vision of the world”), linguistic and extralinguistic components in the meaning of a word, background vocabulary, etc. are considered.

There are general, specific, historical, comparative and applied lexicology. General lexicology establishes general patterns of structure, functioning and development of vocabulary, private lexicology examines the vocabulary of one language.

Historical lexicology examines the history of words in connection with the history of objects, concepts, institutions designated by them. Historical lexicology data are widely used in historical science. Historical lexicology provides a description of the dynamics of the vocabulary (or part of it) or a static description of a slice of the historical state of the language. The subject of research can be a single word or a lexical system (conceptual field), the history of words as such, or the forms of semantic changes (for example, a narrowing of meaning), processes in the semantic structure of words (for example, the study of the development of words with an abstract meaning, the process of synonymization, the emergence of proper names etc.). In its direction, historical and lexicological research can be semasiological (changes in the meanings of words or groups of words are studied) or onomasiological (changing the method of naming an object). In view of the systemic relations within the lexicon, when studying a group of words, both aspects are present at the same time, since the study of changes in the meaning of one word is impossible without studying the evolution of the designation of a concept common to a group of words.

Comparative lexicology examines the vocabulary in order to identify the genetic relationship of languages, structural and semantic similarities and differences between them (regardless of relationship), or in order to derive common lexicological (more often semantic) patterns. Matching can concern any aspect of the vocabulary. Individual words can be compared, but of greater importance is the comparison of groups of words (or fields), for example, verbs of motion, terms of kinship, etc., which shows how the designation field (objective reality) is differently segmented by lexical means of different languages, which aspects of objects are recorded in the meanings of words in different languages. Of great interest for comparative lexicology is the comparison of the functioning of broad lexicological categories in two languages: synonymy, antonymy, types of polysemy, phraseology, the ratio in the meaning of general and particular words, logical and emotional, etc. The data of comparative lexicology are widely used in applied sections of linguistics ( lexicography, translation), as well as in ethnography.

Applied lexicology covers mainly 4 areas: lexicography, translation, linguopedagogy and speech culture. Each of these areas enriches the theory of lexicology. For example, lexicography encourages to deepen the problem of the meaning of a word, improve its description, highlighting meanings, study compatibility, etc. Translation provides a great deal of material for comparative lexicology, word problems in teaching a native and non-native language sharpen a number of general scientific issues (word and context, collocation, synonymy - word choice, vocabulary and culture). At the same time, each of them uses the provisions and conclusions of lexicology, however, lexicological categories receive specific refractions in them; for example, the problems of highlighting the meanings of a word, phraseology in lexicography are solved in different ways depending on the type of dictionary.

Lexicology uses general linguistic research methods (see. Method in linguistics). The most commonly used methods are: distributive (determining the boundaries of a word, its morphological structure, differentiating meanings, etc.), substitutions (studying synonymy, word meanings), component-positive (determining the structure of the meaning of lexical units, the semantic structure of a word as a whole, analyzing semantic fields, changing the meanings of lexical units, updating the value of a unit in the context), transformational (in word formation, when identifying the semantic load of a word in a context by folding or expanding syntactic structures, when determining the meaning of a lexical unit). Quantitative-statistical methods are added to the qualitative methods (determining the frequency of a lexical unit, its syntagmatic connections, etc.; see Quantitative methods in linguistics).

These lexicology are used in many related disciplines: psycholinguistics (the study of word associations, etc.), neurolinguistics (types of aphasia), sociolinguistics (the study of the linguistic behavior of a group), etc. Some aspects and types of lexical units are studied in special sections of linguistics (see Onomastics, Phraseology, Culture of speech, Stylistics, Word formation, etc.).

[History of lexicology]

Lexicology emerged as a separate branch of linguistics later than some others, such as grammar. Even in the 20th century. some early trends in structuralism denied the need to isolate lexicology, either on the grounds that vocabulary was allegedly poorly structured, or because linguistics should not be concerned with semantics at all, which is the core of lexicology (L. Bloomfield's school).

A number of problems of lexicology were discussed long before its formation as a special branch of linguistics. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, questions of semantics and word structure were considered. Ancient rhetoric also paid attention to the artistic function of the word. The development of lexicography in Europe in the 16-18 centuries. stimulated the development of lexicology. In the prefaces to explanatory dictionaries (for example, the Dictionary of the French Academy, 1694, the English dictionary of S. Johnson, 1755), a number of lexicological categories were noted (synonymy, collocation, primary and derived words, etc.). The term "lexicology" was first introduced by the French encyclopedia of D. Diderot and J.L. D'Alembert in 1765, where lexicology is defined as one of two (along with syntax) sections of the teaching of language. The authors saw the task of lexicology in the study of words outside their specific use in speech, in the study of the general principles of the organization of the vocabulary of the language. They distinguished in lexicology the study of the external form, meanings and etymology of words (by which word formation was also understood). In treatises on the style of the 18th century. the ways of forming figurative meanings of words were outlined in more detail. The first works on comparative historical linguistics (RK Rask, F. Bopp) laid the foundations of comparative lexicology. In the 19th century. The main area of ​​lexicological research in Europe was semantics: the internal form of the word (W. von Humboldt), the general patterns of the formation and evolution of word meanings (A. Dharmsteter, G. Paul) were studied, historical lexicology was greatly developed. The achievements of semasiology were generalized and developed in the work of M. Breal (1897), where semasiology appeared as a special section of the science of language. Lasted into the 20th century. the development of semasiology was aimed, on the one hand, at identifying the general semantic laws of the evolution of word meanings with the involvement of data from logic or psychology (E. Cassirer, H. Cronasser, S. Ullman, G. Stern and others), which subsequently led to the development of semantic universals , on the other hand, on the study of the history of words in connection with the history of objects (the school of Words and Things, characteristic, in particular, of dialectology). The onomasiological direction in lexicology, which contributed to the study of word groups, was described in the book by B. Cuadri (1952).

The idea of ​​the consistency of linguistic phenomena, more and more penetrating into lexicology, was reflected primarily in the theory of lexical fields, built on paradigmatic (J. Trier) and syntagmatic (W. Porzig) principles. Completion of field theory is the thesaurus representation of the organization of the dictionary (C. Bally, R. Hallig, W. von Wartburg). The problem of the general theory of the word as a unit of language was developed, discussions continued regarding the distinguishability of the word and its criteria (Bally, A. Martinet, J. H. Greenberg and others), its semantics (C. K. Ogden, A. Richards, K. Baldinger) ... The study of the correlation of vocabulary with the non-linguistic world, the history of words in the history of society (P. Lafargue; French sociological school: A. Meillet, E. Benveniste, J. Matore, M. Cohen), vocabulary and structure of consciousness of speakers (E. Sapir , B. Wharf, L. Weisgerber). Linguists of the Prague school have identified functional differentiation of vocabulary.

[Lexicology in Russia and the USSR]

Soviet linguists, proceeding from the position that the word is the basic unit of language, made a great contribution to the general theory of the word, to the definition of its boundaries, its relationship with the concept (A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherba, Vinogradov, A. I. Smirnitsky, R. O. Shor, S. D. Katsnelson, O. S. Akhmanova, Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky); special attention is paid to the semantic aspect of the word (L. A. Bulakhovsky, V. A. Zvegintsev, D. N. Shmelev, B. Yu. Gorodetsky, A. E. Suprun and others). The achievement of Soviet lexicology is the development of a typology of word meanings (Vinogradov), the doctrine of lexical and semantic variants of a word (Smirnitsky), and an intermediate link in the development of word meanings (Budagov). Thanks to these studies, the problem of word polysemy received a reliable theoretical basis,

Exploring the word as a unit of language and the vocabulary in its synchronicity, Soviet linguists conduct research in the field of etymology (ON Trubachev), historical lexicology (Filin), and the history of the vocabulary of the literary language (Yu.S. Sorokin). There are numerous monographic studies on many categories of lexicology: synonymy, antonymy, internationalism, terminology, phraseological units, etc. Exploring all layers and aspects of the vocabulary of different languages, Soviet linguists in the 70-80s. special attention is paid to the problems of vocabulary consistency, including lexical paradigmatics (Shmelev, A.A. Ufimtseva, Yu.N. Karaulov), lexical semantics in connection with the general theory of nomination and reference, the interaction of vocabulary with other levels of language, primarily with syntax (Y.D. Apresyan), psycholinguistic aspects of vocabulary (study of lexical associations, etc.), comparative study of vocabulary of different languages ​​(Budagov, V.G. Gak). Of great practical and theoretical importance is the study of interaction in the vocabulary of the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR (Yu. D. Desheriev, IF Protchenko). The methodology of lexicological research is being actively developed (M. D. Stepanova, N. I. Tolstoy, E. M. Mednikova and others).

• Smirnitsky A.I., Lexicology of the English language, M., 1956;
• Akhmanova OS, Essays on general and Russian lexicology, M., 1957;
• Zvegintsev V.A., Semasiology, M., 1957;
• Budagov RA, Comparative semasiological studies. (Romance languages), M., 1963;
• Katsnelson S. D., Content of the word, meaning and designation, M.-L., 1965;
• Stepanova M. D., Methods of synchronous analysis of vocabulary, M., 1968;
• Weinreich U., On the semantic structure of language, trans. from English, in the book: "New in linguistics", v. 5, M., 1970;
• Makovsky M. M., Theory of lexical attraction, M., 1971;
• Shansky N. M., Lexicology of the modern Russian language, 2nd ed., M., 1972;
• Doroshevsky V., Elements of lexicology and semiotics, M., 1973;
• Apresyan Yu. D., Lexical semantics, M., 1974;
• Stepanova M. D., Chernysheva I.I., Lexicology of the modern German language, M., 1975;
• Karaulov Yu. N., General and Russian ideography, M., 1976;
• Vinogradov V.V., Selected works, t. 3, Lexicology and lexicography, M., 1977;
• Hack V.G., Comparative lexicology, M., 1977;
• Lopatnikova N. N., Movshovich NA, Lexicology of modern French, M., 1982;
• Quadri B., Aufgaben und Methoden der onomasiologischen Forschung, Bern, 1952;
• Ullman S., The principles of semantics, 2nd ed., Glasgow-L.-Oxf., 1959;
• Weinreich U., Lexicology, "Current Trends in Linguistics", The Hague, 1963, v. one;
• Rey A., La lexicologie. Lectures, P., 1970;
• Lyons J., Semantics, v. 1-2 Camb. 1977;
• see also literature under articles

Lexicology is a section of the science of language that studies the vocabulary, vocabulary of the language.

The problem of the word as the basic unit of language is studied in the general theory of the word. The category of lexical units includes (the main lexical unit is a word):

single words (whole-formed units)

stable phrases (analytical, or compound, units).

Since a word is a unit characterized by the correlation of form and content, the problem of the word as a unit of language is considered in three aspects:

Structural aspect (highlighting a word, its construction). In this aspect, the main task of the lexicological theory of the word is to establish criteria for its separateness and identity (2, p. 38).

In the first case, the word is compared with a phrase, the signs of its integral form and separateness are revealed, the problem of the analytical form of the word is developed;

In the second case, we are talking about establishing the invariant of the word that underlies both its grammatical forms (in this regard, the category of word forms is determined), and its variants - phonetic, morphological, lexico-semantic (in this regard, the problem of the word variant is being developed).

Semantic aspect (lexical meaning of the word). Semantic analysis of lexical units is the subject of study of lexical semantics, semasiology, which investigates the correlation of a word with the concept expressed by it (significatum) and the object (denotatum) designated by it in speech. Lexicology studies the semantic types of words, highlighting lexicological categories that reflect the semantic features of lexical units (2, p. 75):

monosemy and polysemy;

general and special;

abstract and concrete;

wide and narrow (hyperonym and hyponym);

logical and expressive;

direct and figurative meanings of lexical units.

Particular attention is paid to:

semantic structure of a polysemantic lexical unit;

identifying the types of meanings of words and criteria for their differentiation;

ways of changing and developing the meaning of words.

The phenomenon of desemantization is analyzed - the loss of a word of its lexical meaning and its transition into grammatical formants.

Functional aspect (the role of the word in the structure of language and speech). The word as a unit of language is viewed from the point of view

its role in the structure and functioning of the language as a whole;

its relationship with units of other levels.

The interaction of vocabulary and grammar is especially significant: vocabulary imposes restrictions on the use of grammatical categories, grammatical forms contribute to the differentiation of the meanings of words. Lexical and grammatical means with a common meaning form lexical and grammatical fields (expression of quantity, time, etc.).

When studying vocabulary in its functioning, the following problems are considered (6, p. 49):

frequency of vocabulary in texts

vocabulary in speech, in the text, its nominative function, contextual shifts in meanings and features of use (many of the lexicological categories are refracted in a peculiar way in speech, in connection with which they distinguish between linguistic and speech synonyms, antonyms; lexical polysemy and homonymy in speech is usually eliminated or takes the form puns melee semantic syncretism

combinability of words. Differ:

Free combinations;

Associated combinations (idiomatic ones differ internally, which is the subject of the study of phraseology).

Combination of words is considered at levels:

semantic (compatibility of concepts denoted by these lexical units: “stone house”, “fish swims”);

Lexicology explores the ways of replenishing and developing the vocabulary of the language, distinguishing four ways of creating nominations:

creation of new words;

the formation of new values ​​(polysemy, transfer of values, and the patterns of filiation of values ​​are studied);

the formation of phrases;

borrowings (lexical borrowings and tracing papers) (factors and forms of integration of borrowed words are investigated).

The first three methods are based on the use of the internal resources of the language, and the fourth - on the involvement of the resources of other languages.

An important aspect of lexicology is the study of words in their relation to reality, since it is in words, in their meanings that the life experience of a collective in a certain era is directly fixed. In this regard, the following problems are considered:

vocabulary and culture;

the problem of linguistic relativity (the influence of vocabulary on the “vision of the world”);

linguistic and extralinguistic components in the meaning of the word;

background vocabulary, etc.

Object and subject of lexicology

Units of the lexico-semantic system

Specificity of the lexical-semantic system

The main problems of lexicology

Sections of lexicology

Literature

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1. Object and subject of lexicology

Lexicology(Greek. lexis'word', lexikos'vocabulary', logos‘Learning, science’) - a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary language (vocabulary) in its state of the art and historical development.

Sections of linguistics that study different tiers of the language system actually have two objects:

unit the corresponding level, its nature and properties,

system of units, the relationship between these units.

Objects of lexicology- it

word as a lexical unit (LU),

vocabulary(vocabulary) as a set of words, organized in a certain way, structured.

The word is the subject of various linguistic disciplines. Each of them considers the word from a certain angle of view, i.e. with a common object has its own thing:

is studied in phonetics sound side the words,

in morphemics - structure the words,

word formation - ways of education words,

in morphology - grammatical forms and grammatical meanings the words,

in syntax - connection methods words and forms of words in phrases and sentences [FRYa, p. 165].

Word like grammatical unit Is a system of all its forms with their grammatical meanings; word like lexical unit, or unit of the dictionary, is a formally expressed system of all its lexical meanings [Russian grammar, p. 453].

In lexicology, the word is considered

in the aspect of its subject-conceptual content

and as a unit of the vocabulary of a language.

Word wing , for example, is of interest here

but as title:

the flying organ in birds, insects, and also some mammals;

the bearing plane of an aircraft or other moving vehicle;

a rotating blade of a windmill wheel;

tires over the wheel of a carriage, car, etc .;

side extension, wing;

extreme (right or left) part of the battle formation;

extreme (right or left) grouping of any organization.

b) how lexical unit, which is in a certain relationship with other lexical units, for example, as part of Class names of body parts of a bird together with words tail, beak etc.

Contrast grammatical forms of the word(word forms) in the same meaning ( wing, wing, wing ...) is an irrelevant for lexicology. This is the subject of grammar study.

On the contrary, the study of the similarities and differences of semantic variants of the same word in the entire system of their forms ( wing, wing, wing ...‘Flying organ’; wing, wing, wing ...‘Bearing plane’, etc.) is one of the most important tasks of lexicology [FRYa, p. 165].

However, when studying a word in lexicology, it is impossible to completely ignore grammar, since vocabulary and grammar are closely related.

1. Units of the lexico-semantic system

Word- a sound or a complex of sounds that has value and employee name objects and phenomena of reality [SRYASH, p. 165].

The definition contains iconic nature words and his function.

A word, as opposed to a phoneme, is sign:

it also has a material side - sound or spelling(phonographic shell),

and the perfect side is meaning.

The main function the words - nominative(lat. nominatio ‘Name, name’). Most words are called objects, their signs, quantity, actions, processes and are full-valued, independent.

Words name not only specific objects, but also concepts about these objects that arise in the minds of the speakers.

With the word correlate all language units:

phonemes and morphemes make up the structure of the word,

phrases and suggestions are composed of words.

This gives reason to some scientists to say that a word is central unit of language.

Since the word is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, the term word ambiguous and indefinite: they denote

and words like vocabulary units(language units);

and words like units of speech, text(words in specific meanings and specific grammatical forms).

E.g. in a sentence Man is a friend of man

three words in specific grammatical forms

and two words as dictionary units: Human and friend[Kodukhov, p. 184].

The word is called and unambiguous words, and individual meanings ambiguous words.

Lexicology uses clearer terms to refer to these different objects.

The most general term is lexical unit(LE)

Lexical unit Is a unit of the lexical level of the language that has bilateral character, grammatical form and performing nominative function.

Term lexical unit is an generic in relation to terms lexeme and lexico-semantic variant:

┌─────────┴─────────┐

lexeme lexico-semantic

Lexeme(Greek. lé xis ‘Word, expression’) is a unit of the lexical level of a language, which is a collection of all forms and meanings of one word[≈ LES, p. 257; ERYA, p. 207].

Those. lexeme is double-sided unit 1 :

lexeme = –––––––––––––––––––––––

expression plan

Term lexeme usually used only in relation to words significant parts of speech.

Lexical-semantic variant(LSV) - one of the lexical meanings of the lexeme, expressed by the phonographic shell.

Otherwise: LSV- a lexeme in one of its meanings. Those. LSV is also bilateral unit. LSV of one lexeme

differ in their lexical meanings (LZ)

and coincide in form (sound and graphic expression).

For example, sleeve –

the piece of clothing that covers the arm ( short sleeves);

a branch from the main river channel ( right arm of the Volga);

hose for supplying liquids, bulk or viscous substances, gases ( firehose).

All these meanings are related semantic productivity(native speakers are aware of the connection between these meanings), so word identity is not violated.

Lexeme is a system of interconnected LSV:

lexeme = LSV 1 + LSV 2 + LSV 3

If the word unequivocally, it is presented one LSV:

stomp'Noise, noises from kicks when walking'.

Term "Lexical unit" is also used in relation to token, and in relation to LSV if there is no need to differentiate them.

LE, lexeme and LSV are linguistic units, since represent set of meanings and forms.

V speeches these abstract units are implemented in specific units, since chosen every time one thing meaning and one form:

Dress with shortsleeves .

Specific implementation lexemes or LSV in speech (text) are called:

lex(a) (the term is not very common),

wordform- a word in a certain grammatical form (the term came from grammar),

word usage Is a relatively new term.

This article will focus on lexicology. What she studies, what she is, into which sections it is divided and what modes of action it has, we will consider right here.

Introduction

Lexicology is a linguistic section that studies vocabulary. We have learned what lexicology studies, and now we will get acquainted with its general and private parts. The latter is engaged in the study of the lexical composition of a particular language. This science has paid all its attention to:

• the word and the meaning it contains;
• word relationship system;
• historical facts through which vocabulary in the modern sense was formed;
• the existing difference of words in terms of functional and stylistic character in a variety of speech spheres.

Object and subject

The word serves as an object that lexicology studies. Another object of study is word formation and morphology. However, if in these sections of sciences the word is a means by which the grammatical structure and word-formation model, as well as language rules, are studied, then in the science of lexicology the word is studied in order to understand the meaning of the word itself and the linguistic vocabulary. She studies not individual linguistic units of oral speech, but, directly, the entire system of language.

What does lexicology study in Russian? First of all, she is engaged in the consideration of the Russian and Slavic languages, which had an active development in the course of historical events.

The subject of lexicology is

• The word, as a part of the language, considered with the help of word theory.
• The structure of the linguistic composition of words.
• The functionality of the lexical unit.
• Possible ways to replenish the language composition.
• Relationship with a non-linguistic type of activity, for example, with culture.

Main Sections

Lexicology is the science that studies vocabulary, its foundation. Science is quite extensive and has many sections, including:

• onomasiology - a section on the process of naming objects;
• semasiology - a section that studies words and phrases, namely their meaning;
• phraseology - studies the dictionary relationship between each other and among themselves;
• onomastics - busy with the study of existing names;
• etymology - the section that drew attention to the historical origin of the word, also considers the abundance of the vocabulary in general;
• lexicography - focused on theory and practice in compiling dictionaries;
• stylistics - a section that studies the meaning of sayings and words of the connotative type.

common data

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language, and the number of words in it is impossible to count. One, only seventeen-volume collection of the "Dictionary of Modern R.Ya." includes over 130,000 words, and the Oxford Dictionary contains over 300,000 words.

Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language, among which there are also little-known units of speech, such as agnonyms, which refer to words with an incomprehensible meaning.

Speech units that are used often belong to the active vocabulary of the language. There are frequency dictionaries with which you can identify frequently used words. However, there is the concept of a passive vocabulary, which includes elements of the language that carry information about something, but are used relatively rarely. Such words belong to a limitedly used vocabulary - a dialectal, professional or slang word.

Vocabulary expansion

We have learned what lexicology studies, and now we will turn our attention to the ways by which the vocabulary is replenished.

The phenomenon of borrowing vocabulary from the languages ​​of other peoples belongs to one of the main such paths. Taken a long time ago, foreign words are now considered primordially Russian. However, very often this is not the case, an example of this is the unit of speech - bread, which came to Russian from German. Due to borrowing, the original meaning of the word may change.

Another way of enriching lexical components is the formation of a new series of words. Such components of speech are called neologisms.

The further development of the fate of new words can be varied: some lose their novelty and are fixed among other elements of the language, others can be considered new formations created by an individual author (occasionalisms). The expansion of the boundaries of vocabulary is also due to the development of a new set of meanings for words that have been known for a long time and well.

Words that have sunk into oblivion

Lexicology studies words, among which obsolete units of the language are also considered. Due to the influence of time on the word, by the way, it goes out of use. This can be observed, for example, when an object or phenomenon, which was often used earlier, disappears. These words are called historicisms. The disappearance of such a word also leads to the loss of reality, which it carries in itself, but sometimes the realities themselves do not disappear, but are renamed and called archaisms.

Vocabulary as a movable type system

The vocabulary is like a system capable of promotion. This allows us to determine that words have a diverse relationship with each other for various semantic reasons. These words include synonyms - speech units that differ in form, but are close to each other in meaning.

There are words that are related to each other by the presence of a common cause in the opposite sense - antonyms. They indicate opposite "things." The opposite meaning in one speech unit is called enantiosemia. An example is the phrases: "listen" in the understanding of the phrase "listen carefully", and in the understanding of "turn a deaf ear".

The connection of words can be expressed in the form. Almost every language carries words that have an external identity and can have different meanings. An example is the variety of meanings of the word - braid, which can be both an agricultural tool and a hair plexus. This type of words are called homonyms.

Homonyms, in turn, include different types of distinction of the same character. If linguistic units coincide in "form" of sounding only if there are separate reasons, then such words are called homoforms. Words that coincide in spelling, but differ in sound, led to the creation of the term - homograph. If the pronunciation is the same, but the spelling is different, then this word is called a homophone.

Paronyms include similar words, but differing in identity in terms of the characteristics of form and meaning. They also perfectly show us the essence of the formal type of communication.

There is a concept of interlingual homonyms and paronyms. Such words have formal similarities, but in different languages ​​they can have many meanings. They are called "false friends of translators."

Lexical units

Lexicology, as a branch of linguistics, studies the vocabulary components of any languages, and knows that they have the greatest diversity and heterogeneity. There are categories that have been distinguished due to the presence in them of special distinctive outlines. In the lexicology of the Russian language, the following many subspecies are foreseen:

• according to the spheres of application, they are divided into: the commonly used type of words and units of vocabulary, which are used under the confluence of special circumstances in science, poetry, vernacular, dialect, etc .;
• by the value of the emotional load, which include units of speech, colored by the emotional or neutral "color";
• in accordance with historical development, divided into archaisms and neologisms;
• on the history of origin and development dividing into internationalism, borrowing, etc .;
• in accordance with the functionality - units of vocabulary of the active and passive type;

Given the continuous development of languages, what lexicology considers includes insurmountable boundaries of study that are constantly expanding and changing.

Lexical problems

In this science, there is a concept of some of the problems that it is engaged in studying. Among them are:

1. Structural problematics, decisive form of word perception, structural basis of its elements.
2. A semantic problem dealing with the study of the meaning of a lexical unit.
3. Functional problems of the general system of language, exploring the role of words and speech units in the language itself.

Speaking about the first problem, and the aspect of development, we can summarize that this science is busy with the establishment of specific criteria by which it is possible to determine the differences and identity of a separate series of words. To avoid this, a lexical unit is compared with a phrase, while a structure for analysis is developed, which makes it possible to establish the invariance of words.

The semantic problem expresses itself the question of semasiology - a science that studies the relationship between words and specific objects. In lexicology, this is one of the extremely important objects of study. His study focuses on the meaning of a word, its individual categories and types, which allows you to create terms: monosymy (uniqueness) and polysymmy (polysemy). Lexicology tries to investigate the causal relationships that lead to the loss or appearance of new meanings in words.

A functional problem tries to study a lexical unit, in the form of an object that connects with another similar element and creates an integral linguistic system. In this understanding, the role of the interaction of grammar with vocabulary is considered extremely important. They can both support and limit each other.

conclusions

We have determined that lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language, its structure, disappearing units of speech, for example, such as historicisms, built an idea of ​​the meaning of words. We examined their types and variations, identified the problems of this science. Thanks to this, we can summarize that its importance cannot be overestimated, since it is extremely important for the general system of the language and for tracking the tendencies of its development.