A reader on the history of the ancient world read online. Reader on the history of the ancient world. In three volumes. Ancient Rome. X. Development of democracy

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CHRESTOMATY ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD P O L R E. D A K C I E Y A K-A L E L 1I K A V. V. S T R U V E STATE INSTITUTION B N O "P E D A G O G H H H C O E AND Z H A T E L S T V O M OF THE MINISTRY OF THE RSFSR THE ANCIENT VOSTOK UTVE.R.ZH.D E.NO BY THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION R.S.F.S.R MOSCOW 195 0 Compiled by IS Katsnelson and DG Raeder FOREWORD The farther from our days in the depths of centuries and millennia the historian-researcher moves away, the greater difficulties he has to overcome on his way. If a scientist has at his disposal thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands of the most diverse documents to study the recent past, the understanding of which from the point of view of philology does not give rise to any doubts, then the historian of antiquity has to restore the past of disappeared peoples and extinct civilizations in fragmented and fragmented , accidentally escaped sources. The history of some countries, such as Greece, Rome, China, is better known. Completely the tradition has never ended here , a sufficient number of documents have survived, including many very informative. Nevertheless, certain periods of their history, especially the early ones, are still unclear. So, for example, we are very poorly informed about Greece in the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. or about the time of the reign of "kings" in Rome. The past of other countries has only recently become the property of science thanks to the joint efforts of several generations of archaeologists. They extracted from the ruins of disappeared cities and temples, from burials and residential buildings, archives, inscriptions of victory, letters and contracts, frescoes and reliefs, with the help of which we are now able to more or less fully represent the main events and facts of the history of the peoples of antiquity, in including the peoples of the Middle East, as well as to replenish our knowledge of the most ancient periods of ancient countries. However, the scientist is often at the mercy of chance. While the history of some peoples or periods is almost unknown to us due to the lack of sources, we are better informed about other states and eras. Track; it should take into account other circumstances: "the relatively limited number of written monuments, their fragmentary nature, one-sidedness of content, the difficulty of understanding, due to both insufficient knowledge of ancient Eastern languages \u200b\u200b(many words and phrases have not yet been" solved or seem to be controversial), so and ambiguity and incompleteness of presentation. If in the bourgeois historiography of modern and recent history, where it would seem that documents give less room for various kinds of misinterpretations and falsifications, we usually encounter a deliberate distortion of historical reality, with a tendentious interpretation of sources and manipulation of facts, then with all the more freedom is used by bourgeois scientists with the sources of ancient "history, in particular, with the texts. The fragmentary and incomplete nature of the latter, the vagueness and difficulty of the language provide ample opportunities for the most arbitrary and far-fetched interpretations in favor of the preconceived point of view of one or another bourgeois researcher who is striving, consciously or unconsciously, to fulfill the social order of their masters. These circumstances, to a large extent, explain why modern Anglo-American sociologists, historians, economists, philosophers, etc., so eagerly turn to the distant past. They borrow material from there for all sorts of dubious comparisons and comparisons in order to justify the capitalist system, to propagate various misanthropic racial theories. No wonder, for example, the American Senator Theodore Bilbo, in his book published in 1947 under the sensational title: “Choose between isolation and becoming bastards,” seeks to prove, using all the methods of fascist racism, that the ancient “Aryan” civilizations of Egypt, India, Phenicia, Carthage, Greece, and Rome perished as the ruling classes belonging to the "Caucasian race" allowed mixing, merging with the non-Aryan races. From this he draws the conclusion about the threat of the death of the civilization of the white man, about the threat to the very existence of the United States as a result of mixing the blood of a white man with representatives of other races, primarily with blacks.1 It is no coincidence, of course, that the most widespread in modern bourgeois science in various versions and modifications, the concept of the development of society - the notorious "cyclical" theory of E. Meyer - was based mainly on the material of ancient monuments, because it was they who provided him and his students and followers with ample opportunities for arbitrary and tendentious interpretation due to the specified features inherent in them ... Only with the help of the only scientific method, the method of dialectical and historical materialism, which established the laws of social development and outlined the main stages of it, can we determine the main features of the first class formation - slaveholding, inherent in the ancient world. Only when scientists approached the study of sources from the standpoint of the Marxist-Leninist theory, they were able to find out what was the reason for this. Racial theories of service and imperialism a. "Questions of the r wasps fp kn" ofii ", 1948. No. 2. p. 272. The emergence, existence and death of the first class, slave-owning states, regardless of whether the latter represented one of the varieties of ancient Eastern despotism or an ancient polis - cities -states. This is the main merit of Soviet science. And here it is especially necessary to emphasize the fundamental need to work on primary sources, because only through careful analysis, deeply thought-out interpretation of every word, every term, every position, as a result of an accurate understanding of the general direction of the text, one can come to well-grounded and scientific conclusions that correspond to objective truth. not only brilliantly confirmed the validity of the theory of the development of society by Marx - Engels - Lenin - Stalin, but, in turn, backed it up with concrete material, thus giving new proof of the genius of the founders of scientific socialism. Of course, the successes of Soviet historical science were not achieved immediately. They had to overcome inertia, traditions inherited from bourgeois science, admiration for the indisputable authority of Western scientists, and the deliberate desire of saboteurs to present a distorted picture of the development of society. Much is still unclear, some problems are still the subject of disagreements and disputes, but the main thing is that the nature of the slave-owning society and the basic laws of its development, in particular, the ancient Eastern, no longer arouses doubts. Summarizing what has been achieved by Marxist historiography, enriched by the works of Lenin and Stalin, we can come to the following conclusions on some of the most important problems. The first class societies arose where the geographic environment was most conducive to the acceleration of the development of productive forces and social relations and facilitated the transition from the communal-clan system to the slave-slave system, for the geographic environment “... undoubtedly is one of the constant and necessary conditions development of society and it, of course, affects the development of society - it accelerates or slows down the course of development of society "1. At the same time, of course, one must remember that" ... its influence is not a determining influence, since changes and development of society occur incomparably faster than\u003e changes and development of the geographic environment. "2. The tribes of nomadic hunters and pastoralists, who inhabited the endless steppes of Central Asia, Arabia and Africa thousands of years ago, stood at the lowest and middle stage of barbarism. , Questions 2 Ibid. Lenin izma, ed. 11th, 1945, p. 548. “Only by remaining in small numbers could they continue to be barbarians. They were shepherd tribes, hunters and warriors; their mode of production required a vast expanse of land for each individual, as is still the case today among the Indian tribes of North America. When they increased in number, they reduced each other's production area. Therefore, the surplus population was forced to embark on those great fabulous wanderings that marked the beginning of the formation of peoples in ancient and new Europe ”1. So these tribes ended up in the valleys of the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Ganges, Huang He, where the first class societies were born, the basis of the economy of which was agriculture, for it was here, in the valleys of great rivers, that the conditions for its development were most favorable. "The state arose on the basis of a split of society into hostile classes, arose in order to keep in check the exploited majority in the interests of the exploiting minority," says Comrade Stalin. “Two main functions characterize the activity of the state: internal (main) - to keep the exploited majority in check and external (not the main one) - to expand the territory of its ruling class at the expense of the territory of other states, or to defend the territory of its state from attacks from others states "2. The primitive communal system, not exposed to the influence of a more developed society, could not escape in its development the slave-owning mode of production. He became a slave-owner, but not a feudal one. This is one of the main provisions of Marxism related to social formations. Since the class society of the countries of the Ancient East was formed at the dawn of civilization in an original manner, without the influence of other class societies, any attempts to prove the existence of elements of a semi-feudal system in them lead objectively to revising the most important laws of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of the development of society. In ancient oriental despotism, there was a double form of exploitation in relation to two different social groups. The first of them, the right to receive rent-tax from rural communities - the "agricultural population", dates back to ancient times, to the exploitation of the clan nobility of their fellow tribesmen, to still semi-patriarchal relations. For example, in the era of the disintegration of the tribal system, free Greek peasants of the Homeric period paid their Basileus this rent. The pharaoh of Egypt could transfer to his close associate one or more rural communities in possession in order to receive Marx and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. IX, pp. 278-279. 2 Stalin, Voprosy Leninism, ed. 11th, 1945, p. 604. taxes similar to those that were paid by rural obinits to the bins of the basilevs. It must be emphasized that in no case should the just named duty imposed on rural communities under the conditions of ancient Eastern despotism, or Homeric Greece, or the tsarist period of Rome, be compared with feudal rent, as the bourgeois historians did and are doing, and after them and some Soviet scientists. The rent-analog, the "tribute" collected from free communes, is an authority created under the conditions of the decaying patriarchal system. The second form of exploitation inherent in ancient Eastern society, according to Marx's statements, is the exploitation of the worker-owner, the exploitation by the tsars, priests, the nobility, and then by the most prosperous strata of free "non-agricultural population" - slaves. Compared to the first form, it is more progressive. For if the exploitation of the “agricultural population” goes back to semi-patriarchal obligations, then the exploitation of slaves was created in a class society and was expressed, first of all, in the work on the creation of gigantic structures, primarily irrigation ones. The presence of these two forms of exploitation - patriarchal and slaveholding - creates a specific feature of the first class society, which took shape in ancient times in Asia and Egypt. From here, one can deduce a clear and precise definition of ancient Eastern society, as a polu r and b about in l and d e l ch e c about g o-pol u p and t. R and a r ha l b II about g about. The leading, progressive in the East was then, naturally, the exploitation of slaveholding. Therefore, we have the right to call these early class societies that existed in Asia and Egypt in antiquity, in the era preceding the ancient world, also prim and t and v n o-p a b o w ladel with k and m and. Thus, the ancient Eastern despotism was an organization with the help of which the ruling class (tsar-despot, nobility, priesthood, commercial usurious stratum, sometimes a military caste, etc.) exploited the communities of nicks and slaves. Numerous wars, common for the states of the Ancient East, were waged in the interests of the ruling class with the aim of seizing slaves, wealth and territories of neighboring countries. For bourgeois science, there is usually a desire to contrast or separate the past of the countries and peoples of the Middle East from the most ancient periods of the history of India and China. The first are considered by her as the predecessors of the ancient, and, consequently, European culture, which was consolidated at the end of the 19th century. French scientist G. Maspero in the term "classical East", who especially sharply emphasized the difference between the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean and the adjacent regions and the countries of the Far East. The first was given special attention in the construction of world history. Meanwhile, for India and China, which contributed their share to the treasury of common human culture, in the era of the birth and existence of the TaiM slave system, the same socioeconomic relations, the same general laws of development, were characteristic as for the countries of the Near East. They all represent a single whole - one formation. This is confirmed not only by the data of the latest archaeological excavations, but also by an impartial study of written sources. It is wrong, however, to unconditionally identify all the countries of the Ancient East without distinguishing the features of the development of individual states, just as one should not, for example, erase the differences in the history of Attica, Sparta, Eeotia, Macedonia. It is necessary to take into account the specific conditions that determined the distinctive features of the historical life of each nation. If Egypt and Babylon can be characterized as agricultural slave-owning despotism, and in the first of them the unlimited power of the king reached its apogee, then the Phoenician city-states serve as an example of a typical trading and slave-owning society in which the power of the king was limited to the nobility and the richest merchants. Likewise, Assyria is a model of a predatory, military-plundering state that based its prosperity on the ruthless exploitation and plunder of conquered countries. The history of the primitive slave-owning despotism of the Ancient East is closely connected with the ancient world. Greece and Rome qualitatively, in principle, do not stand out from other ancient societies. They represent only the highest stage in the development of the slave-owner formation. In the New Babylonian kingdom of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. we are faced with such forms of exploitation of slaves as, for example, peculia, which make one remember imperial Rome, and Sparta, with its collective slavery, can be compared in this respect with the city-states of Sumer at the beginning of the third millennium. The examples just given are not isolated. However, one cannot ignore some of the features inherent in primitive slave societies that distinguish them from ancient ones. These features are manifested, first of all, in the preservation of remnants of the primitive communal system and elements of patriarchal relations, in the long existence of the rural community and slow, stagnant forms of its development, largely explained by the fact that the basis of the economy among the leading eastern peoples is irri. gation, artificial irrigation. "Agriculture here is built mainly on artificial irrigation, and this irrigation is already a matter of the community, region or central government." 1 Hence, as a consequence, the extraordinary resilience of the communal 1 "P ismo E ngelsa Marx", Coop, op., Vol. XXI, p. 494. forms of land ownership. “In the Asian (at least the predominant) form, there is no property of the individual, but only his possession; the real, real owner is the community. .."one. Related to this is the patriarchal domestic slavery, so typical for most countries of the Ancient East. Further, for primitive slave-owning societies, the undivided unity of town and country is very typical. Cities usually exist only as administrative, religious or commercial centers, and a significant part of their population is employed in agriculture. Crafts and agriculture are still united. The need to unite the efforts of individual communities for the construction of the irrigation system creates, at a certain level of development of productive forces, the preconditions for the formation of a political superstructure in the form of Eastern despotism, which has reached its most perfect embodiment in the unlimited power of the Egyptian pharaoh, likened to God. He, like the kings of other countries of the Ancient East, carried out "... a cohesive unity, realized in a despot ..." 2, rallying rural communities into a single whole. They constituted "... a solid basis for stagnant Asian despotism." 3. The development of private property associated with the development of land not irrigated by the communal irrigation system, the so-called high fields, and with the exploitation of slave labor, leads to a more or less rapid , depending on the specific conditions of development of each country, the stratification of the rural community. There are people deprived of the means of production, forced to go into bondage to the rich. Over time, the latter completely enslave them. Debt slavery and the heavy oppression to which the masses of ordinary communes in Eastern despots were subjected prevent the use of prisoners of war slaves in large quantities. The number of foreign slaves was comparatively small, and their labor did not penetrate to such an extent into crafts and agriculture, displacing free producers from there, as was the case in Greece and Rome. Along with the slave, the community member remained the direct producer in the countries of the Ancient East, who, if he worked during the whole year not for himself, occupied the position of a slave. In other cases, when the community still retained enough strength to resist the oppression of the ruling class, uprisings broke out, similar to the coups in Lagash under Urukagin or in Egypt at the end of the Middle Kingdom, undermining the foundations of the slave system and accelerating its destruction. However, this resistance of the community members was ultimately suppressed, 1 Marc, Forma, which is sent to the capitalist, Proletarian Revolution, 1939, No. 3, p. 158. 2 Tame, p. 152. I Marx and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. XXI, p. 501. production. and the oppression continued as before; and since “it was the communes who filled the ranks of the army, their ruin and enslavement usually led to a weakening of the military potential of the state. Often, therefore, it fell under the yoke of another, more powerful state at a given time, and then the masses of the working population experienced a double oppression until, for the same reasons, the conquerors themselves did not become prey for the new ones for the warriors. The history of the ancient Eastern despots of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, as well as the later Hellenistic monarchies, gives many examples of this. They included different tribes and peoples, bound together only by the power of the victor's weapon. They were not united by either political, economic or national interests, since nations did not exist at that time. They could disintegrate and disintegrate as a result of exacerbation of internal contradictions, as a result of blows from\u003e outside. “These were not nations, but random and loosely connected conglomerates of groups that disintegrated and united depending on the successes or defeats of one or another conqueror” *. Modern bourgeois science seeks to diminish or pass over in silence the significance of the contribution made by the "non-Aryan" peoples of the ancient Eastern countries to the treasury of common human culture, and in every possible way extols the "creative genius" of the ancient Hellenes and Romans, although both of them themselves pointed to the Egyptians and Babylonians as their teachers. Indeed, the better we get acquainted with the history and history of culture of the countries of the Ancient East, the more we are convinced that it is here that we should look for the beginning of many sciences (although they are still inseparable from religion) - astronomy, mathematics, medicine. Here both the first alphabet and the first written literary works appeared. The greatest monuments of fine art and literature are created here. In Greece and Rome, science, literature and art of the slave-owning society reach their peak and for the first time in history they are trying to free themselves from the shackles of a religious worldview. Together with the cultural heritage of Greece and Rome, mankind also received the cultural heritage of the great civilizations of the Ancient East. Until the deciphering of the Cretan letters is completed, it is impossible to give an exact description of the socio-economic structure of ancient Crete. However, the more complete our knowledge about it becomes thanks to the successes of archeology, the more definitely it can be argued that the prevailing on this island at the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. the state should be likened to other contemporary primitive slave states in the eastern Mediterranean. Cretan maritime power, subordinating part of the Aegean islands, ruled by 1 Stalin, Op., Vol. 2, ctd. ‘293. tsar-despot and was in lively trade relations with the surrounding countries, reminiscent of the Phoenician cities, although its political line, apparently, differed from the political system of the latter. The island's prosperity was greatly facilitated by its advantageous position in the center of sea trade routes. According to a number of indirect signs, it is possible to establish the existence of slavery on him, for only slaves could be used as oarsmen on the numerous ships of the Krians, who combined trade with robbery; only slaves, together with the involuntary local population, could build the huge, growing palaces of Festus and Knossos, pave roads or work in workshops that produced goods for sale. It is natural to assume that the intensification of exploitation and the ruin of the broad masses of the population ultimately led to the weakening of the Cretan state and facilitated its conquest in the 14th century. The Mycenaean state, which united the Peloponnese, the islands adjacent to it, and some areas of central and northern Greece. The socio-political system of the Mycenaean state in many ways resembled the organization of the Cretan society. One might think that the aristocratic families, whose prosperity was based on agriculture, the exploitation of the agricultural population, especially the conquered countries, during the predatory wars and raids, enjoyed great influence here, they limited the despotic power of the king. Crete connected the countries of Asia, Africa and Europe. Especially great is the significance of his culture, bright, original, but nevertheless influenced by the culture of other peoples (for example, the Egyptians and Hittites), on which he, in turn, had a significant influence. The origins of Greek mythology, religion and art, and even legislation (for example, the Gortpen Laws) should undoubtedly be sought on this island, which was a link between the ancient oriental despotism and the ancient world. In terms of stages, the society of Homeric Greece (XII-VIII centuries BC) is more primitive than the Cretan sea power or the Mikena state, since it was a pre-industrialized, pre-class society. However, the path of its development was different, different from the path of development of the countries of the Ancient East, to which the latter can be attributed. Homer's poems "The Iliad" and "The Odyssey" - our main sources - testify that this was byp "The full flowering of the highest stage of barbarism ..." 1; every adult man in the tribe was a warrior, and there was no public power that could be opposed to him, even separated from the people. "Primitive democracy was still in full bloom ..." 2. Classical in clarity 1 Marks and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, h. 1. “Trampling of the family, private property and state”, p. 13. 2 T am e. gtr 84 p Engels will give a deeper analysis of Homeric society in the conclusion of Chapter IV ("The Greek Family") of his immortal labor "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State": "We see, the strength of the ancient tribal organization, but, at the same time, the beginning of its destruction: paternal law with the inheritance of property by children, which favors the accumulation of wealth in the family and strengthens the family as opposed to the family; the influence of property differences on the social system through the formation of the first beginnings of the hereditary nobility and monarchy; slavery, at first only prisoners of war, but already preparing the possibility of enslaving their own tribesmen and even relatives; the already ongoing degeneration of the past war between tribes into a systematic robbery on land<и на море в целях захвата скота, рабов и сокровищ, превращение ее в регулярный промысел; од­ ним словом, восхваление и почитание богатстза как высшего блага и злоупотребление древними родовыми учреждениями для оправдания насильственного грабежа богатств» К Постоянные войны, которые способствовали объединению об­ щин, были основным средством добывания рабов. Однако раб­ ство носило тогда патриархальный, домашний характер. Труд рабов использовался преимущественно для домашних услуг или в хозяйствах родовой знати, которая стремится к закабалению своих соплеменников. Таким образом, в недрах родового обще­ ства формируются классы. «Недоставало только одного: учре­ ждения, которое обеспечивало бы вновь приобретенные богат­ ства отдельных лиц не только от коммунистических традиций ро­ дового строя, которое пе только сделало бы прежде столь мало ценившуюся частную собственность священной и это освящение объявило бы высшей целью всякого человеческого общества, но и приложило бы печать всеобщего общественного признания к развивающимся одна за другой новым формам приобретения соб­ ственности, следовательно и к непрерывно ускоряющемуся на­ коплению богатства; нехватало учреждения, которое увековечи­ вало бы не только начинающееся разделение общества на классы, но и право имущего класса на эксплоатацию неимущих и господство первого над последними. И такое учреждение появилось. Было изобретено г о с у д а р ­ ство » 2. Но было бы неверно отождествлять все греческие государ­ ства. Каждое из них шло своим неповторимым путем развития. И наиболее типичны в этом отношении два - Спарта и Афины, сыгравшие ведущую роль в истории Эллады. | Маркс и Э н г е л ь с, Собр. соч., т. XVI, ч. семьи, частном событием мости и г о су д а р с тв а », стр. 86. 2 Т а м ж е, стр 8 6 - 87. 1, «Происхождение Государство в Спарте возникло раньше, в результате пере­ населения Пелопоннеса после проникновения туда дорийцев, стремившихся силой овладеть плодородными землями и порабо­ тить окружающие племена. На основании свидетельств античных авторов закабаление илотов должно быть объяснено завоева­ нием, а не «экономическими условиями», как пытаются доказать буржуазные ученые и в частности Э. Мейер. Этот способ эксплоа­ тации, напоминающий по форме крепостнический, явился след­ ствием завоевания и был более примитивным, чем эксплоатация рабов «Чтобы извлекать из пего (раба. - Ре д.) пользу, необ­ ходимо заранее приготовить, во-первых, материалы и орудия труда, во-вторых, средства для скудного пропитания раба»2. Спартиатам этого не требовалось. Они силой оружия покорили илотов и заставили их платить дань. Различие между рабами и илотами сводилось в основном лишь к тому, что в первом случае победители отрывали побе­ жденных от средств производства и уводили их к себе для ра­ боты в своем собственном хозяйстве или продавали, а во вто­ ром случае они оставляли покоренных па земле и принуждали выполнять различного рода повинности. Для устрашения илотов и удержания их в покорности применялись такие средства тер­ рора, как криптии. Согласно Плутарху, эфоры ежегодно объяв­ ляли илотам войну, чтобы предоставить спартиатам право безнаказиого истребления их Столь жестокое обращение могло иметь место в античном обществе лишь по отношению к потомкам покоренных силой оружия членов враждебных общин или племен, а не по отноше­ нию к обедневшим членам своей общины. Илоты поэтому обычно всегда противопоставлялись лакедемонянам, членам господ­ ствующей городской обшипы, и другим представителям класса свободных, например, периекам Эксплоатация илотов (а также близких к ним по положению пенестов, кларотов и т. д.) харак­ терна именно для наиболее отсталых обществ, например, Спарты, Фессалии. Крита, древнейшей Ассирии и т. д. По сравнению с ними даже примитивно-раго"вллдельческие государства архаиче­ ского Шумера или Египта несомненно более прогрессивны. Иными были, причины р.о"зиикновенпя и пути развития клас­ сового общества в Аттике, которое «...является в высшей степени типгчпы.м примером образования государства, потому что оно, с одной стороны, происходит в чистом виде, без всякого вмеша­ тельства внешнего или внутреннего насилия, - захват власти Пизистратом не оставил никаких следов своего короткого суще­ ствования.- с другО"П стороны, потому, что в данном случае очень развитая форма государства, демократическая республика, воз1 VIII, 2 3 Ф у к и д и д I, 5, "1; 11 я р. с. Маркс и П л у г а р х, 101; Л р и с т о т е л Политика 1, б, 2; С т р а б о н, л п и и, II!, 20 и т. д. Э и г о л!) с, Соб р. соч., т. XIV, «А н ти-Дю р и нг», стр. 163. Л и к у р г, 28. пикает непосредственно из родового общества, и, наконец, по­ тому, что мы в достаточной степени знаем все существенные по­ дробности образования этого государства» К Развитие производительных сил общин, объединившихся по­ степенно вокруг Афин, социальное расслоение внутри них, выде­ ление земледельческой аристократии, жестоко эксплоатировавшей своих соплеменников, концентрация земель, увеличение ко­ личества рабов, ростовщичество, расширение торговли и, как следствие, - рост денежного хозяйства, проникавшего «...точно разъедающая кислота, в основанный на натуральном хозяйстве исконный образ жизни сельских общин» 2. Все это «взрывало» прежние социальные установления и экономические связи. «Одним словом, родовой строй приходил к концу. Общество с каждым днем все более вырастало из его рамок; даже худшие отрицательные явления, которые возникали у всех на глазах, он не мог ни ослабить, ни устранить. А тем временем незаметно раз­ вилось государство» 3. Реформы Солона, проведенные в интересах частных земле­ владельцев и торговцев, устанавливали отчуждение и дробление земельных участков. Этим была отменена общинная собствен­ ность и разрушены основы общинно-родового строя. «Так как ро­ довой строй не мог оказывать эксплоатируемому народу ника­ кой помощи, то оставалось только возникающее государство. И оно действительно оказало помощь, введя конституцию Солона и в то же время снова усилившись за счет старого строя. Солон... открыл ряд так называемых политических революций, и притом с вторжением в отношения собственности. Все происходившие до сих пор революции были революциями для защиты одного вида собственности против другого вида собственности... в рево­ люции, произведенной Солоном, должна была пострадать соб­ ственность кредиторов в интересах собственности должников. Долги были попросту объявлены недействительными» 4. Вот по­ чему Афины, как и другие греческие полисы, не знали кабаль­ ного рабства. Последние остатки родового строя были уничто­ жены законодательством Клисфена. «В какой степени сложив­ шееся в главных своих чертах государство оказалось приспо­ собленным к новому общественному положению афинян, свиде­ тельствует быстрый расцвет богатства, торговли и промышленно­ сти. Классовый антагонизм, на котором покоились теперь обще­ ственные и политические учреждения, был уже не антагонизм между аристократией и простым народом, а между рабами и 1 С л ед у ет т в е р д о помнить, что крепостные отнош ения ф ео д а л ь н о й ф о р м а ­ не в р езу л ь т а те прямого зав оев а ни я, а в след ст в ие с л о ж н е й ш и х эк ономических условий. М а р к с и Энгельс, Собр. соч., т. XVJ, ч. I, ц и и с о зд а л и с ь стр 98. Та м 3 Та м 4 Т а м 2 ж е, стр. 90. ж е, стр. 93. ж е, стр 93. свободными, между неполноправными жителями и гражда­ нами» Огромное значение для Греции имели связи с Северным Причерноморьем, на которые следует обратить особое внима­ ние при изучении истории этой страны. Через Геллеспонт во время «великой колонизации» VII в. туда устремляются пред­ приимчивые торговцы в поисках нажпвы, политические изгнан­ ники, разоренные крестьяне и ремесленники в надежде на луч­ шую жизнь в далеких, неведомых краях. В устьях рек, впадаю­ щих в Черное п Азовское моря, в Крыму были основаны десятки колоний, которые вели оживленную торговлю с могущественной скифской державой. Трудно представить Афины, Коринф, Милет и другие полисы Эллады без скифского хлеба, сушеной рыбы, шерсти, мехов и рабов. В частности, снабжение Афин хлебом всегда было одним из основных моментов, определявших внеш­ нюю и внутреннюю политику различных политических партий. Дешевый привозной хлеб способствует интенсификации сель­ ского хозяйства торговых полисов. Благосостояние многих ре­ месленников и торговцев основывалось на обмене с Северным Причерноморьем. Не меньше было его значение > and in the Roman era, when food, raw materials and slaves were brought from here, it became even more intense and spread beyond the Balkan Peninsula to the western provinces of the Roman Empire. The penetration of the Greeks to the north influenced not only the Scythians, who adopted certain features of the Hellenic culture, and the peoples neighboring with them, but also left a noticeable imprint on the Greek colonies bordering the Black and Azov seas; in their art, craft and life, in turn, the significant influence of the Scythians is reflected. As you know, Roman culture did not leave a noticeable trace in the regions of the Northern Black Sea coast. One of the main problems of the history of Rome - the question of the origin of the plebs - is still largely unclear due to the sku access of sources. However, there is no doubt that, like the helots in Sparta, the plebeians appeared as a result of conquest, and not as a result of the socio-economic stratification of society. “Meanwhile, the population of the city of Rome and the Roman region, expanded by the conquest, increased; this growth was partly due to new settlers, partly due to the population of the conquered, mainly Latin, districts. All these new citizens ... stood outside the old clans, "Kurmias and tribes and, consequently, did not form part of the populus romanus, the Roman people proper" 2. The reforms of Servius Tullius played the same role in the history of Rome as the reforms of Solon and Klysphepus in the history of Athens. This is 1 Marx and Engels, 2 Tame, p. 10G. Coll. cit., vol. XVI, part I, p. 97. was essentially a revolution, which put an end to the communal-tribal system and signified the transition to the state; “... its reason was rooted in the struggle between the plebs and the populus.” K The new, class society was determined by territorial, and not tribal ties, the main importance in the establishment of political rights was property, not origin. “This is how the ancient social system, based on personal blood ties, was destroyed in Rome, even before the abolition of the so-called royal power, and in its place a new, real state system was created, which was based on territorial division and property differences. Public power was concentrated here in the hands of citizens who were obliged to do military service, and was directed not only against slaves, but also against the so-called proletarians, who were not allowed to serve in military service and were deprived of weapons. ”2 The subsequent centuries of the existence of the Roman Republic were full of acute political the struggle between patricians and plebeians for expanding the rights of the latter, for land, for limiting the arbitrariness of usurers. It becomes more complicated, especially in the II-I centuries. BC e., a massive movement of the oppressed class of slaves, to which the poor join. “The rich and the poor, the exploiters and the exploited, the full of rights and the disenfranchised, the cruel class struggle between them — this is the picture of the slave system” 3. First, the protest of slaves, as, for example, it was in Greece in the V-IV centuries. BC e., was usually passive. Slaves spoiled tools and instruments, ran away from their masters, which happened especially often during wars, when the forces of the slave state were distracted by external danger. Sometimes the slaves went over to the side of the enemy. So, during the Peloponnesian War, more than twenty thousand slaves after the defeat of the Athenians at Dhekeleus in 413 BC. e. ran to the Spartans. Subsequently, slave policies by diplomatic means agreed on measures to protect the interests of the ruling class. The means of deterrence and a specially set up service for tracing runaway slaves served the same purpose. However, even passive forms of struggle undermined the foundations of the economy of the slave-owning city-states, and sometimes, especially during the war, threatened their political independence. Even more dangerous for the exploiters were open forms about the slave revolts. They began in Greece in the 5th century. BC e. and most often broke out in the Peloponnese and in Sicily, where the number of rags was especially high. In essence, the political system of the Spartans and their administrative structure persecuted one and the same 1 Marc and Engsls, Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, part I, p. 107. 2 The same, p. 108. 3 Stalin, Questions of Leninism, ed. 11th, 1945, p. 555. The goal is to keep the helots in obedience and prevent any attempts of resistance on their part. And the slaves usually revolted precisely in Sparta, for the helots in Messenia belonged to the same nationality and it was easier for them to rally against the oppressors. Such were the uprisings in 464 and 425. BC e. The first of them lasted over 10 years. Often the poor also joined the slaves. The uprisings of slaves were even more characteristic of Rome, where the slave-owning system reached its highest development and, consequently, the class contradictions inherent in ancient society were especially acute. Tens and hundreds of thousands of slaves who had been holed up in cities and latifundia as a result of victorious wars, cruel forms of exploitation, unbearably heavy oppression to which they were subjected, concentration of land and wealth, landlessness of the peasantry, unable to compete with the cheap labor of slaves - all this created prerequisites for the manifestation of protest in an open and sharp form. It is not for nothing that during the 2nd and 1st centuries. BC e. in Sicily, in Asia Minor, finally, in Rome itself, slaves and free poor are repeatedly raised. They are trying to get from the slave owners by force what they cannot get from them peacefully: freedom and the possibility of a secure existence. The uprisings of slaves and lumpen proletariat, civil wars at the end of the Roman Republic undermined the foundations of the existing socio-economic system and ultimately led to its death. In order to preserve their domination, the slave owners were forced to switch to a new, more perfect organization - the principate - a hidden form of monarchy, and then to an open one - dominate. In the aggravation of the contradictions of the slave-owning society and, consequently, the pace of its development, lies the progressive, world-historical significance of the uprisings of the slaves and the poor. At this stage, however, they did not lead to the replacement of one formation by another, more progressive, since they were not carriers of a new mode of production, new production relations. That is why it is wrong to talk about the slave revolution in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. “Slaves, as we know, rebelled, staged riots, opened civil wars, but they could never create a conscious majority leading the struggle of the parties, they could not clearly understand what goal they were going to, and even in the most revolutionary moments of history they always found themselves pawns in the hands of the state classes ”! Only when the development of the productive forces of ancient society paved the way for the emergence of new social relations, when the preconditions of feudalism in the form of a colonate began to take shape in the bowels of the slave state, only then did slaves and columns emerge as a revolutionary class. Lenin, Vol. XXIV, p. 375, sO state *. ny, sweeping away on its way, even under the slogan of a return to the communal-clan system, the foundations of the outdated slaveholding formation. It was the revolution of slaves and colonies that "... eliminated the slave owners and abolished the slave-owning form of exploitation of the working people" K. It also facilitated the conquest of Rome for the barbarian tribes - "... all the" barbarians "united after drinking a common enemy and overthrew Rome with thunder." Thus, this revolution contributed to the establishment of a more progressive society at that time - the feudal society. These introductory remarks give only a general idea of \u200b\u200bthe laws governing the development of a slave-owning society and seek to facilitate familiarization with its main contradictions. Of course, they are far from exhausting the problems of the history of the first class formation, which the documents contained in this book should help the reader to understand. This anthology was compiled anew and differs significantly from the "Reader on Ancient History" published in 1936 under my editorship. It not only surpasses the latter in volume, but is also completely different in the composition of the texts included in it and in the principles underlying their selection, and in the method of document preparation. The reader is intended primarily for students of history faculties in higher educational institutions and for history teachers in secondary schools. The reader should provide students with material for seminars and pro-seminars, supplement and deepen the courses on ancient history taught to them. It aims to facilitate the selection of texts and visual examples for teachers for use in classroom and extracurricular activities. When compiling it, it was decided to limit itself to documents reflecting only the socio-economic and political history of the countries and peoples of the ancient world. The attraction of cultural and historical monuments would force, given the relatively limited volume of the anthology, to significantly reduce some texts and completely abandon the placement of others, even very valuable ones. Therefore, sources on the history of culture are supposed to be included in a special collection, which the compilers hope to publish soon. Literary works were used only to the extent that they satisfied the principle just indicated. A significant number of attracted documents first appear in Russian. Many texts have been translated again, the rest are mostly verified against the originals. Before 1 Stalin, In poll and nisma, 2 The same, p. 432. ed. 11th, p. 412. the translators set the task not only to convey the content of the monument as accurately as possible, but also to reproduce, as far as possible, its style and language features in order to make one feel the originality of the era and each nation, and it goes without saying that they tried to accomplish this without violating the structure of the Russian language (but in other cases, deliberately resorting to archaisms). As for proper names and geographical names, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the generally accepted transcription has been retained. Particular attention in all three volumes is paid to monuments that help to link the history of the ancient world with the historical past of our homeland (Urartu, Scythians and Cimmerians, Central Asia, Bosporan Kingdom, Caucasus in the Greco-Roman era). Placement of documents is based on geographic and chronological principles. New sections were introduced in accordance with the programs of secondary schools and historical faculties of higher educational institutions: ancient historiography, Crete-Mycenaean society, the Northern Black Sea region from the 10th century. BC e. to IV century. n. e. Introductory articles to documents have been expanded. They contain basic information and give them a brief assessment and characteristics. The reader will find additions and explanations to difficult and incomprehensible places in the comments and notes placed after each text. All sections are accompanied by short instructional guidelines for secondary school teachers. They are arranged in the order corresponding to the presentation of the school textbook. However, a reader cannot replace a textbook. It only supplements the material contained in it and enables the teacher and student to deepen their knowledge of ancient history with the help of the documents contained in it. Acad. V.V.Struve. FROM THE COMPOSITORS OF THE FIRST VOLUME The first volume of the anthology includes documents on the socio-economic history of the countries of the Ancient East, namely: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, Phenicia, Asia Minor, Urartu, Iran, India and China. It contains a large number of texts that first appear in translation in Russian. For example, documents on the history of the Hittites and China are almost entirely specially translated for this edition. Monuments on the history of culture are involved only insofar as the facts of political and social history are reflected in them. The sections "India" and "China" are presented more fully than in previous editions, for the lack of sources on the history of these countries, accessible to the general reader, is especially noticeable. Chronological dates, especially on the history of Mesopotamia, are given in accordance with the discoveries of recent years, forcing them to revise and correct the chronology of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. e. The reader is intended for seminars for students of the history departments of universities and teachers of the history of secondary schools. The methodological introductions that precede individual chapters of the anthology are intended to make it easier for the teacher to use a number of documents in school teaching. EGYPT AND WELL BIL STUDYING STORIES AND E g i p t a s i n g e n t about what came up with dokumenty - p and p and rus s and n and d pis and n and n and x h r and m o v, r about b nits, to a m e n s p l and t a h and so on. for a long time not evenly luminous sides of life -\u003e that country. Study and history of Eg and pta, how to and and s to r and and other r u g and h st r n Drevneg East, in the center of the teacher, I must be first of all in question with o ts and al l n o - ek about n o m and ch eky life z n and these s t r and n. POSITION OF WORKERS MASS - LIFE SLAVES, TOTALS, GORODSK AND KHR e m e n nnik o v, e x plo at a ts n I their n a rskoy vla s t y, with a ve t and ch r a mo s o izn and g s o, f a c t k l s with o i w o r b s and with respect to the influence i gn e n e n and yu - all these things should be as bright and lively and badly as possible ... To a wish, at the same time as a large number of cases, ekst about (in part, at about to about and on s) saved, the number of sources on with o ts p and l p o - "- o k o and o m pch e and poly and t h e s history with ra n and t e l n about not great.Because of this, there are some special features and characteristics of the position of exiloatirus masses we need not rarely go to the site m y t n and k a m \u200b\u200bh u d e s t e s t e n o l e r t e r. This section contains documents that can be use for l or l l u s t r and t and a large number of lessons to be given the history of Egypt. N and in the water in omz and and, where the harak t e r i s e s i p i r o d a s t r a n s, if you want to work with it from the point of view of the loss of Greek e about the picture of the line (L ° 1). The teacher should say it with a word of mouth and at the same time show it to arte te chenie Nil, Deltu, R a s n o e m o r e (Aravii s k iiz l and v), M erid about lake ero. We need to ask the students, for the reason of the populations E g and pt was about about almost and about and about the coast of Nil, why it wasn’t about it in the earth, lying in the distance from the river, and for the sake of lightening the answer they are in it at the edge of the terrain and the height from the corners of the chains, about which and n at. T o o r I o p l o d o d and E p t a, follow all the time I turn to n and m n and e at an irregular size of the distribution of the ground. ABOUT N O N N O N N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O N O L S O N O N O L S O N O N O N O L S O N O N O N O N O L S O N O N O N O O N O N O N O N O N O L O F O L C O O L R O S I O N O N O N O L S O N O N O L S O N O S O N O N O L S O N O S O R R O S O N O R S T O N O R SING S O T O N O R SING S O RING S O RING T O N C S O N O R E S O R SING S RATINGS x with the best of the earth, and in order to remove it, it is necessary to do it and the given of the gifts of Ramses IV (No. 29), where I recall not only about the size of the manufactory premises, but also the number of work in the housed in them, and so The same contributions are made by temple subjects, who do not have their land and are completely dependent on the producers. In addition, the land was received from the headquarters by the commanders as well. This is indicated in the autobiography of the chief of the rowers Yakhmssa (Lb i 6). To find out about the ire of the Egyptian despot and the role of the bureaucratic apparatus, we would like to turn to the knowledge of Egyptian spruce may Una (No. 6) and H u s f x about ra (No. 7). Some places of them should be read in class and explained, for example, the epizo with the removal of four heads (from the inscription of Una), red character and the use of court intrigues, or a poetic description of the move against the Bedouins, in which Una is most proud of both the beating and robbery of the Asian region. Special attention should be paid to the mention of the prisoners and to raise the question by the teachers: why did he need these prisoners? We must lead them to the idea that wars of conquest were not needed for a working country, which needed a good labor force ... It is worth mentioning the main award received by Una from the Faron - a stone coffin, and to explain that, from the point of view of the Egyptians, it was a great gift was a mockery, for it was the custom of the nobles and the gods to prepare everything for a magnificent p about fencing. From the inscription HUEFH, CHOOSE WILL read the translation of the riches, averaged in the slaughter, and at the same time show the place on the map about the situation of this country. Then we must ask the question: what did he spend on the large amount of money collected from the Egyptians themselves and pumped out from the neighboring countries? - and instead of answering, read out the description of the construction of the pyramid (Lg ° 5). The students are supposed to calculate for themselves how much money Cheop su used to build the building, the teacher draws a conclusion that how much work was done to the economy of egypt by a non-ineffective workforce (you can instruct students to calculate the approximate number of tons r u ud n her builder para a mida for 30 years). Then there was no need for the people to live on, at the expense of which the headmaster, his elm, and officials lived. We should cite the colorful characteristics from "The Teaching of Akhtoy, son of Dua" (especially the description of the work of a daytime weaver, who Terskiy (No. 11), as well as a scene from the story with "To the Disorderly Peasant" (La 12), where the description of the correction is described. an innocent worker. The hard position of the poor and the complete disruption of the rulers led to a major uprising in 17C0 BC. e. In order to get a clear picture of this uprising, it is purposefully read out in the classroom excerpts from "The Rection of Ipver" (No. 13). In this case, it is necessary to explain who was I p uvsr, and to guide the students that he is good and good and you should be critical. First of all, it is poetic, and in it there is no systematic and consequential and evil events; you should pay attention to the position of the strophes, built according to a specific pattern, the repetition of the same and those exclamations, poetic oppositions, for example: “Look, the one who did not have his own property, became the owner of wealth; the owners of wealth have become indigent. " Second, it is important to emphasize the author's bias. It is best if the students themselves have passed this conclusion. For this, it is necessary to skillfully put & epros ". How does Yi Luwep relate to the uprising he describes? I wish he would stand up for the rebels? I’m going to get passages, I don’t want to give students to understand that I puvsr, kgzh, a typical worker thought any attempt on private property by crime and saw the uprising as a result of the moral depravity of people (his complaints about the and x hearts, lack of brotherly love and friend). It is necessary then to explain to the students that at all times I have been buying loyalty in the ranks of the people and movement and called on the oppressed to love and humanity, and to emphasize l and the end of all these calls. When the class rationale behind the “Ipuver Speech” becomes clear, we can call one of the students, instruct him to read the verse by the verse “and establish what we can believe, which is a clear exaggeration f for example, the phrase "The Nile is flowing to the blood o"), where one can feel a sense of real events or silence. It is necessary to establish the social composition of the who became (kr isya n in-poor nya k, the one who did not have the harness of bulls, that is, he had to harness himself to the plow or work the field with a hoe; the slave who was forced to water the field ; it must be explained that this was the hardest part of the work). At the same time, it would be desirable to address the question of the position of those social groups against which was directed about an uprising (courtiers and princes, officials, healed crafts, for example, gold masters, etc.) etc.). It is important to explain the methods of fighting (refusal to pay taxes, then an open uprising, beating off exploiters, removing documents from the state It is necessary to explain that, on the basis of these documents, officials collected flaws, and to show the drawing in the textbook “Bringing Villagers to Account, who did not pay tax "). It is very important to show the students that religion is always the support of the classroom and especially this manifests itself during widespread v and en and y. And I am confident (I must read those places where it is most likely to be felt). He expects salvation from God Ra. He is especially saddened by the fact that the people feel about religion, about the temples, not being able to fulfill all the instructions of the cult ... It is necessary to provide a connection between the state power and the priest in Egypt and explain that the fall of the authority of the fara is (lead about p isan and e shturm a DEORTSA) should have caused a weakening of religious beliefs, doubts about this and about the gods (and Pharaoh himself was considered a god, the son of R. and) . The students themselves must answer the question about the results of the uprising, of course, with the help of the teacher, by reading those passages that speak of the oppressed, who themselves will become the owner, about the poor man, about the owner of wealth, about the transfer of private property from the days of hands to the other some, that there were no attempts to change private property and work. The student should understand that the uprising was spontaneous and did not lead to the initialization of the society on a new basis, but its developmental power played a positive role, expanding the mouth of the rabbis of the elite system, although the rebels themselves did not realize this. In connection with social upheavals, it is necessary to study foreign policy as well. Our Hyksos in Egypt had a significant degree of success in the uprising of the poor and the workers who served in your country. When describing this intrusion and the ensuing struggle, the teacher can use excerpts from the work of AAanephone (No. 14), with a headlamp inscription he and Kamos (no. 15) and then b and ogra f and y led the awaits of Y m o s s (JVg 16), retelling them in his own words. We must draw the attention of the students to the creation of Egypt. The Hyksos are in Delta, and the south is about to become independent. To displace the Hyksos, the river fleet is used, combined battles on land and water take place (No. 16). The Hyksos, who have been taken prisoner, turn into slavery (a number of examples in No. 16). FURTHER it is necessary to move on to the conquering policy of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom. It is not necessary to get to know students with different types of thread operators who are involved in foreign policy; with the annals of the pharaons (J4 ^] 6): with a strictly official character, systematically setting out the course of hostilities, and with a fairy tale, with which the service is about its event, the description of which is embellished with poetic inventions (No. '20). All the time it is necessary to focus the attention of students on the question of the causes of wars, their purpose and meaning, to indicate that the Egyptian chronicle sang and -\u003e: I don’t think I don’t think about hiding the predatory character, but on the way to glorified * f a r a onov. It is important to emphasize that every work in a business community needs new jobs, and this is done GREAT AGGRESSION IN FOREIGN POLICY. We must clearly and impudently find out who benefited from such a policy. A common peasant and artisan, enlisted in the army and shedding blood for the glory of the faraon, did not gain anything from the depleted explorations in Asia and Nyubiy. This is clearly seen from the school teachings (No. 3 0), which it would be desirable to read in the class in its entirety, and at the same time to remind that the overwhelming part of the war booty fell into the hands of the priest. va, military leader "ikoe (examples from No. 16), high officials. It is necessary to show on the map the areas of military actions, to outline the boundaries of the Hittite kingdom, which in the 15th-13th centuries became the main enemy of Egypt, touch on the issues of military technology, using illustrations from a textbook or atlas (chariots, assault on the fortress), as well as separate expressions from the annals of Tutmos III, x a rk t e r and t e r s t e r t e r t h e s in w ering war (for example, the osad u Megildo) .It is necessary to show that the slave states after a series of bloody wars are ready to come to an agreement when the enemies are threatened by the internal ones - the oppressed peoples. Very indicative in this respect is the treaties of Rameses II with the Hittite Tsar Kh agtushil (No. 2 7). and it’s about reading the place where it is said about mutual assistance in the fight against uprisings. Yesterday's enemies become friends and when it turns out to be profitable, and jointly suppress their subjects. It is very important to stay on the organ and the state of the ship in Egypt. Abundant material for this is given by the assignment to the boss (no. 2 1). In this document, there is a very high level of information about the center of the Egyptian state. All the threads of control and the court are grasping in the hands of one master, so that you can do it. The main tasks of the condemnation of the Russian machine are the processing of the news of the people (mark references on levying by date) and the organization of the irrigation system (monitoring the operation of canals and dams, setting the time of oil spill and and so on) in addition to the third function, which was introduced to the students by the previous documents (about e ann y x stan). For the characterization of foreign trade, it is necessary to attract the description of the expedition of H atsh ep day in the distant P unt (now Somal) and list those t the lakes that were brought from this country to Egypt, noting that they were almost adorable about the luxuries needed for the queen, the priest about in and the nobility (No. 17). In addition, it is imperative to help scientists that Egypt's prosperity and flourishing was comparatively short and fragile. The end of the government of the Egyptian pharaons in Phenicia and Plestia can be traced back to "P Consolation of U nuam she." This document is especially interesting for us because it was discovered by a Russian scientist (V.S.Golenischev) and is kept in Moscow ( in the State Museum of Fine Arts). Learn more about the content of him to do his own thing and to compare the situation in western Asia in the XI century. (the time of the condition of the given year) with a stand at the beginning of the 15th century. (time T u t m o sa). It is necessary for the students themselves to answer the question why the power of the Egyptian power is so short-lived. The ruler of the large slave dorzhchva finished off at the expense of external enemies (Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians, and the Persov). As an example, it is possible to cite excerpts from the colorful and paralleled inscription of Pianhi, the Nubian king, who was named after him in the 8th century. d about n. e. (No. 3-4). It is especially necessary to emphasize the development of Egypt during this period, the presence in every city of its own without a king (in the Pianhi inscription it is about with complete clarity). R a d of Egypt into separate small states and the distribution of the national masses looted the country and made its victims about other earthly conquerors. No. 1. NIL AND ITS SPILLS (Strabo, Geography, XVII, 1, 3- 5.) Prabon - one of the most prominent geograffs of antiquity. Was born in the city of Amasia (Malay Asia) in the 60s. d about n. A.D., died 24 A.D. e. In 24 BC. e. In the retinue of the Roman governor of Egypt, Elijah Galla, visited this country and rode it from Aleksandr and d about the border of N ubi. In addition, according to him, he visited the land from Armenii to Sardinia and from the Black Sea to Ethiopia. About the countries in which Strabo had not been, he took the place of information from other writers of oil. 0 including one of the outstanding scientists of the Alexander School of Eratosthenes from Cyrene (2 75 - 195 BC) , the author of many works on mathematics, philosophy, chronology, etc. The most famous work after him - "Geography" in 3 books in which he laid the foundation for the study of this science. It was often used by Strabo. He himself wrote the work, also under the title "Geography", in 17 books, where he described all the well-known ancient lands of the country. This work is an extremely important historical source, as it contains a huge amount of factual material. ... 3. More must, however, be said about the Egyptian first, in order to move from the more famous to the more distant. And this country [Egypt], and the adjacent country, and the country of the Ethiopians located behind it, receive from the Nile some general properties, for when the water rises, the river gives them water, making only that part of them inhabited that is covered [water] during floods, lying higher and farther from the stream, leaving on both sides uninhabited and deserted due to lack of water. However, the Nile does not flow through the whole of Ethiopia, and it does not flow alone, and not in a straight line, and on the land is not well-populated: in Egypt, it flows alone across the whole country and in a straight line, starting from the small rapids behind Siena 1 and Elephantine 2, which are the border of Egypt and Ethiopia, before entering the sea. Indeed, the Ethiopians live for the most part like nomads3, poor because of the poverty of the country and the immoderate climate and remoteness from us; The Egyptians, on the other hand, had the opposite, because from the very beginning they live a state and cultural life and settled in certain places, so that their orders are known. Egyptians have a good reputation for enjoying the wellbeing of their country in a dignified manner through judicious dividing and caring for it. Having chosen the king, they divided the mass of the people and called some warriors, others - farmers, and still others - priests; sacred deeds are subject to the care of the priests, and human affairs are subject to the care of the rest; of the latter, some were engaged in military affairs, while others were peaceful - agriculture and handicrafts, it was from them that the tribute to the king came. The priests were engaged in philosophy and astronomy and were the royal interlocutors. The country was originally divided into 4 nomes, with ten nomes in Thebaid5, ten in the Delta region, and sixteen in the middle region; some say that there were as many all the nomes as there were courtyards in maze 6, and these last were [not] less than thirty [six]; the nomes again had other subdivisions, for the majority was divided into toparchies, which in turn were divided into parts, the smallest subdivisions were separate fields. This exact and petty division was needed because of the constant mixing of the boundaries that the Nile produces during floods, reducing and enlarging individual parts, changing their shapes and destroying all kinds of signs by which the alien is distinguished from its own; therefore new dimensions were required. It is said that this is where geometry originated, just as the Phoenicians had the art of counting and arithmetic through trade. As the entire population and all people in each number were divided into three parts, so the country was divided into three equal parts. Work on the river is as varied as it is necessary to conquer nature by constant labor. By its very nature, the country bears many fruits, and thanks to irrigation, even more; naturally. a greater rise in the river irrigates more land, but age sometimes replenished what nature refused, so that with a lower rise in water, the same amount of land is irrigated as with more, thanks to canals and dams; so, in the days before Petronius7, the greatest fertility and the rise of water were when the Nile rose by fourteen cubits, when by eight [cubits], hunger came; when he [Petronius] ruled the country and the height of the Nile reached only twelve cubits, the fertility was the greatest, and even when one time the height of the water reached only eight [cubits], no one felt hunger. 4. The Nile flows from the borders of Ethiopia in a straight line northward to the so-called Delta area. Then, dividing at the headwaters, as Plato says, 8 he transforms this area, as it were, into the apex of a triangle. The sides of the triangle form branches that are divided in two directions, descending to the sea, on the right side towards Peluoius9, on the left towards Canopus 10 and the neighboring so-called Heraclea11, the base is the coast between Pelusius and Heracleon. Thus, the current of the two branches and the sea cut off an island, which is called Delta by the similarity of shape; however, the terrain at the summit is also called the same, because it is the beginning of the figure mentioned, and the village located there is also called the Delta. So, the Nile [has] these two mouths, of which one is called Pelusian, the other - Canopian and Heracles; between them [are] five other estuaries worthy of mention, the smaller ones are even larger, for many branches, branching from the very beginning throughout the island, formed many streams and islands, so that the whole island became navigable, since a large number of canals were dug , on which they float with such ease that some use clay boats. So, the whole island has about three thousand stades in circumference, they call it together with the opposite river area of \u200b\u200bthe Delta the Lower Country; it hides itself when the Nile floods and, with the exception of dwellings, becomes the sea; the latter are erected on natural hills or embankments, so that significant cities and villages look like islands from a distance. For more than forty days the water is kept at a height in summer until it begins to gradually subside; it is the same when [water] rises; within sixty days the plain is finally exposed and dries up; the faster it dries, the sooner plowing and sowing occurs, and most likely where it is hotter. The land above the Delta is irrigated in the same way; besides, the river for about four thousand stades flows in a forward direction along the same channel, except if somewhere there is an island, of which the most significant is the one that concludes the Heracles nom, or if somewhere the course of the river is deflected by a channel into some large lake or an area that it can irrigate, as [for example] is the case with [a channel] irrigating Arsinoiskin and Lake Merida 12, and [channels] pouring out into Mareotida 13 In short, the irrigated area is only that part of Egypt that lies on both sides of the Nile, starting from the borders of Ethiopia and reaching the top of the Delta, and the continuous stretch of inhabited land only in some places reaches three hundred stades. Thus, with the exception of significant deviations, the river looks like an elongated belt. The mountains that descend on both sides from the vicinity of Siena to the Egyptian Sea give this shape to the river valley, which I am talking about, and to the whole country: how much they stretch and how far they are from each other, how much the river narrows and overflows and variously "changes the shape of the inhabited land; beyond the mountains the country is mostly uninhabited. 5. Ancient writers mainly on the basis of conjectures (who lived later as eyewitnesses) argued that the Nile was flooded from summer rains that occur in upper Ethiopia and mainly in the extreme mountains, and that as the rains cease, the floods also gradually cease.This is obvious mainly for those who swim in the Arabian Gulf to the Kinpamon-bearing country 15, and for those who are sent to hunt for elephants ... So, the ancients they called Egypt only that part of the country inhabited and irrigated by the Nile - starting from the vicinity of Siena to the sea; later writers added to the East, almost the entire space between the Arabian Gulf 16 and the Nile, from the western regions of the country to the Avaseys and on the coast from the Kanop estuary to Katabatma 17 and the region of the Kirenians 18. Perev. OV Kudr I in c: in and. 1 Siena - Greek name of the Egyptian fortress and Suanu, located at the first port - modern ss uya n. 2 Elephantine - "an island on Nile, near the first rapids opposite Siena, and a town located on it. The Egyptian name - "Abu" - "elephant", because through this from the city a new bone was transported to Egypt from Central Africa. 3 Nomad s - past the w essky nomadic tribes. 4 Nom is the Greek name for the blastes to which Egypt was divided. According to the Egyptian dokums there, they were pied at 42.5 F and v a and d a - the Greek name for the region in southern Egypt, adjacent to the city O kind of Thebes. LABIRINT Om the Greeks called and the contented pharaon of the XII dynasty Amen Emhet III (1 8 4 9 - 1801 BC). BC) chram in F ayum skom oasis, located at a distance from the valley of the Nile. 7 Petron and "the Roman governor of Egypt yri imperator Octavian Augustus in the 20s. BC. 8 Plato is the famous Greek phylum - Idealist (4 2 7 - 3 4 7 BC) 9 Pelusi - Fortified city to the north -east border of itse Egypt. 10 K a n o p - a city at the mouth of the Ava Nile. 11 GERAKLEON - a city in Egypt bl from Canop. 12 N ohms and lakes, which are located in F ayum skom oasis. 13 Mareot ida is a lake in Nizhny Novgorod Egypt, near Aleksandr and formed by Kanopsk by the order of Nil. 14 Egyptian Sea - Middle Terrestrial Sea. 15 Kin n a mono n about a country - the south-west end of the Arabian Peninsula, from the time of Yemen. 16 A rav and y with k and y z l and in - the Red Sea. 17 Katabatma is a fortress and port on the Middle Sea. The westernmost point of Egypt in the Ptolemaean era. Modern - A kab ah -A with sol he. 18 Inhabited by the Greek colony of Cyrene on the north coast of Afrik. No. 2. NATURE OF NUBIA (Strabo, Geography, 1, 2, 25.) ... Ethiopia lies in a straight line directly behind Egypt, in a similar relation it is to the Nile, but has a different nature of the area. For it is both narrow and long and prone to floods. What is outside the limits of the flooded [part] is both deserted and waterless and is capable of insignificant settlement both in the direction to the east and in the direction to the west. P er ev. O. V. Kudrya vtseva and. № 3. FROM ANCIENT ANNALS Ancient from the preservation of all Egyptians, from their ancient annals, are inscribed on the so-called “PALERMSKOM STONE e ”(pom with her in the town of Palermo, in Italy, where he is stored). It is very difficult to understand because of the archaic character of language and writing and the fragmentation of the text. It was carved from two sides by a diorite slab, from which an insignificant volume of about 43.5 cm / X 2 5 cm survived. Starting from the second row, each rectangle into which the lines are divided, with Contains a brief record of the main events that occurred at this time. At the top of each row was the name of the tsar. On the front side of the stele were inscribed the names of the same kings (upper row) and I-III dynasties. In all the rest, ending with the V dynasty, were on the other side. As already pointed out, the text is very phrased mental, and only a few feet and places can be used with a language first. Below are the excerpts in which the events of individual years are recounted during the reign of S n of ru (after the last day of the III day st and i), Shepseska f a (after the last phase of the IV dynasty) and Ueerk af a (the first phase of the V dynasty), which ruled in the first quarter of the III millennium: the construction of ships and temples, sacrificing chrismas, establishing holidays, trips, etc. p. P erevod sdelan according to the publication: N. S ch a fer, Ein B r uc hstu ck a lt a g y p t is c h e r A n n alen. A b h a n d lu n g e n der K o n ig lic h e n p r e u s s i s c h e n A k a d e m ie der W i s s e n sc h aften. R ^ erlin, 1902. The beginning of the oblast: does not have a list of events for 10 or P years. Year X +1. [Birth] of both children of the king of Lower Egypt1. Year X + 2. The construction of a hundred cubits ship of wood measures "Worship of both lands" and 60 sixteen [cubit?] Royal barges. Destruction of the country of Nekhsi 2. Delivery of 7000 prisoners, men and women, 200,000 heads of cattle and small livestock 3. Construction of the wall of the South and North country [under the name]: fortress (?) Sneferu. Delivery of 40 ships with (?) Kedrovy tree roar. Rise of the Nile: 2 elbows, 2 fingers. Construction of 35 fortresses ............ Construction of the ship "Worship of both lands" of cedar wood and two ships of one hundred cubits of wood -m er. 7th time reckoning 4. Rise of the Nile: 5 cubits, 1 palm, 1 palea. Year X + 4. Construction [of buildings?] "High is the crown of Sneferu at the South Gate" and "High is the crown of Sneferu at the North Gate." Manufacturing of cedar wood doors for the royal palace. Numbering 8th time 5. Raise the Nile: 2 elbows, 2 palms, 23/4 fingers. (MORE VISUAL.) Pharaoh Year 1. Shepsescaph. The appearance of the king of Upper Egypt. The appearance of the king of Lower Egypt. The connection of both lands. Walking around [around] the walls. Holiday - Seshed 6. Birth of both Upuat 7. The king worships the gods who united the two lands ... Choosing a place for the pyramid "Heaven of Shepseskaf 8". (Further, in addition to the indication of the height by the rise of N silt, only the lower part of two columns of the text were preserved.) Pharaoh Userkaf. Year X +2. The king of Upper and Lower Egypt Userkaf donated the shaft (literally: made) as his monument for: Spirits of Heliopolis 9 20 sacrificial rations10 on each ... holiday, 36 arable land seet (arur) n ... in ... the land of Userkaf. To the gods (sanctuaries of the sun god ...) Sep-ra of arable land 24 seals ... 2 bulls and 2 geese daily. [To God] Ra - arable land 44 seize in the pomps Se vera (to the goddess) Hator - arable land 44 seize in the north. To the gods of the "House of Horus" Jeba Herut (?) Of arable land 54 sect. The construction of his chapel (Mountain) in the Butoh temple in Ksoissky nome 12. Sena 15 - arable land 2 sechat. The construction of his temple. [To the Goddess] Nehsbt 14 in the "Sacred Palace" South 1510 sacrificial rations daily. 1in the Gods of the "Sacred Palace" Nega 48 sacrificial rations daily. 3-times reckoning of livestock. Rise of the Nile: 4 cubits, 2! / 2 fingers. Transl. / /. S. K ssh nelso na. 1 These gods are remembered in the Texts of P and ramid. This is obviously a religious holiday. 2 In the epoch of the Ancient Kingdom under "N ehsi", the tribes that had been around the southern border of Egypt, were at odds with "Aa m u" - a z and a there. Subsequently, non-psychiatric institutions were formed in the general population of southern countries, including blacks. 3 Figures, it seems, are exaggerated. A P o u r a n e c e n a l e t e n t e n t e n t e n t e n t e n t to establish the tax. These reckonings were usually performed every two years. From this point, it is possible to conclude that there is a lack of records relating to the first 10-11 years of the reign of the SNOF 5 FIRST n and e about counting and benefits two years in a row. 6 A s o lv n about: bandages. 7 More: the discoverers of the way. According to one of the legends, they "took it over and over and over the earth", if they were the people of O si rice in his fight with his brother - a rival Set. The image of the wolf. 8 T o is a place where the deceased king will stay together with the gods. Hence, it follows that Pharaon began to build a burial place with him after accession to the throne. 9 City in the southern part of Delta, near Memfis. One of the other cities in Egypt. The center of the cult of God is the son of Ra. 10 D o w about: bread, beer, cookies. 11 Unit and size of area 2735 sq. meters. 12 One of the other Egyptian cities, the center of the cult of the god Horus. I was in the 6th of N i n e g about Egypt. 13 Possibly, the sanctuary of Anub Isa, the god of the dead. The patron goddess of the Verahneg of Egypt, turned into the shape of a kite. 15 The goddess of the patron saint of N and N e g about Egypt, revered in the form of a snake. 16 The name of one of the holy sites of N and y of Egypt, we went to Buto. No. 4. FROM METEN'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY Auto biography It is important not only as one of the first documents in a wide variety of ways, which received a wide range of applications. the end of the Ancient Kingdom, but also as a historical source, preserved from the first centuries of the existence of the Egyptian condemnation, so scarce written memorials. Methena lived at the end of the reign of the III dynasty - the beginning of the reign of the IV dynasty (c. 2900 BC). In the hieroglyphic inscription carved in his tomb, he spoke about his service career and was transferred to the life and property he had accumulated , which will make it possible to clarify the structures of the state apparatus and to identify some features of the economic and social order of that time. It is characteristic that the main source of the good fortune of this great state, who transcended him from the service, was the wishes of the farmer, about his large estates. Translated from the publication: K. S eth e, U rk u n d en d es Leipzig, 1903. U rk u n d en dcs a g y p ti s c h e n A ile r t u m s. Abt. IV. THE HERITAGE RECEIVED BY Alten Reiches, METHENE was given to him the property of his father Inpuemanch, judge and scribe: there was (neither) grain, (nor) property of any household, but there were people and small livestock. [KARE RA METENA.] He was made the first food store scribe (?), Food store property manager (?), He was made ... (he) was the nomarch of the Bull Nome 1 after (was) the Judge of the Bull Nome. .. he was made the commander of all the royal flax, he was made the ruler of the settlements Perkeda 2 ... he was made nomarch of Dep 3, the ruler of the great fortification of Perm 2 and Persep, nomarch of Sais 4 ... PROPERTY ACCUMULATED BY METHANE Was acquired by him. (i.e., Methen). 200 arur fields with numerous royal people: a daily sacrifice (for) a sanctuary of 100 loaves of bread from the temple of the Soul, the royal mother Enmaathap ;. a house 200 cubits long and 200 cubits wide, built, furnished with beautiful trees planted, a huge pond made in it, fig trees and vines planted. It is written here as in a royal document; their names are here, as on the royal document. Trees are planted and a huge vineyard, they make a lot of wine there. He made a vineyard of two thousand arur within the walls; trees planted. P sp. And M. Lur'e. 1 L-th Nom of N and e of Egypt (K soissky). 2 Name of the area. 3 LATER was included in the composition of the av b-th nome of N and e g about Egypt; in these times, a was an independent nominee of the 4th 5th N and of Egypt (Says skii). N L1\u003e 5. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PYRAMIDS (I "erodot. History, II, 124-125.) Herodot. C. 4H4 BC. In Galik arnass (Malaya Aziya), d. About * 425 BC Airrop is the first historical work, named after the next tradition as the “father of history.” Ger Odot made a number of distant travels: he visited Eishet (c. 445 BC), where he climbed the course of the Nile before Ele - phantina, was in Tire, Syria, Plestian, North Arabia, in Vavilon, apparently, in the vicinity of Susa, and possibly in Eqbatan; traveled along the northern coasts of Pont and Colchis , Thrace, Macedonia, etc. Herodotus's "And Story" consists of 9 books named after the nine muses (this is introduced later), and includes about Isan and e of almost all and the starry about then the children of the world. Not knowing the oriental languages, Gerod was needed to ask for clarifications and to the translators, guides, Greek merchants, who gave always correct explanations. The Egyptian and Vav Ilonian priests, who were monopoly possessors and knowledge of that time, avoided communicating with the “Arvars”, which were foreigners for them. For this reason, Gerodot was supposed to use stories, folk and legends, walking and anocdotes, etc. This explains those numerous misleading information, in particular, a complete distortion of the historical perspective that are characteristic of his work. At the same time, he thoroughly described everything that was personal to him, constantly referring to the monuments he looked at, and c and t and I have some inscriptions. In the "History" there are also excerpts from the writings of other travelers and historians that have not come about us. Thus, with a critical attitude to the work of Gerodot, with a careful comparison of it with the original and documents and archeol ogy chesk them and monuments , it is possible to extract extremely valuable information from it, which will allow the right to consider "History" as irreplaceable and an important source for history countries of the Ancient East. The following passage is a first description of the pyramids. At the same time, he assures that even in the V century. d about n. e., despite the two and a half thousand years that have elapsed since the reign of Cheops, in the people's memory should have been kept in memory of the oppression and calamities in which this pharaon overthrow Egypt, forcing the entire country to labor on the maintenance of their tomb. Description of the process of constructing the pyramid, how the last research works, and how it works. 124. It was said that the king of Rampsinite 1 in Egypt had good laws in all respects, and Egypt flourished greatly; Cheops, who reigned over them [the Egyptians], plunged the country into all possible troubles, for he first locked up all the sanctuaries and forbade them [the Egyptians] to offer sacrifices, after he forced all the Egyptians to work for him. One was, as they say, ordered from quarries in the Arabian mountains to carry stones to the Nile; after the stones had been ferried across the river in ships, he ordered others to receive them and drag them to the ridge called Libyan. One hundred thousand people worked continuously every three months. Time, as they say, ten years passed, while the people languished over the construction of the road along which the stones were dragged, the work is only slightly easier than the construction of the pyramid, as it seems to me (for its length is five stades2, its width is ten orgies3, the height but where it is the highest - eight orgies, and it is made of polished stone with images of living beings carved on it); and it took ten years to build this road and underground rooms in the hill on which the pyramids stand; these premises he [Cheops] made himself a tomb on the island, having drawn a canal from the Nile. The construction of the pyramid itself took, as they say, twenty years; each side of it has eight plethras 4, but it itself is quadrangular, and the same height; it is made of polished stone, which is the best fit to each other; none of the stones is less than thirty feet 5. 125. The pyramid itself is made as follows: with the help of ledges, which some call battlements, others altar. When it was first made like this, the remaining stones were lifted by machines made of short pieces of wood; the stone was lifted from the ground to the first row of ledges; when the stone fell into place, it was placed on the second car, which stood on the first row of ledges; from here the stone was lifted to the second row with the help of another machine; for as many rows of ledges were there, there were as many cars, or there was one and the same machine, easily moved from one row to another when they wanted to lift a stone; so, we talked about both methods, exactly as they say. First, the upper parts of the pyramid were trimmed, then the supporting parts, the last ones were trimmed with its ground and the lowest ones that lie on the ground. An Egyptian inscription on the pyramid indicates how much was spent on radish, onion and garlic for the workers; and as I well remember, a translator who read the letters told me that one thousand six hundred talents of silver 6 had been spent. If this is the case, how much else could have been spent on the iron with which they worked, and food and clothing for the workers? If the said time was spent on these works, then, I think, a lot of time has passed also in breaking stones and dragging them and digging them underground. Transl. O. V. Kudrya vtseva and. 1 R ams IV (according to the period of numbering III) - head of the XX dynasty (1 2 0 4 - 1180 BC). Herodot with all the shortcomings of the i-th sign of the history of Egypt before the history of Egypt before the osh and with the og og oper iodine, he mistakenly considered Cheops (Egyptian. X uf y) - Pharaoh of the IV dynasty (c. 2800 BC) - the successor of Ramses IV 2 St and d \u003d 184.97 meters. 3 Orgies \u003d 1.85 meters. 4 Plethr \u003d 3 0 8 3 meters. 5 According to modern measurements, the size of the Cheops pyramid during the construction was: the length of the base. ... ... ... 233 meters in height .......................... 146.5 meters in volume ....... .................. 2 5 2 1 0 0 0 cbm meters. Nowadays, these dimensions have slightly decreased due to the influence of natural factors and disruptions caused by people for a long time and thousands of people. P i ramida was built from yellow sandstone, to be found in the edge, and was about blitz white stone, left from the stones of the olomen of Mokattama and Turra, located on the eastern bank of the Nile, south of the time of Cairo. 6 P there were no approved inscriptions on the piers. Unrecognized lawyers or translators have probably counted the lists of victims left to support the cult of those who died. in and their loved ones, for the lists of products "wasted maintenance of workers. № 6. LIFE STORY OF VELMOZHYUNA I er ogl ificheskaya inscription on a plate found in Abidos in Upper Egypt and stored in it her time in the Kairsk ommuzey. BIOGRAPHY gives a different picture of the administrative, military, and other everyday life and construction activities of the pharaon at the end of the Drevn e g about Ts and rstva (pharaons of the VI dynasty of Aunt, Piopi I and Merenra). ABOUT PISNING ABOUT THE VEHICLE OF THE VEHICLE OF THE ARMY DANO IN THE FORM OF A WAR SONG. Best edition: K S et he, U rk und en d es A lten R eich es, L e ip z ig, 1903, pp. 9 3-110. INTRODUCTION [Prince, chief of Upper Egypt], located in the palace the guardian of Nehen \\ the head of Neheb2, the only friend [of Pharaoh], revered by Osiris, who stands at the head of the dead, Una (says): THE BEGINNING OF THE SERVICE OF FUCKING ACTIVITIES [I was a young man], girded with a belt [of maturity] under the majesty of Aunt3, and my office was the head of the house of shna 4. I was the caretaker of the palace hent and u - she 5. ... the elder of the palace under the Majesty Piopi 6. His Majesty elevated me to the rank of friend and caretaker of the priests of the city at his pyramid. APPOINTMENT OF JUDGES When my office was ..., his [Majesty appointed me! by the judge and through the mouth of Nehen 7, for he relied on me more than any other servant of his. I conducted the interrogation alone with the chief judge - the supreme dignitary in the event of any secret case ... on behalf of the king, the royal women's house and the 6 supreme judicial presences, since His Majesty relied on me more than on any other dignitary, more more than any other nobleman of his, more than any of his servants. EQUIPMENT OF UNA'S TOMB by PHARAOH I asked the Majesty of my master to get me a limestone coffin from [Memphis quarries] Ra-au8. His Majesty ordered that the [dignitary] treasurer of the god9 should cross the [Nile] with a party of workers of the ship's captain (?), His assistant (?), In order to deliver this coffin from Ra-au to me. He (the coffin) arrived with him at the residence on a large cargo ship, together with [his] lid, a tombstone with a niche, ruit I), two gemex 11 and one sats, 2. Never was anything like this done to any (other) servant, since I took advantage of His Majesty's favor, since I was pleased with His Majesty, since His Majesty relied on me. APPOINTMENT OF THE HEAD OF THE PALACE H HEN TI U-SH E When I was a judge and through the mouth of Nehen, his Majesty meant me to be the only friend and head of the palace hentiu-she. I removed the 4 chiefs of the palace hentiu-she who were there. I acted in such a way that I elicited the approval of His Majesty, organizing security, preparing the way for the king and organizing a parking lot. I did everything in such a way that His Majesty praised me extremely for it. P R O C E S S P R O T AND V W E N S C A R Y U R E T K E T E S (?) The case was conducted in the royal women's house against the wife of the king Uretkhetes (?) In secret. His Majesty ordered me to go down (?) To conduct an interrogation of one, and there was not a single chief judge-supreme dignitary, not one [other] dignitary, except me alone, since I enjoyed the favor and was pleasing to his majesty and as his majesty relied on me. It was I who kept the record alone with one judge and the mouth of Nie hyung, and my position was [only] the head of the palace hentiu-she. Never before had a man of my position listened to the secret affairs of the royal women's house, but His Majesty told me to listen, since I enjoyed the favor of His Majesty more than his other dignitary, more than any of his other nobles, more than any of his other servants. PREPARATIONS FOR WAR WITH BEDUINS AND His Majesty reflected the Bedouin Asians. His Majesty took an army from many tens of thousands throughout Upper Egypt, from Elephantine in the south to the Aphroditopolis region in the north 13, in Lower Egypt, in the western and eastern half of the Delta along their entire length, in a fortress (? ), in the fortresses, among the Irchet Nubi, the Medja Nubians, the Ima Nubians, the Uauat Nubians, the Kaau Nubians and in the Libyan country. YOU ARE STARTING A CAMPAIGN UNA'S LEADERSHIP His Majesty sent me to lead this army; local princes, treasurers of the king of Upper Egypt, the only friends of the palace, heads and governors of Upper and Lower Egypt, friends, chiefs of translators, chiefs of priests of Upper and Lower Egypt and chiefs of [directorates] ges-peer were at the head of the detachments of the upper and the lower Egyptian villages and villages and the Nubians of these countries. It was I who commanded over them, and my position was [only] the head of the palace hentiushe, in view of ... my position, so that none of them did any harm to the other, so that none of them took away bread and sandals from traveler, so that none of them took away clothes in any village, so that none of them took a single goat from any person. I brought them to the North Island, to the Gate of Ihotep and the district [Horus] justly, in this position ... I was told the number (of people) of these detachments - (it) was never reported to any other servant. RETURN OF THE VICTORY TROOPS This army returned safely, having destroyed the Bedouin country. This army returned safely, ravaging the Bedouin country. This army returned safely, demolishing its fortresses. This army returned safely, cutting down her fig trees and grapes. This army returned safely, lighting a fire in all of them ... This army returned safely, killing troops in it, including many tens of thousands. This army returned safely, [capturing] many [troops] prisoners in it. His Majesty praised me for this tremendously REBELLION OF RUNNING His Majesty sent me five times to lead [this] army and pacify the Bedouin country, each time they rebelled, with the help (?) Of these troops. I acted in such a way that [his] majesty praised me [for that]. WALK BY SEA AND A DRY COUNTRY IN THE COUNTRY OF BEDUINS "GAZELIUM IN SOUTH NO S", SEVERNE PALESTINA It was reported that the rebels ... among these foreigners on Gazelle Nosu, 3. I crossed the ships with these detachments and landed at the high spurs of the mountain north of the country of the Bedouins, and a whole half of this army [was] by land. I came and grabbed them all. All the rebels were killed among them. APPOINTMENT OF THE HEAD OF UPPER EGYPT When I was the palace acu16 and the bearer of [Pharaoh's] sandals, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Merenre 17, my lord, who may live forever, appointed me the local prince and leader of Upper Egypt from Elephantine in the south to Afrodite as I enjoyed the favor of his majesty, as I was pleasing to his majesty, as his majesty relied on me. When I was an ache and wearer of sandals, His Majesty praised me for my vigilance and for the security I organized at the site of the camp, more than any other dignitary of his, more than any nobleman of his, more than any other servant of his. Never before had this position been given to any other servant. I was the ruler of Upper Egypt for his joy, so that no one in him did harm to another. I did all the work; I have imposed everything that was to be imposed in favor of the residence here in Upper Egypt twice, and all the duties that were to be imposed in favor of the residence here in Upper Egypt twice. I have fulfilled the office of dignitary in an exemplary manner here in Upper Egypt. Never before had this been done here in Upper Egypt. I did everything in such a way that His Majesty praised me for that. EXPEDITION TO THE NUBI STONEBREAK AND E L E F A N T IN Y N A Y G E G E G I P T A IBKHAT His Majesty sent me to Ibhat 18 to deliver the sarco phage "Chest of the Living" with its lid and a precious and luxurious top for the pyramid : "Merepra is also merciful," madam. His Majesty sent me to Elephantine to deliver a granite slab with a niche along with its sats and granite doors and ruit, and to deliver the granite doors and sats of the upper chamber of the pyramid "Merenre is also gracious," madam. They sailed with me down the Nile to the pyramid "Merenre is merciful and merciful" in 6 cargo and 3 transport ships 8 months (?) And 3 ... in one expedition. Never at any time visited Ibhat and Elephantine on the same expedition. And no matter what was ordered by his majesty, I did everything, according to everything that his majesty commanded about (?). EXPEDITION TO THE ALABASTRE KAM ENOLOM NI IN S RED EGYPT KHATNUB (His Majesty sent me to Khatnub 19 to deliver a large sacrificial slab of Khatnub alabaster. I lowered this slab, broken in Khatnub, for him) in just 17 days 20. I sent it down the Nile in this freighter - I built a 60 cubits long and 30 cubits wide acacia freighter for it, and it took only 17 days to build - in the 3rd summer month, despite the fact that the water did not cover [more ] shoals. I moored safely at the pyramid "Merepra is merciful". I have accomplished everything, according to the order given by the majesty of my master. SECOND E K S P E D I C I K N I K O L S K I M P O R O G A M IN THE SOUTH E G I P T A I V N U B I J Z S T R O I T E L N Y M M A T E R I A L O M D L A P I R A M I \u200b\u200bD S His Majesty sent me to dig 5 canals in Upper Egypt and build 3 cargo and 4 transport ships from Akania Wauat. At the same time, the rulers Irchet and Medzha supplied a tree for them. I completed everything in one year. They were launched and loaded to capacity with granite [on the way] to the pyramid "Merenre is also gracious." I did, further, ... for the palace along all these 5 channels, since the power of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Merenr, who may live forever, is majestic, ... and is impressive to a greater extent than all the gods, since everything carried out in accordance with the order given by him. CONCLUSION I was truly a man loved by my father and praised by my mother, ... enjoying the favor of his brothers, a local prince, a serviceable chief of Upper Egypt, honored by Osiris, Una. 1 Ancient residence of the kings of Northern Egypt; we went to places after his last Ierakon field. 2 The ancient capital of the Upper Egypt, modern E l-K a b. She plopped opposite Nyakhen on the opposite side of the Nile's bank. 3 Pharaon Teti II (Atoti) - the first pharaon of the VI dynasty (middle of the XXVI century BC) I Possibly, workshops or barns (sk l and d s). Mr. Possibly, the leasers, who have come to the king's land. 6 Pharaon Piopi I - the third pharaon of the VI dynasty. 7 Judicial office. 8 Kamen olom ni about Memfisa, modern. Turra. 9 Must be a dignitary. 10 N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N P N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N - some part of the door II Also some part of the door, possibly sashes or jambs. 12 Parts of the burial slab - niches. 13th 22nd Supreme of Egypt, located in the south of modern Cairo. m The specified places are not suitable for the exact definition; Most of it, they found themselves on the eastern border of Delta, near the Si nai ostrov. 15 Probably, the edge of the mountain ridge of K arm el-in the Eastern Palestine. , r\u003e P r and d w o r n a d l n o st. The meaning of this title is unknown. 17 Faraon of the VI dynasty Merenra I - the father of Piopi II - ruled ca. the end of the XXVI century. d about n. e. 18 The location has not been established. And bhat in N killings were found above the second threshold. The Egyptians did not penetrate into the era of the Ancient Egyptians farther from the Northern N slaughter. 19 Kamen olom ni, where al ebaster was found in the mountains near the capital of Akhenaten - Akhetaton (since the time of Tell - el - Amar a - north e m and f a luta). 20 You will see it - from the mountains, where the olomni stone was located, to the banks of the Nile. No. 7. AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF HUEFKHOR B ioography of Elephantine Gonomarch Huefkhor - contemporary of the Pharaons of the 6th dynasty Merenre I and Piopi II (c. BC), inscribed on his tomb, carved into the rocks near the first threshold, is one of the most important texts of the end of the Ancient Kingdom. The grout was opened in 1891.Hu efho r talks about three consolations made by him on the instructions of the headlights in N ub and yu, and leads to a request Here is a copy of the letter sent to him on behalf of Piopi II, who is one of the oldest Egyptian documents of a similar nature to us. Biography Khufhora not only characterizes the foreign policy of Egypt in the south and clarifies the list of products left from there, but it is to complete and expand information about N u bi and s

* UCHPEDGIZ 1953 AHRESTOMATIA ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD PAUL BY EDITORIAL ACADEMICIAN V. IN STRUVA / VOLUME \\ III, 1 THAT STATE EDUCATIONAL PEDAGOGICAL PUBLISHING "MINISTRY OF EDUCATION RSFSR history of the ancient world - "Ancient Rome" - contains mainly documents on the socio-economic and political history of Rome. The third volume includes a significant number of literary and epigraphic sources published in Russian for the first time. In this edition, unlike previous ones, there is a section on the history of the Northern Black Sea region. Methodical introductions preceding individual chapters of the anthology are intended to facilitate the use of a number of documents. The anthology is intended for seminars for students of history faculties of universities and history teachers in secondary schools. // A. Mashkin I and E. S. Golubtsova THE RISE OF THE ROMAN STATE OF THE EARLY REPUBLIC OF DR Eunius Rome, one of the most powerful slave states in the Mediterranean world, has passed a long and difficult path of development throughout its existence. The question of what reasons contributed to the rise of Rome has been of interest to historians since ancient times. The ancient authors Strabo and Polybius were looking for an explanation of the power of Rome in its advantageous geographical position (document No. 1, 2). The characteristics of the most ancient, "pre-Roman" population of Italy and, first of all, the Etruscans are given by the material reported by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (document no. 3). In addition to literary sources, it is important to draw on archaeological data that recreate vivid pictures of the life and life of the Etruscans, starting with their appearance in Italy (in the 8th century BC). K. Marx emphasizes the common features of the development of the Etruscans with other peoples of antiquity: "On a colossal scale, the effect of simple cooperation is found in those gigantic structures that were erected by the ancient Asian peoples, Egyptians, Etruscans, etc." (K. Marx, Capital, vol. I, 1951, art; p. 340). Literary data on the origin of Rome are legendary and contradictory. This is noted by the ancient authors themselves. So, for example, Dionysius of Galmcarnassky (doc. No. 4) says that "there is a lot of disagreement both on the question of the time of the founding of the city of Rome and the identity of its founder." The most widespread was the version cited by Libya (doc. No. 5): the founder of Rome was a descendant of the Trojan Aeneas, who came to Italy. 5 The events of the early period of the history of Rome should be studied in the light of F. Engels in his work "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State." The question of Servius Tullius's reform, which resulted in the transition from the clan system to the state organization, should also be covered in the same plan (current No. 6). Throughout the entire era of the early republic, the struggle between the rich and the poor, the full and powerless, the patricians and the plebeians, runs like a red line; sources tell us about it from the earliest times of the Roman state. The success of the plebeians in this struggle is evidenced, for example, by the establishment of the posts of people's tribunes to protect their (plebeian) interests (doc. No. 7). Spurius Cassius' bill proposed to divide between them all the lands acquired by the Romans during the wars to improve the position of the plebeians. The oldest epigraphic monument of Roman history is the laws of the XII tables (doc. No. 8). The appearance of such legislation also testifies to some of the successes of the plebeians in the fight against patricians. It should be borne in mind that our information about the laws of the XII tables is not accurate and is sometimes distorted when transmitted by later authors. The main part of the articles of the code is devoted to the protection of property. Debtors are subject to severe penalties. The father of the family enjoys the right of unlimited ruler, he can sell his children into slavery. According to the laws of the XII tables, property is protected by Roman law. For theft under these laws, a large fine and even the death penalty is imposed. The rite of acquiring property - mantsnpation - was legalized. A special chapter in the laws of the XII tables is devoted to the issue of inheritance. A significant success of the plebeians in the fight against the patricians was that, according to the laws of Licinius and Sextius, one of the consuls was to be elected from among the plebeians. The events of the internal history of early Rome must be presented in close connection with its aggressive foreign policy: the struggle against the Etruscans, wars with the Latins, Samnites and other peoples. The Romans seize one after the other the lands adjacent to their possessions, as a result of which in the first period of the Republic, Rome from the insignificant city of Latium becomes the largest center of Italy. Explaining the history of the early republic, it should be borne in mind that our sources - Libya, Plutarch and others - always reliably convey events, present them biasedly, exaggerating the strength of the Roman state. From this point of view, Libya's tendentious description of the events in the Kavdin Gorge (doc. No. 9), when the Romans suffered a decisive defeat in the fight against the Samnites, is very characteristic. After the defeat in the Cavdin Gorge, the Roman army was reorganized, and it was only with great difficulty that the Romans won a victory over the Samnites much later, in the third Samnite war. ... A brief outline of the politics of Rome in this era is given by Polybius (doc. No. 10). Having conquered the lands that belonged to the Samnites, the Romans were the direct neighbors of the southern Italian Greek cities and, first of all, Tarentum. South Italian cities were colonies taken out in the VII-VI bz. before and. e. the Greeks; they stubbornly defended their state independence. The most important of them, Tarentum - a colony withdrawn by Sparta - entered into an alliance with the Epirus king Pyrrhus to fight against Rome. Having outlined the events of the times of the Pyrrhic war, it is necessary to emphasize why the Romans managed to win, dwell on the Roman military tactics and the expedition of Pyrrhus, which was, in essence, an adventure. The end of the war with Pyrrhus ended the first period of the conquests of Rome - the conquest of Italy. 6 No. 1. GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE OF ITALY (Strabo, Geography, II, 5, 27; IV, 4, 1) Prab oi, a native of Amasia Poitpiskaya, was born in the mid-60s Goths. B.C. * died in A.D. 24 e. He came from a wealthy family and received a good education - he studied the philosophy of Aristotle and Stoics. He devoted much attention to acquaintance with history and geography. Strabo traveled a lot, undertook a number of expeditions: westward to Sardinia and southward to the borders of Ethiopia. studied the geographical conditions and life of the peoples of Asia Minor, Greece and Italy.Since the establishment of the principate, Strabo moved to Rome, where he lived until the end of his life.In 24 BC, Strabo visited Epipet, who traveled from the Nile delta up to Its southern border. The work of Strabo "Geography" consists of 17 books. It contains a large amount of information not only on geography, io and on the history of Rome. Strabo is called the father of historical geography. In his writings, the works of predecessors and, first of all, Eratosthenes are critically used. "Geography" of Strabo is subdivided according to the territorial principle. Books 3-10-Europe (3 - Iberia, 4 - Gaul, 5 and 6 - Italy, 7 - North and East, 8, 9, 10 - Ella yes), 11-16 - Asia, 17 - Africa. Strabo pays much attention to the description of the customs and customs of peoples. For Ias, the information that Strabo reports about the Northern Black Sea region is especially valuable - about the natural conditions and population, in particular the tribes of the Roxolans, Scythians, etc. Of great value are Strabo's data on the history of the Northern Black Sea region, about which we often do not find a word in other ancient historians. Strabo is also the author of a historical work in six books, from which only excerpts have survived. Italy begins with the plains, which are located at the foot of the Alps and stretch to the Adriatic Sea and the surrounding areas. Behind these plains Italy is a long, narrow peninsula ending in capes, the entire length of which the Apennine Mountains stretch for seven thousand stadia. "Their width is not the same everywhere. The seas of the Tyrrhenian, Avzonian and Adriatic make Italy a peninsula. Now we will outline the most important conditions, thanks to which the Romans have now risen to such a height.The first of these conditions is that Italy, like an island, is surrounded, like a true fence, by the seas, with the exception of only a few parts, which in turn are protected by difficult passable mountains. that although most of its shores do not have harbors, the existing harbors are vast and very convenient ... Thirdly, Italy is located in different climatic zones, respectively, which there are a variety of animals, plants and generally all things necessary for humans. Italy stretches for the most part from north to south; significant in length and width Sicily joins Italy and, as a part of it ... Almost the entire length of it stretches the Apennine Mountains, which have plains and fertile hills on both sides, so that there is no part of Italy that does not have the convenience of mountains and plains. To all this must be added the large size and 7 many rivers and lakes, as well as in many places warm and cold springs, beneficial for health. In addition, there are many all kinds of metals, building materials, food for humans and for domestic animals, so it is impossible to express in words all the abundance and high dignity of the fruits that grow here. Finally, being located among the most numerous peoples of Hellas and the best parts of Libya2, it, on the one hand, surpasses the surrounding countries in its dignity and size, which facilitates its domination over them; on the other hand, because of her proximity to them, she can easily maintain her power over these areas. Transl. F.G. Mishchenko. 1 Stages is a measure of length. The Roman stadia was 185 m, the Attic - 178 m. 2 Libya (Libya) - the northern coast of Africa (located between Numidia and Cyrenanka), its lands were famous for their fertility. № 2. DESCRIPTION OF ITALY (Polybius, II, 14, 15) Polybius was born in Arcadia at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC, died in the 20s of the II century. He came from a wealthy family. During the period of the struggle between Rome and Perseus, oi openly adhered to anti-Roman positions and after the defeat of the latter he was sent as a hostage to Rome. During his stay in the capital of a powerful state (Polybius lived there with interruptions for 16 years), his political views changed significantly. Oi met with representatives of the ruling elite of the Roman society and became an admirer of the Roman state system. During his life, Polybius traveled a lot, as he believed that the historian should "trust his eyes more than his ears." He visited Africa and Spain, witnessed the destruction of Carthage and the wasps of Numantia, visited Egypt, Gaul, knew Greece perfectly. The main work of Polybius is "World History" in 40 books, of which only 5 books have survived in full, some have survived in excerpts. It describes the events of 264-146. before and. e. The purpose of the work of Polybius, according to the author himself, is to show how and why the Romans subjugated most of the surrounding tribes and peoples to their power. The ideal political system, according to "the opinion of Polybius, was a combination of aristocratic, monarchical and democratic principles - a mixed form of government, the implementation of which found expression in the Roman" State. Polybius' admiration for the power of Rome is so great that he justifies even the conquest of his homeland - Greece. Polybius is more critical of his sources than other ancient historians; there is relatively little legend in his writings. Due to this, Polybius's information about the events of the Mediterranean history of the late III - early II century. in most cases can be considered reliable. All of Italy is a kind of triangle, one side of which, facing east, is washed by the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Gulf adjacent to it, the other side, facing south and west, washed by the Sicilian and Tyrrhenian 8 Seas Approaching each other, these sides form a southern promontory at the top Italy, called Coquinthus and separating the Ionian and Sicilian seas. The third side, going north along the mainland, forms the entire length of the Alpine Ridge, which starts from Massalia "and the lands lying over the Sardinian Sea, and stretches continuously to the most in-depth part of the Adriatic; only a short distance from the sea the ridge ends. The southern edge of the named the ridge should be taken, as it were, for the base of the triangle; to the south of it stretch the plains occupying the most extreme northern part of Italy, which we are talking about now; in fertility and vastness they surpass the rest of the plains of Europe known to us. The general appearance of these plains is also a triangle Its summit is formed by a combination of the so-called Apennine and Alpine mountains near the Sardinian Sea over Massalia.On the northern side of the plain stretch, as mentioned above, the Alps for two thousand two hundred stadia, and along the southern side stretch the Apennines for a space of three thousand six hundred stadia. The baseline of the whole figure is the coast of the Adriatic Gulf; the length of the base from the city of the Seine2 to the depression of the bay is more than two thousand five hundred stadia, so that the volume of the above plains is slightly less than ten thousand stadia. It is not easy to list all the virtues of this land. So, it abounds in bread to such an extent that in our time often the Sicilian "medimn 3" of wheat costs four obol 4, medim of barley two obol, the same is worth a meter5 of wine; buckwheat and millet will be born to them in incredible abundance. How many acorns grow on these plains in oak forests, scattered at some distance from one another, everyone can best conclude from the following: in Italy, a huge number of pigs are killed, partly for domestic use, partly for food for the troops, and animals are brought mainly from these plains. The cheapness and abundance of various food supplies can be judged most accurately by the fact that travelers in this country, entering a tavern, do not ask about the cost of individual consumer goods, but pay as much as the owner takes from a person. As a rule, the owners of taverns, giving often enough of everything, take for this half aos, which is a quarter of the obol; only in rare cases are higher fees charged. On both sides of the Alps, both on the one that faces the Rodan River6 and on the other, descending to the above-mentioned plains, the hilly and lowlands are densely populated: those lying in the direction of Rodan and to the north are occupied by the Galatians, who are called Traisalyshns, and those facing the plains were inhabited by Taurpskamn, Agons and many other barbarian peoples. The Galatians are called Transalppians not by their origin, but by their place of residence, for slozo trans means 9 “on the other side,” and the Romans call those Galatians who live on the other side of the Alps as transalysh. Due to the scarcity of soil and the accumulation of eternal snows on them, the tops of the mountains are completely uninhabited. Perez. F.G.Mishchenko. i Massalil is a colony founded by the inhabitants of Foken and the Ligurian coast of Gaul at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. 2 Seine is a city in Umbria on the shores of the Adriatic Sea. 3 Medimnus is a Greek measure of bulk solids, equal to 51.84 liters. 4 Obol is a small coin in Greece, equal to 4-5 kopecks. 5 A meter is a measure of liquids in Athens, equal to 39 liters. 6 Rodan River is the Roman name for the Rhone. № 3. THE ANCIENT POPULATION OF ITALY (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, I, 26, 30) The biographical data on Dionysius of Halicarnassus that have come down to us is extremely scarce. It is only known that he came to Rome during the last period of the civil wars and lived there for over 20 years. The work, which was the fruit of his entire life, is called “Ancient Roman History” in 20 books. It covers events from the most ancient periods of Italy to the beginning of the Punic boi "w. From the work of Dionysius, only the first 9 books have survived, and the rest have come down to us in fragments. Dionysius is trying to prove the common origin of the Greeks and Romans, so that, as he said," thus make it more bearable for the Greeks to obey the Romans. ”He attaches great importance to the gods' control over the destinies of nations. Italy, others consider them newcomers. About their name, those who consider them an indigenous people, say that it was given to them from the type of fortifications that they were the first living in that country to erect: among the Tyrrhenians, as well as among the Hellenes, surrounded by walls and well-sheltered structures - towers - are called Thyrsus or Tyrrhs; some believe that their name was given to them due to the fact that neither x there are such buildings, just as the mosinoiks living in Asia are named so because they live behind high wooden palisades, as if in towers, which they call mosinamn. Others, who consider them immigrants, say that Tyrrhenian was the leader of the immigrants and that the Tyrrhenians got their name from him. And he himself was by birth a Lepdian from the land formerly called Meonia ... Atiya ... had two sons: Lid and Tyrren. Of these, Lydus, who remained in his homeland, inherited the power of his father, and by his name the land began to be called Lydia; Tyrrhenine, having become the head of those who had left for the settlement, founded a large colony in Italy and assigned a name to all the participants in the enterprise, derived from his name. 10 Gellanicus of Lesbos "says that the Tyrrhenians used to be called Pelasgians 2; when they settled in Italy, they took the name they had in his time ... The Pelasgians were expelled by the Hellenes, they left their ships at the Spineta River in the Ionian Gulf, and captured the city Croton 3 on the isthmus and, moving from there, founded a city now called Tnrsenia ... It seems to me that everyone who considers the Tyrrhenians and Pelasgians to be one people is mistaken; that they could borrow the name from each other is not surprising, so how something similar happened among some other peoples, both Hellenic and barbaric, as, for example, among the Trojans 4 and Phrygians 5 who lived close to each other (after all, many peoples have a common origin, and such peoples differ from each other only by name, not by nature). No less than in other places where there was a confusion of names among peoples, the same phenomenon was observed among the peoples of Italy. There was a time when the Hellenes called the Latins, Umbres and Avzones6 and many other peoples Tyrrhenians. After all, the long-term proximity of peoples makes it difficult for remote residents to accurately distinguish between them. Many historians have assumed that the city of Rome is a Tyrrhenian city. I agree that the peoples have a change of name, and then a change in the way of life, but I do not accept that two peoples can exchange their origin; I rely in this case on the fact that at the same time they differ from each other in many respects, especially in speech, and neither retains any resemblance to the other. “After all, the Crotons,” says Herodotus 7, “do not speak the same language with anyone living in their neighborhood, nor the Plakpeans have a common language with them. It is clear that they brought with them the peculiarities of the language when they moved to this country, and they preserve their language. " Is it surprising to anyone that the Crotons speak the same dialect as the Plakians living in the Hellespont, since both were originally Pelasgians, and that the language of the Crotons does not resemble the language of the Tyrrhenians; s, living with them in close proximity? .. Based on such evidence, I think that Tyrrhenians and Pelasgians are different peoples. I also don’t think that the Tyrrhenians are from Lydia 8, because they do not speak the same language, and it’s even impossible to say about them that if they do not speak the same language, they still retain some of the turns of speech of their native land. They themselves believe that the gods of the Lpdians are not the same as theirs, and the laws and the way of life are completely different, but in all this they are more different from the Lydians than even from the Pelasgians. Closer to the truth are those who claim that this is a people who did not come from anywhere, but of native origin, since, moreover, it is revealed that this is a very ancient people, having neither a common language nor a way of life 11 with any other tribe. The Hellenes, on the other hand, do not interfere with designating it with such a name, as it were, because of the construction of towers for housing, or as if by the name of their ancestor. The Romans designate them by other names, namely: by the name of Etruria9, ^ the land in which they live, they call the people themselves Etruscans. And for their experience in performing clerical services in temples, which they differ from all other peoples, the Romans now call them a less understandable name for tusks, they used to call them, clarifying this name according to its Greek meaning, tiosks (from the Greek verb 86ш- I sacrifice ); they themselves call themselves in exactly the same way (as in other cases) by the name of one of their leaders, Rasnans. .. Phila 10 of the Pelasgians, who did not die, scattered across other colonies and in a small number of its former large composition, mixing politically with the aborigines, remained in those (places where over time their descendants, together with others, founded the city of Rome. .. Translated by VS Sokolov. 1 Gellanik Lesbos - Greek author, the so-called "logographer", lived in the 5th century BC, wrote about the early epochs of the origin of peoples; in his writings there is much mythical. 2 Pelasgi - pre-Greek inhabitants of Greece, who, according to tradition, migrated to Central Italy and occupied Etruria and Latium. 3 Croton - Greek colony in southern Italy. * Trojans - inhabitants of the city of Troy, located in the northwestern part of Asia Minor. 5 Phrygians - inhabitants of Phrygia, a country located in the western part of the Asia Minor Peninsula. 6 Latins, Umbras and Avzones - tribes inhabiting the regions of Central Italy. 7 Herodotus - the first major Greek historian, lived in the 5th century BC. Received the title of "father of history" (Cicero) . 8 Lydia - Art wound in Asia Minor. 9 Etruria is a region located on the western coast of Italy, bounded by the Apennines and the Tiber River. 10 Phila - the name of a tribe among the Greeks, was subdivided into phratry and clans. № 4. LEGEND ABOUT THE FOUNDATION OF ROME (Dionysius, Roman Antiquities, I, 72-73) In view of the fact that there are many disagreements both on the question of the time of foundation (of the city of Rome) and the identity of its founder, I myself thought that it is not at all necessary that, as everyone admits, its founders appear under the guise of a hostile invasion. The very ancient historian Kefalus Gergitius ■ says that the city was founded by the second generation after the Trojan War2, by people who escaped from Ilion together with Aeneas 3, while the founder of the city calls the leader of the colony, Roma, who was one of the sons of Aeneas. He says that Aeneas had four sons: Ascanius, Eurileon, Romulus and Remus. The same time and the same founder of the city are indicated by Demator, and Agatillus, and some others ... Although I could point out many other Greek writers who speak differently about the founders of the city of Rome, in order not to seem verbose, I will turn to Roman historians. There are no ancient historians or logographers 4 among the Romans. Everyone (who wrote about it) borrowed something from the legends preserved from antiquity in the sacred tables. Some of these historians report that the founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, were the sons of Aeneas, others that they were the sons of the daughter of Epeus, but from which father, they do not indicate. They were allegedly given by Aeneas as hostages to the Aboriginal king Latina, when a treaty of friendship was concluded between the locals and the aliens. The Latin greeted them warmly and surrounded them with all sorts of cares, and since he did not have male offspring, he made them, after his death, heirs of a part of his kingdom. Others say that after the death of Aeneas, Ascanius inherited the entire kingdom of Latina and divided it with his brothers Romulus and Remus into three parts. He himself founded Albu5 and some other cities, Rem gave the names to Kapua after the progenitor of Kapis, Anchise after the grandfather of Anchises, Aeneas, later called Janiculum, after the father of Aeneas; he named the city of Rome by his own name. After some time Rome remained uninhabited, other colonists, sent from Alba under the leadership of Romulus and Remus, came there and captured the previously founded city. The first time this city was founded shortly after the Trojan War, and the second time 15 generations later. If someone wants to look deeper into the past, it will be discovered that there was still a third Rome, earlier than the next two, founded before the arrival of Aeneas and the Trojans in Italy. And this was written not by some random historian, or from the new ones, but by Antiochus of Syracuse, about whom I mentioned earlier. He writes that when Morghet reigned in Italy (and the seaside land from Tarent to Poseidonia was then called Italy), a fugitive from Rome came to him. It is he who says: “When Ital grew old, Morghet reigned; a man came to him, a fugitive from Rome, named Sikel. " According to this Syracuse historian, there is, therefore, some kind of ancient Rome that existed even earlier than the Trojan times. However, whether it was on the very spot where the great city stands at the present time, or whether there was any other place with the same name, he leaves it unclear, and I myself cannot resolve this. Transl. V.S.Sokolova. 1 Cephalus Hereitius - except for the message of Dionysius, there is no more information about him. 13 2 Trojan War - the war waged by the Achaean troops against Troy (Ilion) - a city located in the northwestern part of Asia Minor. Troy was captured only after a long siege. These events took place at the end of the 12th century. before and. e. 3 Aeneas, the legendary king of the Dardans, one of the tribes of Asia Minor, according to legend, after the destruction of the city of Troy, fled to Italy and became the "ancestor" of the Roman people. ■\u003e Logographers were called in Greece the authors of the first prose works (VI-V centuries. BC BC). 5 Alba is one of the oldest cities in Central Italy. № 5. LEGEND ABOUT THE FOUNDATION OF ROME (Titus Livia, I, 3-7). Titus of Libya is a Roman historian of the early days of the empire. Born, he was 59 before and. e in the Italian city of Patavia (modern Padua), died in 17 A.D. e. Libya is the author of a monumental work in 142 books called "Roman history from the founding of the city" (that is, Rome). Of these books, only 35 survived: from the first to the tenth and from the twenty-first to the forty-fifth. The first ten books contain events from the founding of Rome to 293 BC. e., in the books twenty-first - forty-fifth - a description of the events of 218-168 is given. BC e. The content of the remaining books is known from brief annotations, the so-called epithemes, compiled in the 4th century. n. e. Livy's work had a significant impact on all subsequent Roman historiography and had many imitators. According to its political views, Libya was to a large extent the ideologue of the ruling classes during the principate. The slogan Pax Rornana (Roman Peace), officially proclaimed by Augustus, was widely reflected in his "Roman History". The value of the first ten books of the "Roman History" is relatively small, there is a lot of fantastic things, Libya attaches great importance to oracles, oracles' predictions, etc. More reliable information is given by him in books twenty-one-forty-five, where a description of the Punic wars and the international situation of that time. The entire work of Livy was imprinted by the tendency with which it was written: the preface says that the purpose of the work is to describe the qualities and merits of the Roman people that helped them achieve such strength and power. Thanks to this "romanocentric" position, a large number of events that were important in the history of the Mediterranean fall out of the author's field of vision. Very often in the writings of Libya, one can see the political views of those historians whose works he used completely uncritically. All these remarks should be taken into account when using the "Roman History" of Titus Livy as a historical source. The son of Aeneas, Ascanius, had not yet reached the age to take power, but this power safely remained with him until the period of his maturity; during such a long time, the Latin state, the kingdom of his grandfather and father, survived the boy thanks to the female guard - such a capable woman was the mother of Ascania Lavinia. This Ascanius, due to the surplus of the population in the city of Lavinia, named so by his father in honor of his wife, gave his mother a flourishing and rich city at that time, and he himself founded a new one at the foot of the 14th Albanian mountain, which he called Long (Long) Albay. since it stretches along the ridge for its position. Almost thirty years passed between the founding of Lavinia and the colony of Alba Longa, when the power of the state increased to the point that neither after the death of Aeneas, nor during the reign of a woman, nor even in the first years of the reign of the young man, neither the Etruscan leader Mesentius nor other neighbors dared to raise arms ... According to the peace treaty, the Albula River, now called the Tiber, became the border between the Etruscans and the Latins. Then the son of Ascania, Sylvius, reigned, so named because he was born in the forest. He had a son Aeneas Sylvius, and THIS had Latin Sylvius. Oi founded several colonies. The ancient Latins got their name from him. Then for all the kings of Alba, the nickname Sylvius remained. Further, after a number of other kings, Proca ruled. He had sons Numitor and Amulius. The ancient kingdom of the Sylvians was bequeathed to Numitor as the eldest son. But the strength turned out to be higher than the will of the father and the right of seniority: having driven out his brother, Amulius reigned; to one atrocity he added another by killing his brother's son; his brother's daughter, Rhea Sylvia, he deprived of hope for posterity, making her a vestal under the guise of honor. But, I suppose, such a strong city and state, second only to the power of the gods, was due to the failure of the emergence of the predetermination of fate. When the vestal gave birth to twins, she declared the god of war Mars to be the father of this unknown offspring, either because she believed in it, or because she considered it more honorable to make God the culprit of her crime. However, neither the gods nor people were able to protect her and the children from the cruelty of the king: the priestess in chains was thrown into prison, and the children were ordered to be thrown into the river. But by chance, or by the will of "the gods, the Tiber rose from the banks and formed a calmly standing water, so that nowhere could one approach its real channel; at the same time, the messengers hoped that the children would drown even in such water. So, considering themselves fulfilled. the king's command, they threw the children into a nearby puddle, where the Ruminal fig tree is now (they say that it was called Romulova.) There was then a vast desert in those places. There is a legend that when the floating trough, in which the boys were thrown out, remained in a dry place, a she-wolf, who was walking from the surrounding mountains to get drunk, went to the crying of the children; she began to breastfeed them with such meekness that the chief royal shepherd, named Faustul, found her licking the children. He brought them Home and gave them to be raised by his wife Larenzia: Thus "they were born and so were brought up; when they grew up, then, not staying "^ business in the shepherd's hut or near the flocks, they, hunting, wandered through the forests. Having strengthened among such activities in body and spirit, 75 they not only (pursued animals, but also attacked robbers, burdened with prey, shared the loot among the shepherds, and from this day by day the squadron, which was increasing, were engaged in business and jokes. Already at that time it existed. the feast of Lupercalia.It consisted in the fact that naked youths competed in the run, accompanying with jokes and merriment the worship of the god Pan. This feast became famous; and behold, when Romulus and Remus indulged in games, the robbers, irritated by the loss of prey, ambushed them; Romulus fought back, and Rem was captured and, in addition, presented to King Amulius as an accused. Their main fault was that they attacked the fields of Numitor and with a gang of young men drove away cattle from there, as if they were enemies. As a result, Rem was handed over to Numitor for execution. Faustulus began to suspect that he was bringing up royal children; he knew that they were thrown out at the behest of the king; the time coincided when he found them; but, not being sure of the end Consequently, he didn’t want to open it, unless chance would fall or force necessity. The necessity appeared earlier. And so, under the influence of fear, he reveals everything to Romulus. By chance, when he kept Remus under guard and heard about the twin brothers, the thought of grandchildren flashed when comparing their age and the character of a prisoner, who did not at all look like a slave. By questioning he came to the same result and almost recognized Remus. Thus, "intrigues are forged to the king from all sides. Romulus, not considering himself strong for an open action, does not attack the king with a gang of young men, but orders each shepherd to arrive by his own way at a certain time to the palace. From the side of Numitor's dwelling, he comes to Rem Square, So they kill the king. ”At the beginning of the commotion, Numitor, declaring that the enemies had invaded the city and attacked the palace, recalled the Albanian youth to defend the fortress; when he saw that the brothers, having killed the king, were coming to him with a greeting, he immediately convenes a meeting, exposes the brother's crime against him, indicates the origin, birth and upbringing of grandchildren, says how they were found out, how the tyrant was immediately killed, and declares that he is the culprit. ”The young men, then speaking in the middle of the meeting, greeted his grandfather as a king, and the unanimous exclamations of the crowd that followed secured the royal name and power to him, thus granting the Albanian kingdom to Numitor, Romulus and Remus. hoped to found a city in the places where they were found and raised. Moreover, there was an excess of the Albanian and Latin population; the shepherds joined them, all of which gave hope that both Alba and Lavinius would be small in comparison with the city they were about to found. But these calculations were mingled with the harmful influence of grandfather's evil — a passion for tsarist power, which resulted in a shameful battle that arose due to an unimportant circumstance. Since the brothers were twins and it was impossible to decide matters on the basis of primacy by birth, Romulus chooses Palatinsky, and Remus chooses the Aveptine hill for fortune telling, so that the gods, the patrons of those places, indicate by signs who to give the city a name and who to rule it. They say that the sign - 6 kites - appeared before Remus, and it was already announced when their double number appeared to Romulus, and the crowd of adherents greeted both of them with the king: some demanded royal power for their leader, based on the advantage of time, others - on the number of birds. Scolding arose, and the irritation it caused led to a fight, during which Rem was killed in a junkyard. More widespread, however, is the legend that Rem, laughing at his brother, jumped over the walls of the new city; Romulus, enraged by this, killed him, saying: "It will be so with everyone who jumps over my walls." Thus, Romulus alone took possession of the kingdom, and the city was named after the founder. Transl. L. Klevanopa. ; № 6. REFORM OF SERBIA TULLIUS (Dionysius, Roman Antiquities, IV, 15-18) He (Servius Tullius) ordered all the Romans to register and value their property for silver, confirming the testimony of the usual klaggoy that the information is fair and that the property is fully and a high price, declare which father who comes from, indicate your age, name your wives and children and to which city fillet each is assigned or to which rural district. Anyone who does not give such an assessment, he threatened with deprivation of property, corporal punishment and sale into slavery. This law existed among the Romans for a very long time. When everyone made an assessment, he took the notes and, having become acquainted with their large number and the amount of property, introduced the best of all political structure, as reality has shown, the source of the greatest benefits for rts, blah. ”This political structure was as follows: in the first category he singled out from the total number of those who had the greatest property assessment, not less than a hundred mtsn "[each]. Dividing these citizens into 80 centuri 2 [suckers], he ordered them to have a complete structure: Argolian shields, spears, copper helmets, armor, greaves and swords. He, in turn, divided them into two parts: he filled 40 centuries with young people, whom he entrusted with military operations in the open field, and 40 with older people, who, in the event of the departure of young people, should remain- * Reader on the history of the ancient world, i.e. Ill / 7 stay in the city and guard it from the inside. This was the first category. In the war, he occupied the first places in the ranks of the phalanx. Further, in the second category, he singled out the rest of those who had property for less than ten thousand drachm3 or not less than seventy-five minutes [each]. Dividing them into 20 centuries, he ordered them to have the same armament as the first, only he did not give them shshtsy and instead of Argolny shpov gave them oblong quadrangular shields. Having singled out among them people over forty-five years old from people of military age, he formed from them 10 centuries of young warriors who were to fight before the walls of the city, and 10 centuries of older "age, whom he ordered to guard the walls. This was the second category, in In the ranks they became among the advanced fighters. The third category he made up of those among the rest who had property of less than seven thousand five hundred drachmas or not less than fifty minutes [each]. The weapons of these centuries were reduced, not only in respect of armor He divided this category into 20 centuries and, in the same way as the first two categories, distributed them according to age and provided 10 prices of houris for young soldiers and 10 centuries for older ones. The place of these centuries in the battle was behind the commanders of the advanced fighters. Then, again from the remaining those who had property of less than five drachmas, he took not less than twenty-five minutes [each] formed of them the fourth category. And he divided them into 20 centuries, of which he filled 10 with people in the prime of his life and 10 others whiter with older ones, just as he did with the previous categories. As a weapon, he ordered them to have oblong shields, swords and spears and occupy the last place in the ranks. The fifth category of people who have property for less than twenty-five minutes, but not less than twelve and a half minutes, he divided into 30 centuries, but he also filled them in by age: 15 of these centuries he gave to the elderly and 15 to the young. He ordered them to arm themselves with throwing spears and prashas and fight out of order. He ordered the four centuria, who had no weapons, to accompany the armed. Of the EGPhs of the four centuries, two consisted of riflemen and carpenters and other craftsmen who made everything necessary for military affairs; the other two are trumpeters and buglers and who are able to proclaim war signals on other instruments. The centuria, made up of artisans, accompanied the soldiers from the second category, and they were also divided by age 18, and one centuria accompanied the young, and the other the elderly; but the trumpeters and buglers were under the centuri of the fourth category. And of them, one century consisted of the young, the other of the elderly. The centurions [suckers], chosen from among the noblest, trained each of his centurions to carry out all military commands. Such was the arrangement of the foot troops: phalanxes ”4 and lightly armed detachments. He [Servius Tullius] made up all the cavalry from the people with the greatest property and the most prominent in their origin. He divided them into 18 centuries and added them to the first eighty Phalangist centuries. The heads of the equestrian centuri [suckers] were also the most prominent and noble people. All the rest of the citizens who had property for less than twelve and a half mines, the number exceeding all of the above, he placed in one century, exempted from military service and from paying taxes. In total there were 193 centuri in all ranks ©. The first class consisted of 98 centurias together with the horsemen; second class - 22 centuries, counting two centuries of artisans; third class - 20 centuries; the fourth — again 22 centuries, together with trumpeters and buglers; the fifth class is 30 centuries; the sixth grade, placed after all, is just one century of the poor. Persv. V.S.Sokolova. 1 Mina is a monetary unit in Greece, equal to approximately 450 g; one gold mine is equal to five silver ones. 2 Centuria (census) is a division of citizens by property. According to the constitution of Servius Tullius, there were 193 such centuries. 3 Drachma - Attic silver coin, equal to 35 kopecks. gold. 4 Phalanx - a detachment of troops fighting on foot in close formation. № 7. ORIGIN OF TRIBUNATE (Titus Livni, II, 23, 24, 27-33) There was a threat of war with the Volskamp ", and there were strife within the state itself, since the plebeians were burning with hatred of the patricians mainly because of those who went into bondage Dissatisfied among the plebeians grumbled that, while fighting outside their homeland in defense of freedom and power, at home they were held captive and oppressed by fellow citizens, that the freedom of plebeians was subject to greater security during war than during peace, and more among enemies, This hatred, already ready to break through, was kindled by the plight of one prominent person. In his old age he rushed to Forum 2, Pointing to the signs of all his misfortunes. His clothes were covered with mud and looked even more disgusting. his body, emaciated with pallor and thinness; moreover, the regrown beard and hair gave his face a wild look. However, despite such an outrage, he could be recognized; it was said that he was a centurion 3; mentioned with compassion about his other military distinctions; he himself showed scars on his chest in several places, testifying to his valiant battles. To the questions of the crowd that surrounded him like a national assembly, where did this view come from, whence such disgrace, he replied that, serving in the Sabine war, 4, oh; N owed, because as a result of the devastation of the field, not only did he lose crops, but his house was set on fire, everything was plundered, cattle were driven away; just at this difficult time, a military tax was imposed on him. The debt that grew from interest first deprived him of his father's and grandfather's land, then the rest of his property, and finally, like consumption, got to his body; the creditor not only took him into slavery, but put him in a dungeon and dungeon. Then he showed his back, disfigured by traces of fresh blows. Seeing and hearing this, the people raised a loud cry. The noise is not limited to the forum, but is heard throughout the city. Debtors<в оковах и "без оков со всех сторон бросаются на улицу, умоляя «ниритоз5 о защите. Везде находятся такие, кто охотно примыкает к восставшим; со всех сторон многочисленные толпы по всем дорогам с криком бегут на форум. Те сенаторы, которые были тогда случайно «а форуме, с большою опасностью для себя попали в эту толпу, и она дала бы волю рукам, если бы консулы Публий Серишшй и Аппнй Клавдий не вмешались поспешно в дело подавления восстания. Но толпа, обратившись к him, стала показывать свои окозы. Она говорила: вот награда за ее службу. Каждый с упреком говорил о своих ратных подвигах в различных местах. Скорее с угрозой, чем покорно, плебеи требуют созыва сената и окружают курию, желая сами собраться и руководить решением общественного собрания. Консулы с трудом нашли лишь очень немногих случайно подвернувшихся сенаторов; прочие побоялись показаться не только в курии, но даже и на форуме, и по малолюдству сенат не мог устроить никакого совещания. Тогда толпа решает, что над ней издеваются и умышленно затягивают дело, что отсутствующие сенаторы поступают так не случайно, не из страха, а из желания затормозить дело, что колеблются и сами консулы и, несомненно, несчастие народа служит только предметом насмешки. Дело было уже близко к тому, что даже и власть консула не могла обуздать раздраженной толпы, когда, наконец, собираются опоздавшие сенаторы, не зная, что рискованнее - медлить или итти. Когда курия уже наполнилась, то полного согласия не было не только между сенаторами, но и между самими консулами. Ап- пий, человек крутого права, полагал, что дело надо повести консульскою властью-схватить одного, другого, тогда остальные 20 успокоятся; более склонный к мягким мерам Сервилий полагал, что возбужденное настроение легче успокоить, чем переломить насильственно. Перев. Л. Клеванова. " Вольски -■ одно из древнейших племен Италии, обитало в Лации по берегам реки Лирис до впадения ее в море. Римляне вели с вбльскамп длительную борьбу, которая закончилась покорением последних. 2 Форум - центральная часть города Рима, расположенная на восточной стороне Капитолийского и северной части Палатинского холмов, где происходили народные собрания, заключались различные сделки и т. д. 3 Центурион - командующий центурией, отрядом солдат, состоявшим первоначально из 100 человек (а в более позднее время нз 60). 4 Сабинская война - война римлян с племенем сабинян, занимавшим области на северо-восток от Рима. 6 Квириты-почетное название римских граждан. № 8. ЗАКОНЫ XII ТАБЛИЦ Известный под именем «XII таблиц» (или, по более поздней терминологии, «Законов XII таблиц») памятник древнеримского права приписывается обыкновенно децемвирам и датируется 451-450 гг. до н. э. (Ливии, III, 34-37. Диодор, XII, 23-26). До наших дней он сохранился только в скудных, подчас очень темных по своему смыслу отрывках, которые мы находим у позднейших латинских авторов. Кроме того, нередки случаи, когда наши сведения о постановлениях, содержащихся в XII таблицах, ограничиваются сообщениями какого-либо писателя нлн юриста о том, что будто бы еще в этом памятнике предусматривалось регулирование в определенном направлении тех или иных социальных отношений; при этом точной цитаты этого постановления авторы обыкновенно не дают. Таким образом, у исследователя, занимавшегося восстановлением текста этого памятника, получался двоякого рода материал: с одной стороны, сохранившиеся в литературных источниках (далеко не безупречные с точки зрения полноты и точности) извлечения из этого так называемого «котекса децемвиров», а с другой - глухие, порой, быть может, даже неправильно приписываемые XII таблицам сообщения о каких-то юридических нормах, которые действовали в раннюю эпоху Римской республики и которые впоследствии считалось небесполезным реставрировать для защиты интересов консервативных групп правящего класса позднего Рима. Такая двойственность материала вызвала необходимость выделения этой втсрой группы имевшихся в нашем распоряжении данных о памятнике; такого рода сообщения приводятся, с указанием их автора, в круглых скобках. Наряду с этим для уяснения смысла переводимого текста нам представлялось целесообразным отказаться от лаконизма, присущего памятнику, и дополнить некоторые постановления отдельными словами и даже целыми фразами. Такие дополнения введены в текст в "квадратных скобках. ТАБЛИЦА I 1. Если вызывают [кого-нибудь] на судоговорение, пусть [вызванный] идет. Если [он] не идет, .пусть [тот, кто вызвал], подтвердит [свой вызов] три "Свидетелях, а потом вдет его насильно. 2. Если [вызванный] измышляет отговорки [для неявки] или пытается скрыться, пусть [тот, кто его вызвал] наложит на него руку. 2" 3. Если препятствием [для явки вызванного на судоговорение] будет его болезнь или старость, пусть [сделавший вызов] даст ему вьючное животное . Павозки , если не захочет, представлять не обязан ". 4. Пусть поручителем [на судоговорении] за живущего своим хозяйством будет [только] тот, кто имеет свое хозяйство. За бесхозяйного гражданина поручителем будет тот, кто пожелает. 5. Nex... foreti, sanates 2. 6. На чем договорятся, о том пусть [истец] и просит [на судоговорении] 3. 7. Бели [тяжущиеся стороны] не приходят к соглашению, пусть [они] до полудня сойдутся для тяжбы на форуме или на комицни4. Пусть обе присутствующие стороны по очереди защищают [свое дело]. 8. После полудня [магистрат] утвердит требование той стороны, которая присутствует [при судоговорении]. 9. Если [на судоговорении] присутствуют обе стороны, пусть заход солнца будет крайним сроком [судоговорения]. ТАБЛИЦА II 1. (Гай, Институции, IV. 14: по искам в 1000 и более ассов 5 взыскивался [в кассу понтификов] судебный залог [в сумме 500 ассов], по искам на меньшую сумму - 50 ассов, так было установлено законом XII таблиц. Если спор шел о свободе какого-нибудь человека, то хотя бы его цена была наивысшей, однако, тем же законом.предписывалось, чтобы тяжба шла о залоге [за человека, свобода которого оспаривалась] [всего лишь] в размере 50 ассов). 2. Если одна из таких причин, как... тяжкая болезнь, или [совпадение дня судебного разбирательства] с днем, положенным для обвинения [кого-либо] ib изменеG, [будет препятствовать] судье, третейскому посреднику или тяжущейся стороне [явиться на судебное разбирательство], то [таковое] должно быть перенесено на другой день. 3. Пусть [тяжущийся], которому недостает свидетельских показаний, идет к воротам дома [неявигашегося на разбирательство свидетеля] и в течение трех дней во всеуслышание.взывает [к нему]. ТАБЛИЦА Ш 1. Пусть будут [даны должнику] 30 льготных дней после признания [им] долга или после постановления [против него] судебного решения. 2. [По истечении указанного срока] пусть [истец] наложит руку [на должника]. Пусть ведет его на судоговорение [для исполнения решения]. 22 3. Если [должник] не выполнил [добровольно] судебного решения и никто не освободил его от ответственности при судоговорении, пусть [истец] уведет его к себе и наложит на него колодки или оковы" весом не менее, а, если пожелает, то и более 15 фунтов. 4. [Во время пребывания в заточении должник], если хочет, пусть кормится за свой собственный счет. Если же он не находится на своем содержании, то пусть [тот, кто держит его в заточении], выдает ему по фунту муки в день, а при желании1 может давать и больше. 5. (А в л Гелл и й, Аттические ночи, XX, 1, 46: Тем временем [пока должник находился в заточении] он имел право помириться [с истцом], но если [стороны] не мирились, то [такие должники] оставались в заточении 60 дней. В течение этого срока их три раза подряд в базарные дни приводили к претору на комиции и [при этом] объявлялась присужденная с них сумма денег. В третий базарный день они предавались смертной казни или поступали в продажу за границу, за Тибр7). 6. В третий базарный день пусть разрубят должника на части. Если отсекут больше или меньше, то пусть это не будет вменено тм [в вину]8. 7. Пусть сохраняет [свою] силу навеки иск против изменника 9. ТАБЛИЦА IV 1. (Цицер он, О законах, III, 8, 19: ...С такой же легкостью был лишен жизни, как по XII таблицам, младенец [отличавшийся] исключительным уродством). 2. Если отец трижды продаст сына, то пусть сын будет свободен [от власти] отца. 3. (Цицерон, Филиппики, II, 28, 69; [Пользуясь] постановлением XII таблиц, приказал своей жене взять принадлежащие ей вещи и, отняв [у нее] ключ, изгнал [ее]). 4. (А в л Гелл и й, Аттические ночи, III, 16, 12: Мне известно, что [когда] женщина... родила на одиннадцатом месяце после смерти мужа, то [из этого] возникло дело, будто бы она зачала после того, как умер ее муж, ибо децемвиры написали, что человек рождается на десятом, а не на одиннадцатом месяце. ТАБЛИЦА V 1. (Гай, Институции, 1, 144-145: Предки [наши] утверждали, что даже совершеннолетние женщины вследствие присущего им легкомыслия должны состоять под опекою... Исключение допускалось только для дев-весталок, которых древние римляне в уважение к их жреческому сану освобождали от опеки. 1ак было постановлено законом XII таблиц). 23 2. (Г а и, Институции, II, 47: Законом XII таблиц было определено, что res mancipi l0, принадлежащие женщине, находившейся под опекою агнатов ", не подлежали давности за исключением лишь того случая, когда сама женщина передавала эти пещи с согласия опекуна). 3. Как кто распорядится на случай своей смерти относительно своего домашнего имущества или относительно опеки [над подвластными ему лицами], так пусть то и будет ненарушимым. 4. Если кто-нибудь, у кого нет подвластных ему лиц, умрет, не оставив распоряжений о наследнике, то пусть его хозяйство шзьмет себе [его] -ближайший агнат. 5. Если [у умершего] нет агнатов, пусть [оставшееся после него] хозяйство.возьмут [его] сородичи. 6. (Г а и, Институции, I, 155: По закону XII таблиц опекунами над лицами, которым не было.назначено опекуна по завещанию, являются пх агнаты). 7а. Если человек впал в безумие, то пусть власть над ним самим и над его имуществом возьмут его агнаты или его сородичи. 76. (Ульпиан, I, 1, pr. D., XXVII, 10: Согласно закону XI! таблиц, расточителю воспрещалось управление принадлежащим ему имуществом.) ((Ульпиан, Lib. sing, regularum XII 2: Закон XII таблиц повелевает безумному и расточителю, на имущество которых наложено запрещение, состоять на попечении их агнатов). 8а. (Ульпиан, Lib. sing, regularum, XXXX, 1: Закон XII таблиц передавал патрону наследство после римского гражданина из вольноотпущенников в там случае, если последний, не имея подвластных ему лиц, умирал, не оставив завещания). 86. (Ульпиан, I, 195, § 1, D., L. 16: Говоря [об отношениях между патроном и вольноотпущенником], закон указывает, что имущество вольноотпущенника переходит из той семьи в эту семью, (причем в данном случае] закон, .говорит [о семье, как совокупности] отдельных лиц12). 9а. (Гор дм а н, I, 6, с. III, 36: По закону XII таблиц имущество, состоящее в долговых требованиях [умершего к другим лицам], непосредственно [т. е. без выполнения каких-либо юридических формальностей] распределяется между сонаследниками в соответствии с их наследственными, долями). 96. (Диоклетиан, I, 26, с. II, 3: Согласно закону XII таблиц, долги умершего непосредственно разделяются [между его наследниками] соразмерно полученным [ими] долям наследства). 10. (Г а й, I, 1, рт. С, X, 2: Иск [о раздете наследства] "основывается на постановлении закона XII таблиц). 24 ТАБЛИЦА VI 1. Если кто заключает сделку самозаклада |3 или отчуждения вещи [в присутствии 5 свидетелей и весовщика], то пусть- слова, которые произносятся при этом, почитаются ненарушимыми. 2. (Цицерон, Об обязанностях, III, 16: По XII таблицам? считалось достаточным представить доказательства того, что было произнесено [при заключении сделки], и отказывавшийся от своих слов подлежал штрафу вдвое). 3. (Цицерон, Тор., IV, 23: Давность владения в отношении земельного участка [устанавливалась] в два иода, в отношении всех других вещей - в один год). 4. (Г а й, Институции, I, 3: Законом XII таблиц было- определено, что женщина, не желавшая установления вад собой власти мужа [фактом давностного с нею сожительства], должна, была ежегодно отлучаться из своего дома на три ночи и таким" образом прерывать годичное даввостное владение [ею]). 5а. (А в л Геллий, Аттические мочи, XX, 17, 7, 8: Собственноручно отстоять [свою вещь] при судоговорении... это значит- налюжить руку на ту вещь, о которой идет спер при судоговорении, [т. е. иными словами] состязаясь с противником, ухватиться рукой за спорную вещь и в торжественных выражениях отстаивать право на нее. Наложение руки на вещь производилось в- определенном месте в присутствии претора на ocHOBaHmr. XII таблиц, где было написано: «Если кто-нибудь собственноручно отстаивает свою вешь при судоговорении»). 56. (Павел, Fragm. Vat, 50: Закон XII таблиц утвердил- [отчуждение вещи] путем сделки, совершавшейся в присутствии 5 свидетелей и весовщика, а также путем.отказа от права собственности на эту вещь при судоговорении перед претором). 6. (Тит Ливии, III, 44: Защитники [Вергинии] требуют,. чтобы [Аппий Клавдий], согласно закону, им же самим проведенному, дал предварительное распоряжение относительно девушки в благоприятном для се свободы смысле). 7. Пусть [собственник] не трогает и не отнимает [принадлежащего ему] бревна [или жердей], использованных [другим человеком] на постройку здания или для посадки виноградника. 8. (Ульпиан, I, 1, pr. D., XLVII, 3: Закон XII таблиц непозволял ни отнимать, ни требовать как свою собственность украденные бревна и жерди, употребленные на постройку или Для посадки виноградника, но предоставлял при этом иск в Двойном размере [стоимости этих материалов] против того, кто* обвинялся в использовании их). " 9. Когда же виноград будет срезан, пока [жерди] не убраны!4... 25- ТАБЛИЦА VII 1. (Фест, De verborurn significatu, 4: Обход, [т. е. незастроенное место] вокруг здания, должен быть шириною два с половиной фута). " 2. (Гай, I, 13, D., X, 1: Нужно заметить, что при иске о размежевании границ необходимо соблюдать указание закона , установленное как бы по примеру следующего законодательного распоряжения, которое, как говорят, ■было проведено в Афинах Соловом: если вдоль соседнего участка выкапывался ров, то нельзя было переступать границы, ■ если [ставить] забор, то нужно отступать [от соседнего участка] на один фут, если - дом для жилья, то отступить на два фута, если копают яму или могилу, отступить настолько, насколько глубоко выкопана яма, если колодец - отступить на 6 футов, -если сажают оливу или смоковницу, отступить от соседнего участка на девять футов, а прочие деревья-на 5 футов). 3. (П л и н и й, Естественная история, 19, 4, 50: В XII таблицах не употреблялось совершенно слово «хутор» , а для обозначения его [пользовались] часто "Словом hortus [отгороженное место], [придавая этому значение] отцовского имущества). 4. (Цицерон, О зап<шах, I, 21, 55: XII таблиц занреща- .ли приобретение по давности межи; шириною в 5 футов). 5. (Цицерон, О законах, I, 21, 55: Согласно постановлению XII таблиц, когда военикает спор о границах, то мы про-из- зодим размежевание с участием 3 посредников). 6. (Гай, I, 8, D., VIII, 3: По закону XII таблиц ширина дороги по прямому направлению определялась в 8 футов, а на поворотах - в 16 футов). 7. Пусть [собственники придорожных участков] огораживают.дорогу, если они не убивают ее камнем, пусть едет на вьючном животном, где пожелает. 8а. Если дождевая вода причиняет вред... 86. (Павел, I, 5, D., XLIII, 8: Если протекающий по общественной земле ручей или водопровод причинял ущерб частному владению, то собственнику [последнего] давался иск на основании закона XII таблиц о возмещении убытков). 9а. (У ль пиан, I, 1, § 8, D., XLIII, 27: Закон XII таблиц приказывал принимать меры к тому, чтобы деревья на высоте 15 футов кругом подрезались для того, чтобы их тень не причиняла вреда соседнему участку). 96. (Пом пони й, I, 2, D., XLIII, 27: Если дерево с соседнего участка склонилось ветром на твой участок, ты на основании закона XII таблиц можешь предъявить иск об уборке его). 10. (Плиний, Естественная история, XVI, 5, 15: Законом XII таблиц разрешалось собирать жолуди, падающие с сосед- -него участка). 11. (Юстиниан, I, 41; I, II, 1: Проданные и переданные вещи становятся собственностью покупателя лишь в том случае, 26 если он уплатит продавцу покупную цену или обеспечит ему каким-либо образом удовлетворение [его требования], например, представит поручителя или даст что-либо в виде залога. Так было постановлено законом XII таблиц). 12. (Улыпиан, Lib. sing, regularum, II, 4: Если [наследо- ватель] делал следующее распоряжение: [отпускаю раба на волю под условием], что он уплатит моему наследнику 10 000 сестерциев, то хотя бы этот раб был отчужден от наследника, он все-таки должен получить свободу при уплате покупателю указанной суммы. Так было постановлено в законе XII таблиц). ТАБЛИЦА VIII 1а. Кто злую песню распевает 13. 16. (Цицерон, О республике, IV, 10, 12: XII таблиц установили смертную казнь за небольшое число преступных деяний и в том числе считали необходимым применение ее в том случае, когда кто-нибудь сложит или будет распевать песню, которая содержит в себе клевету или опозорение другого). 2. Если причинит членовредительство и не помирится с [потерпевшим], то пусть и ему самому будет причинено то же самое. 3. Если рукой или палкой переломит кость свободному человеку, пусть заплатит штраф в 300 ассов, если рабу- 150 ассов 4. Если причинит обиду, пусть штраф будет 25. 5. ...Сломает, пусть возместит. 6. (Ульпиаи, 1, 1, pr. D., IX, 1: Если кто пожалуется, что домашнее животное причинило ущерб, то закон XII таблиц повелевал или выдать [потерпевшему] животное, причинившее вред, или возместить стоимость нанесенного ущерба). 7. (Ульпиан, I, 14, § 3, D., XIX, 5: Если жолуди с твоего дерева упадут на мой участок, а я, выгнав скотину, скормлю их ей, то по закону XII таблиц ты не мог предъявить иска ни о потраве, ибо не на твоем участке паслась скотина, ни о вреде, причиненном животным, пи об убытках, нанесенных неправомерным деянием). 8а. Кто заворожит посевы... 86. Пусть не переманивает [на свой участок] чужого урожая. 9. (Плиний, Естественная история, 18, 3, 12: По XII таблицам смертным грехом для взрослого было потравить или сжать в ночное время урожай с обработанного плугом поля. предписывали [такого] обреченного [богине] Це- Рере человека предать смерти. Несовершеннолетнего [виновного в подобном преступлении] по усмотрению претора или подвергали бичеванию, или присуждали к возмещению причиненного вРеда в двойном размере). Ю. (Гай, Институции, I, 9, D., XLVII, 9: [Законы XII таблиц] повелевали заключить в оковы и после бичевания пре- 27 дать смерти того, «то поджигал строения или сложенные около дома скирды хлеба, если [виновный] совершил это преднамеренно. [Если пожар произошел] случайно, т. е. по неосторожности, то закон.предписывал, [чтобы виновный] возместил ущерб, a n-pi* его несостоятельности был подвергнут более легкому наказанию). 11. (Плиний, Естественная история, 17, 1, 7: В XII таблицах было предписано, чтобы за злостную порубку чужих деревьев виновный уплачивал по 25 ассов за каждое дерево). 12. Если совершавший в ночное время кражу убит,[та месте], то пусть убийство [его] будет считаться правомерным. 13. При свете дня... если сопротивляется с оружием [в руках], созови народ. 14. (Л в л Г ел ли й, Аттические «очи, XI, 18, 8: Децемвиры предписывали свободных людей, пойманных в краже с поличным, подвергать телесному наказанию п выдавать [головой] тому, у кого совершена кража, рабов же наказывать кнутом и сбрасывать со скалы; но [в отношении! .несовершеннолетних] было постановлено или подвергать их по усмотрению претора телесному наказанию, или взыскивать с них возмещение убытков). 15а. (Гай, III, 191: По закону XII таблиц был установлен штраф в размере тройной стоимости вещей в том случае, когда вещь отыскивалась у кого-либо при формальном обыске или когда она была принесена к укрывателю и найдена у него). 156. (Г а й, Институции, III, 192: Закон XII таблиц предписывает, чтобы при производстве обыска [обыскивающий] не «мел никакой одежды, кроме полотняной повязки, и держал в руках чашу). 16. Если предъявлялся иск о краже, [при которой вор не был пойман с "поличным], пусть [суд] решает спор [присуждением] двойной стоимости вещи. 17. (Гай, Институции, II, 45: Законом XII таблиц запрещается приобретение краденой вещи по давности). 18а. (Тацит, Анналы, VI, 16: Впервые XII таблицами было постановлено, чтобы никто не брал более одного процента [в месяц], тогда как до этого бралось по прихоти богатых). 186. (К а тон, О земледелии, Предисловие, 1: Предки наил имели [обыкновение] и положили в законах присуждать вора к. уплате двойной стоимости [украденной вещи], ростовщика к [взысканию] в четырехкратном размере [полученных процентов]). 19. (Павел, Libri V sentiarum, II, 12 11: По закону XII таблиц за вещь, сданную на хранение, дается иск б двойном размере стоимости этой вещи). 20а. (У л ь п н а>n, I, I, § 2, D., XXVI, 10: It should be noted that the accusation [of the guardian of dishonest discharge of his duties] follows from the Law of the XII tables). 28 206. (Trifonian, I, I, 1, § 55, D., XXVI, 7: In the event of theft by the guardians of the property of their ward, it should be established whether in relation to each of these guardians separately that claim in double amount, which was set in XII tables against guardians). 21. Let him be devoted to the gods of the underground, [ie. e. curse], the patron who harms [his] client. 22. If [someone] participated [in the transaction] as a witness or a weigher, [and then] refuses to testify, then let [he be recognized] dishonest and forfeit the right to be a witness. 23. (And in l Hell., Attic nights, XX, 1, 53: According to the XII tables, convicted<в лжесвидетельстве сбрасывался с Тарпейокой скалы). 24а. Если брошенное рукой копье полетит дальше, чем целил, пусть принесет [в жертву] барана. 246. (Плиний, Естественная история, XVIII, 3, 12; 8-9: По XII таблицам, за тайное истребление урожая [назначалась] смертная казнь... более тяжкая, чем за убийство человека). 25. (Гай, I, 236, рг. D., L, 16: Если кто-нибудь говорит о яде, то должен добавить, вреден ли он или полезен для здоровья, ибо и лекарства являются ядом). 26. (Порций, Lampo. Decl. in Catil, 19: Как мы знаем, в XII таблицах предписывалось, чтобы никто не устраивал в городе ночных сборищ). 27. (Гай, I, 4, D., XLVII, 22: Закон XII таблиц предоставлял членам коллегий [сообществ] право заключить между собою любые соглашения, лишь бы этим они не нарушали какого-нибудь постановления, касающегося общественного порядка. Закон этот, невидимому, был заимствован из законодательства Солона). ТАБЛИЦА IX 1-2. (Цицерон, О законах, III, 4, 11, 19, 44: Привилегий, [т. е. отступлений в свою пользу от закона], пусть не испрашивают. Приговоров о смертной казни римского гражданина «густь не выносят, иначе как в центуриатных комицнях... Пре- славные законы XII таблиц содержали два постановления, из которых одно уничтожало всякие отступления от закона в пользу отдельных лиц, а другое запрещало выносить приговоры о смертной казни римского гражданина, иначе как в центуриатных комициях). 3. (А в л Гелл и и, Аттические ночи, XX, 17: Неужели ты будешь считать суровым постановление закона, карающее смертною казнью того судью или посредника, которые были назначены при судоговорении [для разбирательства дела] и бы- ли уличены в 1том, что приняли денежную мзду по [этому] делу?) 29 4. Помпоиий, 1, 2, § 23, D., 1, 2: Квесторы, присутствовавшие при исполнении смертных приговоров, именовались уголовными квесторами, о них упоминалось даже в законе XII таблиц). 5. (Марциан, I, 3, D., XLV1II, 4: Закон XII таблиц повелевает предавать смертной казни того, кто подстрекает врага [римского народа к нападению на римское государство] или того, кто "Предает врагу римского гражданина). 6. (С а л ьв и ал, О правлении божьем, VIII, 5: Постановления XII таблиц запрещали лишать жизни без суда какого бы то ни было человека). ТАБЛИЦА X 1. Пусть мертвеца не хоронят и не сжигают в городе. 2. Свыше этого пусть не делают. Дров для [погребального костра] пусть топором не обтесывают. 3. (Цицерон, О законах, II, 23, 59: Ограничив расходы [на погребение] тремя саванами, одной пурпуровой туникою и десятью флейтистами, закон XII таблиц воспретил также и причитания [по умершим]). 4. Пусть [на похоронах] женщины щек не царапают и по умершим не причитают. 5. Пусть костей мертвеца не собирают, чтобы впоследствии совершить погребение (Цицерон, О законах, II, 23, 59: за ■исключением лишь того случая, когда смерть постигла на поле битвы или на чужбине). ба. (Цицерон, О законах, II, 23, 59: Кроме того, в законах устанавливаются еще следующие [правил а]: отменяется бгльзампрование [умащиваиие] рабов и питье круговой чаши. «Без пышного окропления, без длинных гирлянд, без "Курильниц»). бб. (Фсст, De verb, signif.. 154: В XII таблицах постановлено не ставить перед умершими напитков с миррою). 7. (Если кто-нибудь был награжден венком или сам лично, или за своих лошадей и рабов, [выступавших на играх], или если венок был дан ему за его доблесть, то при его смерти но возбранялось возложить венок на умершего как у него дома, так и на форуме, равным образом его родным дозволялось присутствовать на похоронах в венках). 8. А также золота с покойником пусть не кладут. Но если у умершего зубы были скреплены золотом, то не возбраняется похоронить или сжечь его с этим золотом. 9. (Цицерон, О законах, II, 24, 61: Закон запрещает без согласия собственника устраивать погребальный костер или могилу на расстоянии ближе чем 60 футов от принадлежащего ему здания). 30 10. (Цицерон, О законах, II, 24, 61: Закон запрещает приобретать по давности место захоронения, а равно и место сожжения трупа). ТАБЛИЦА XI 1. (Цицерон, О республике, II, 36, 36: [Децемвиры второго призыв а], прибавив две таблицы лицеприятных законов, [между прочим] санкционировали самым бесчеловечным законом запрещение браков между плебеями и патрициями) . 2. (Макробий, Sat., I, 13. 21: Децемвиры, которые прибавили две таблицы, предлагали народу утвердить исправление календаря). ТАБЛИЦА XII 1. (Гай, Институции, IV, 28: Законом был введен захват вещи в целях обеспечения долга, и -.по закону XII таблиц это было допущено против того, кто приобрел животное для принесения жертвы, не уплатил за него покупной цены, а также и против того, кто не представит вознаграждения за сданное ему в наем вьючное животное, с тем условием, чтобы плата за пользование была употреблена им на жертвенный пир). 2а. Если раб совершит кражу или причинит вред. 26. (Г а й, Институции, IV, 75, 76: Преступления, совершенные подвластными лицами или рабами, порождали иски об ущербе, по которым домовладыке или собственнику раба предоставлялось или возместить стоимость причиненного вреда, или выдать головою виновного... [Эти] иски установлены или законами, или эдиктом претора. К искам, установленным законами, [принадлежит], .например, иск о воровстве, созданный законом XII таблиц). 3. (Фест, De verb, signif., 174: Если приносит [на судоговорение] поддельную вещь или отрицает [самый факт] судоговорения, пусть претор назначит трех посредников и по их решению пусть возместит ущерб в размере двойного дохода [от спорной вещи]). 4. (Г а й, 3, D., XLIV, 6: Законом XII таблиц было запрещено жертвовать храмам ту вещь, которая является предметом судебного разбирательства; в противном случае мы подвергаемся штрафу в размере двойной стоимости вещи, но нигде не выяснено, должен лн этот штраф уплачиваться государству или тому лицу, которое заявило притязание на данную вещь). 5. (Ливии, VII, 17, 12: В XII таблицах имелось постановление о том, что впредь всякое решение народного собрания Должно иметь силу закона). зт 1 Ср. А. Геллий, Аттические ночи. «Может быть ты думаешь, что под «словом jumentum следует разуметь вьючное животное и поэтому находишь ■бесчеловечным тащить в суд на животном больного человека, который лежал у себя дома в постели. Но это вовсе не так... Jumentum имело не только то значение, какое придают ему в наше время, [оно] употреблялось для названия телеги, двигавшейся с помощью запряженных в нее животных. Агсега же называли прочную деревенскую повозку, которая была со всеч сторон закрыта н устлана подстилкой и которой имели обыкновение пользо- .еаться для перевозки тяжело больных и престарелых людей» (XVI, :26, 28, 29). 2 Источники не содержат данных для восстановления смысла отрывка. 3 Как указывал Гай в его комментарии к XII таблицам, вызванный на суд подлежал освобождению, если по дороге к магистрату заключал миро- шую с тем, кто предъявлял к нему исковое требование (1, 22, 1. D.. II. 4). 4 Комиций-место на форуме, где происходили народные собрания, отправлялось правосудие и приводились в исполнение приговоры. 5 Асе - римская монета, которая за время существования Римского государства несколько раз меняла свою стоимость. Позднейший асе равнялся по своей стоимости приблизительно 3 коп. и был в 6 раз дешевле.старинного асса. Некоторые исследователи справедливо высказывают сомнения в том, что в эпоху XII таблиц Рим мог уже иметь чеканную монету. 6 Status dies cum hoste - эта фраза, по мнению исследователей и переводчиков XII таблиц, указывает, что, согласно XII таблицам, законным поводом для отсрочки разбирательства искового требования являлось совпадение дня, назначенного для тяжбы, с днем, установленным для суда над чужестранцем. Действительно, у Цицерона можно прочесть указание иа то, -что hostis употребляется древними римлянами для обозначения чужеземца (peregrinus). (Цицерон, Об обязанностях, I, 12, 37). Просматривая другие источники, легко заметить, что в этот термин римляне вносили оттенок враждебности по отношению к данному чужеземцу. Hostis, следовательно, был не только чужестранец, по враг, с которым Рим вел борьбу. Поэтому данный термин употреблялся для обозначения не только внешнего, но также и внутреннего врага. По указанию ■юриста Павла, «к врагам причислялись те, кого сенат или закон признавал таковыми» (1, 5, § 1; D. IV, 5). Кроме того, трудно допустить, чтобы в эпоху XII таблиц в Риме существовало судебное регулирование отношений граждан с чужестранцами, н ввиду этого правильнее было бы, казалось, придать приведенной выше фразе XII таблиц смысл более грозной и интсн- .сивн-ой охраны спокойствия всей общины, всего ее господствующего.класса. ■Когда дело шло о суде над изменником, гласит, по нашему пониманию, данное указание XII таблиц, приостанавливалось действие правил, ограждавших интересы отдельного гражданина. 7 Это сообщение Авла Геллия о предании должников смертной казни не отвечает показаниям других источников, которые с полной определенностью указывают, что долгозое право использовалось в древнем Риме в целях эксплуатации кредиторами должников и обращения последних в рабское состояние. Ср. Дионисий Галикарнасский: «Где же те, - спрашивал Валерий, - koi"o за их долги обращаю в рабство?» (Аттические ночи, VI, "59. Ср. также Ливии, VI, 34). 8 Ср. А. Геллий, Аттические ночи, XX, 1, 48: «Если должник отдавался судом нескольким кредиторам, то децемвиры разрешали им, буде того пожелают, разрубить и разделить на части тело отданного им человека. [Но] я не читал и не слыхал, чтобы в старину кто-нибудь был разрублен на части». 9 См. примечание 6 на стр. 32. 10 Под res mancipi источники разумели имущественные объекты - земля на территории Италии, рабы, вьючные н упряжные животные (быки, лошади, ослы и мулы) и так называемые сельские сервитута, т. е. права на чужую вещь, связанные с собственностью на земельный участок (право прохода, прогона скота и т. д.). «32 » Агнатами в Риме назывались лица, считавшиеся родственниками, в силу того что они состояли (или могли бы состоять) под властью одного и того же домовладыкп. Поэтому, например, жена являлась агнаткон братьев своего мужа, ибо все они находились под властью отца последнего (т. е. ее свекра), если бы он был жив. 12 Фохт высказывает предположение о том, что соответственное постановление XII таблиц гласило следующее: «Если вольноотпущенник, не имез- ший подвпастных ему лиц, умирал без завещания, то движимое имущество нз его хозяйства переходило в хозяйство его патрона». 13 По мнению Варрона «nexus назывался свободный человек, отдававший себя в рабство за деньги, которые он был должен, до тех пор, пока ие выплатит этого долга». 14 Дополняя этот отрывок следующим образом: «После уборки винограда, пока жерди не вынуты, их нельзя брать насильно», Фохт предполагал, что смысл данного постановления заключается в том, что когда после уборки винограда жерди были вытащены нз земли, собственник мог заявить на них свое право собственности. 15 В законе XII таблиц было постановлено наказывать палками за публичную брань. Сенека говорит: «И у нас в XII таблицах предписывалось не заклинать чужих плодов (т. е. урожая на деревьях)». Перевод и примечания проф. И. И. Яковкина (взяты из «Хрестоматии по древней истории», под ред. акад. В. В. Струве, т. I, Москва, 1936). № 9. ПОРАЖЕНИЕ РИМЛЯН В КАВДИНСКОМ УЩЕЛЬЕ (Тит Ливши, IX, 1-6) Наступил год, ознаменованный поражением римлян и Кав- дднеким миром ", консулами.были тогда Т. Ветурий Кальвин и Сп. Постумий. Главным вождем самнитов в этом году был К- Понтпий, сын Геренния... Выступив [против римлян] с войском, Понтий стал лагерем близ Кавдина, соблюдая возможную осторожность и скрытность. Зная, что вожди римлян и их coii- ока находятся уже в Калации, [где они стояли лагерем], Понтий отправил туда десять.воинов, переодетые пастухами. В разных местах, недалеко от римских постов, он велел пастухам стеречь стада, а когда они попадутся <в руки неприятельских отрядов, на все расспросы отвечать одно и то же: «легионы самнитов в Апулии, всеми силами осаждают Луцерию и уже почти готовы овладеть ею». Слух этот, с умыслом распущенный, уже и прежде дошел до римлян; iho они поверили ему еще больше на основании единогласных показаний пленных. Итак, со стороны римлян решено было немедленно подать помощь жителям Лу- церии, .как хорошим и верным союзникам. Это было необходимо: потеря Луцерни могла повлечь за собою отпадение всей Апулии. Вопрос только заключался в том, какою дорогою идти к Луцерии: одна шла ровными и безопасными местами по берегу Верхнего моря, но представляла то неудобство., что была длиннее. Другая, много короче, шла через Кавдинские Фуркулы. А местность здесь такова: два глубоких, покрытых лесом ущелья тянутся между двумя непрерывными горными хребта- " Хрестоматия по истории древнего мира, т. Ill 23 мп; посередине они расходятся, образуя довольно обширную поляну, представлявшую прекрасное пастбище; через эти-то места надобно было проходить; сначала, чтобы достигнуть поляны, нужно было идти сквозь первое ущелье; и, чтобы выйти, с поляны, нужно было или вернуться опять тою же дорогою, или, если идти дальше, необходимо было проходить сквозь ущелье еще более тесное, чем первое. Римляне сошли на поляну другой дорогой по уступам скал; когда же они тотчас хотели выйти оттуда через ущелье, то.нашли, что оно завалено срубленными деревьями и огромными камнями. Тогда только поняли римляне, что попали в засаду; в том они убедились еще более, когда на вершинах господствовавших над ними воевыше- ний увидали неприятельских воинов. Римляне пытались вернуться той дорогой, которой вошли сюда, но нашли, что она загорожена засекой и вооруженными людьми. Сами собой, не дожидаясь приказания вождей, остановились наши воины. ...Уступая необходимости, римляне отправили послов, просит мира на сколько-нибудь сносных условиях, а если это будет невозможно, вызвать самнитов на бой. Понтий дал послам следующий ответ: «Война уже кончилась; но если римляне, будучи побеждены и находясь в его сласти, ©се еще не могут осознать того положения, в какое поставила их судьба, он пошлет их безоружных, в одних рубашках под ярмо 2. Прочие же условия мира будут равно безобидны и для победителя, и для побежденного: римские войска должны очистить землю самнитов, вывести оттуда свои поселения; отныне оба народа должны жить в дружественном союзе, каждый под своим собственным законом. На этих условиях готов он заключить мирный договор с консулами». В случае же их несогласия он запретил послам римским возвращаться к себе... ...Консулы отправились к Пойтию для переговоров. Здесь, когда победитель заговорил о торжественном заключении мира, они сказали, что без согласия народа невозможно его заключить, а равно, что мир, если бы и был заключен, не будет действителен без участия фецпалов3 и установленных обрядоз. А потому несправедливо господствующее мнение, высказанное и историком Клавдием о том, будто мы у Кавдия заключили торжественный мирный союз, а не мирный трактат на поручительстве. Будь первое, не предстояло бы нужды нн в поручительстве, ни в заложниках, и к чему они там, где все заключается в заклинании: «Которая из двух договаривающихся сторон нарушит заключаемый договор, то да поразит его Юпитер так, как фециалы поражают жертвенную свинью»? Поручились консулы, легаты, квесторы, военные трибуны; самые имена всех поручителей дошли до нас; но если бы заключен был торжественный союзный договор, то нам известны были бы только имена двух фециалов. Так как заключение торжественного мирного договора было по необходимости отложено, 34 то взяты в заложники шесть сот всадников; они должны были отвечать жизнью в случае нарушения обязательства. Назначен срок, в течение которого должны были быть выданы заложники, а римское войско отпущено безоружным. Сначала приказано было им всем в одних рубашках без оружия выйти на вал; тут были выданы заложники, уведенные под военной охраной. Потом от консулов отняты ликторы4, и военная одежда, присвоенная их положению, снята с них... Сначала консулы, полуобнаженные, проведены были под ярмом; за ними все прочие военные чины подверглись бесславию в том порядке, как они друг за другом следовали; наконец, простые воины по легионам. Неприятельские воины стояли кругом, осыпая римлян злыми насмешками и ругательствами и грозя меча-ми. Иные из наших воинов, на лицах которых ярко выражалась ненависть к врагу, были ранены и даже умерщвлены. Таким образом, все воины были проведены под ярмом на.глазах неприятеля... Перев. А. Клеванова. 1 Во второй половине IV в. римляне вели борьбу с самнитскими племенами. С 343 по 341 г. длилась первая Самнитская война. Закончилась она полной победой Рима. Пятнадцать лет спустя началась вторая Самнитская война (327-304 гг.), в которой римские войска потерпели жестокое поражение в Кавдинском ущелье (321 г). 2 Ярмо неприятельское (jugum) состояло из двух копий, воткнутых в землю, и одного, лежащего на них в качестве перекладины, под которыми заставляли проходить побежденного неприятеля в знак его покорности. 3 Фециалы - жреческие коллегии в Риме. Они принимали участие в решении вопросов международных отношений: ведения войны, заключения мира и т. д. 4 В знак власти консулов сопровождало 12 ликторов, которые несли связки прутьев, называемые фасцами. № 10. ПОКОРЕНИЕ РИМЛЯНАМИ ЮЖНОЙ ИТАЛИИ (Полибий, I, 6) Римляне заключили мир с кельтами " на условиях, предложенных последними, и сверх всякого ожидания получив обратно родной город, начали восстанавливать свои силы, а затем вести.войну с соседями. Благодаря мужеству и военному счастью, римляне покорили своей власти всех жителей Лация, потом воевали с тирренами 2, далее с кельтами, вслед за этим с самнитами, которые живут у восточных и северных границ земли латинов". Некоторое время спустя тарентинцы 3 в страхе перед римлянами, послам которых нанесли обиду, призвали на помощь Пирра 4; случилось это за год до нашествия галатов на Элладу 5, которые разбиты были под Дсльфами и переправились морем в Азию. В это-то время римляне, покоривши уже тирре- нов и самнитов, одолевши во многих сражениях италийских кельтов, впервые обратили свои силы на остальные части Ита- лки. В битвах с самнитами и кельтами они изощрились в военном деле и теперь собирались воевать за земли, большую часть которых почитали уже не чужим достоянием, а своею собственностью и своими владениями. Войну эту они вели доблестно и наконец выгнали из Италии Пирра с его войсками, потом предприняли новые войны и сокрушили союзников Пирра. Покоривши неожиданно все эти народы, подчинивши своей власти всех жителей Италии, кроме кельтов, они затем приступили к осаде Регия 6. Перев. Ф. Г. Мищенко. 1 Имеется в виду мир, который был заключен на невыгодных для римлян условиях после того, как кельты захватили и разграбили Рим. 2 Неизвестно, какие племена подразумевает Полнбнп под названием тирренов. 3 Тарентинцы - жители южнонталнйского города Тарента, колонии, выведенной Спартой. 4 Пирр - царь Эпира, с которым жители Тарента заключили договор о помощи против Рима (281 г. до н. э.). 5 Нашествие галатов на Грецию, по данным Павсания, Страбона и других авторов, имело место в 279 г. до н. э. 6 Осада Регия, города, расположенного на южной оконечности Италии, была предпринята римлянами в 270 г. до н. э. ПРЕВРАЩЕНИЕ РИМА В СИЛЬНЕЙШЕЕ ГОСУДАРСТВО СРЕДИЗЕМНОМОРЬЯ Изучению пунических войн нужно предпослать характеристику социально-экономического положения Карфагена, колонии Тира на северном берегу Африки Легенду об основании Карфагена сообщает нам Юстин [док. № 11]. Основу экономики Карфагена составляла посредническая торговля и сильно развитое сельское хозяйство, в котором широко применялся труд рабов. Важен также вопрос о политическом строе Карфагена, где господствовала олигархия [совет 30], а народное собрание не играло никакой роли в решении тех или иных вопросов - ив первую очередь в вопросах ведения войны и заключения мира. Карфаген начинает играть все большую и большую роль в торговле Средиземноморья. Античные авторы сообщают нам сведения о взаимоотношениях Карфагена с Римом, начиная с эпохи ранней республики и о договорах, которые заключались между этими двумя государствами. Например, Полибий говорит о первоначальном разграничении сфер влияния Карфагена и Рима (док. № 12). Разделение это, по Полибию, было следующим: влияние Карфагена распространялось на Сардинию, Ливню и юго-западную часть Сицилии, а римлян - на Италию (главным образом - Лациум) н остальную часть Сицилии. Подробно излагаются у Полибия последующие договори этих двух держав (док. № 12). Излагая историю пунических войн, надо исходить из указания В. И. Ленина, говорившего, что «Империалистские войны тоже бывали и на почве рабства (война Рима с Карфагеном была с обеих сторон империалистской войной)...» (В. И. Ленин, Соч., т. 26, стр. 135). Нужно особо остановиться на причинах, приведших к столкновению Двух сильнейших держав Средиземноморья. Выясняя роль Сицилии во взаимоотношениях Рима с Карфагеном следует основываться на данньх Поли- б"я (док. № 13). 37 При изложении хода военных действии надо выделить узловые моменты борьбы Рима с Карфагеном. Важно выяснить также внутриполитические последствия первой пунической войны для обеих воюющих сторон: в Карфагене имело место восстание наемников, воевавших против Рима и не получивших денег за свою службу. К ним присоединилось значительное количество рабов (во главе с рабом Матоном). Восстание это тянулось три года н представляло серьезную угрозу для Карфагена. Об этих событиях подробно рассказывается у Полибия (док. № 17). В Риме после первой пунической войны также обострились социальные движения, так, например, была проведена реформа центуриатных комиций. При изложении основных событий второй пунической войны нужно остановиться на завоеваниях Карфагена в Испании и захвате союзного Риму города Сагунта, что послужило поводом ко второй пунической войне. Относительно тактики Фабия Максима, командовавшего римскими войсками во второй пунической войне, подробное указание мы находим у Тита Ливия (док. № 19). Ливии отмечает, что позиция Фабия Максима, прозванного Кунктатором (Медлителем), осуждалась в Риме и что более оппозиционные круги обвиняли его даже в измене родине. Наряду с этим античный автор высказывает и другую точку зрения, которую, видимо, сам разделяет, а именно: что «наконец-то римляне выбрали полководцем человека, который рассчитывал в ведении войны более иа благоразумие, чем на слепое счастье». Особенно ярко тактика римского и карфагенского войска проявилась ко время решающей битвы второй пунической войны - в битве при Каннах. Ливии дает нам подробное описание ее (док. № 20). Изложив ход сражения, приведшего к поражению римлян, нужно показать, что оно послужило причиной отпадения от Рима союзных италийских городов и в первую очередь Капуи. Тит Ливии, рассказывая об этих событиях (док. № 21), говорит, что послы Кампании заключили мир с Ганнибалом и истребили всех римлян, находившихся в Капуе. Тем не менее положение Ганнибала в Италии было очень трудным, так как он перестал получать подкрепления из Карфагена. Это было использовано римлянами, высадившими в Африке свои войска. В битве при Заме карфагеняне потерпели решительное поражение. В результате победы над Карфагеном во второй пунической войне неизмеримо увеличилось значение Рима. Карфаген же после этой войны стал второстепенным государством Средиземноморья. После изучения внешнеполитических отношений Рима на западе важно остановиться и на обстановке, создавшейся в результате второй пунической войны в восточной части Средиземного моря. Египет переживал состояние экономического и политического упадка, а из всех стран восточного Средиземноморья в этот период наибольшего расцвета достигает Македония. , Царь Македонии Филипп, как сообщает Тит Ливии (док. № 22), с величайшим вниманием следил за борьбой Рима с Карфагеном и после первых побед Карфагена во второй пунической войне отправил послов, чтобы присоединиться к сильнейшему. Ливии перечисляет нам условия договора, заключенного между Карфагеном и Македонией. Последняя должна была выставить 200 судов для борьбы с Римом. Тем не менее переговоры окончились неудачно, так как послы эти были перехвачены римлянами. Тенденции Македонии к завоеваниям представляли большую угрозу для всех стран восточного Средиземноморья, которые обращаются за помощью к Риму. В ходе переговоров с эллинистическими странами нужно особенно отметить роль римской дипломатии. После характеристики обстановки, предшествовавшей войнам Рима на востоке, необходимо изложить ход войн с Сирией и Македонией и условия мирного договора с Филиппом (док. № 23). Важно проследить последовательность завоеваний Рима на востоке- первая и вторая македонская война, Сирийская война, война с Персеем и покорение Македонии, война с Ахейским союзом. 3S К середине II в. до н. э. римляне в своей внешней политике добились значительных успехов как на западе, так и на востоке. В результате победы в третьей пунической войне Карфаген был разрушен и перестал представлять собой угрозу для экономики и торговли Рима на запаче. По словам Энгельса «третью... Пуническую войну едва ли.можно назвать войной; это было простое угнетение слабейшего противника в десять раз сильнейшим противником» (К. Маркс и Ф. Энгельс, Соч., т. VIII, стр. 434). На востоке были завоеваны и превращены в римские провинции "Македония и Греция (док. № 24), которые отныне рассматриваются, как praedia populi Romani (поместья римского народа), и подвергаются тяжелой эксплуатации. Таким"образом, к середине II в. до и. э. Рим становится крупнейшим государством Средиземноморья. № П. ОСНОВАНИЕ КАРФАГЕНА (Юстин, История, XVIII, 3-5) В изложении Юстина (II в. и. э.) дошла до нас «Всемирная история» в 44 книгах, написанная уроженцем Галлии Трогом Помпеем, автором, жившим во времена Августа. Он писал, используя главным образом греческие источники и в первую очередь Теопомпа. Особенно подробно освещены были в этом труде вопросы о появлении и гибели «всемирных монархий». Когда у них [финикийцев] было изобилие богатств" и населения, они отправили молодежь в Африку и основали там город Утику. Между тем царь Мутгон в Тире умер, оставив своими наследниками сы«а Пигмалиона и дочь Элиссу, девушку выдающейся красоты. Но народ передал все царство Пигмалиону, тогда еще совсем юному. Элиоса вышла замуж за* дядю.своего Акербу, жреца Геркулеса, занимавшего второе место в государстве после царя. У него были огромные, но скрываемые им богатства; боясь царя, он свое золото хранил не в доме, а в земле; хотя люди этого и не знали, но ходила об этом молва. Раздраженный ею, Пигмалион, забыв.все человеческие и божеские законы, убил своего дядю и вместе с тем зятя, Элиоса долго сторонилась брата после этого убийства и подконец стала обдумывать бегство, взяв себе в союзники несколько знатных тирийцев, у которых была, по ее мнению, такая же ненависть к царю и такое же желание от него уехать... К ним присоединились подготовившиеся к бегству группы сенаторов. Захватив сокровища из храма Геркулеса, .где Акерба был жрецом, они изгнанниками пустились на поиски места для поселения. Первую высадку они сделали на острове Кипре. Там жрец Юпитера с женой и детьми, по внушению бога, присоединился к Элисее и разделил с нею ее судьбу, выговорив себе и своем v потомству наследственную жреческую должность... Элиоса, высадившись в заливе Африки, вступила в дружеские отношения с местными жителями, обрадовавшимися прибытию чужеземцев п установлению торговых связей с ними. Затем, купив столько земли, сколько можно покрыть кожей быка, чтобы дать отдых спутникам, утомленным продолжительным плаванием, пока они 39 туда добирались, она приказала разрезать кожу на тончайшие полоски и таким образом заняла больше места, чем сколько просила, поэтому впоследствии этому месту дали название Бирсы ". Когда сюда стали стекаться жители соседних земель и, рассчитывая получить барыш, привозить много товара на про- , дажу, они стали строить здесь для себя жилища, и от многолюдства их образовалось нечто вроде города. Так же и послы из Утики принесли дары своим соотечественникам и убедили их основать город на том месте, которое им досталось по жребию. Со своей стороны и жители Африки хотели задержать у себя новых пришельцев. Таким образом с общего согласия был основан Карфаген, причем была установлена годовая плата за землю, на которой возник город. При первой закладке в земле найдена была бычья голова, что предвещало, что земля будет плодородна, но потребует много труда и что город (будет в постоянном рабстве. Тогда да-за этого город был перенесен на другое место. Там найдена была лошадиная голова, что означало, что народ будет воинственный и могущественный. Это обстоятельство и определило благоприятное место для закладки города. Тогда в силу такого представления о новом городе сюда стало стекаться множество народа, и в скором времени город стал большим и многонаселенным. Перев. В. С. Соколова. 1 Что по-гречески означает «содранная шкура». № 12. ДОГОВОРЫ РИМЛЯН С КАРФАГЕНОМ ДО НАЧАЛА ПУНИЧЕСКИХ ВОЙН (Полибий, III, 22-25) Первый договор между римлянами и карфагенянами " был заключен при Люции Юнии Бруте и Марке Горации, первых консулах после упразднения царской власти, при тех самых, которыми освещен был храм Зевса Капитолийского, т. е. за двадцать восемь лет до вторжения Ксеркса в Элладу. Мы сообщаем его в переводе", сделанном с возможною точностью, ибо "и у римлян нынешний язык настолько отличается от древнего, что некоторые выражения договора могут быть поняты с трудом лишь весьма сведущими и внимательными читателями. Содержание договора приблизительно следующее: «Быть дружбе между римлянами с союзниками и карфагенянами с союзниками на нижеследующих условиях: римлянам и союзникам римлян возбраняется плыть дальше Прекрасного мыса2, разве к тому они будут вынуждены бурею или неприятелями. Если кто-нибудь занесен будет против желания, ему не дозволяется ни покупать что-либо, ни брать сверх того, что требуется для починки судна или для жертвы. В пятидневный срок он обязан удалиться. Явившиеся по торго- J0 еым делам не могут совершить никакой сделки иначе, как при посредстве глашатая или писца. За все то, что в присутствии этих свидетелей ни было бы продано в Ливии или в Сардинии, ручается перед продавцом государство. Если бы кто из римлян явился в подвластную карфагенянам Сицилию, то во всем он пользовался бы одинаковыми правами с карфагенянами. С другой стороны, карфагенянам возбраняется обижать народ ардеа- тов, анциатов, ларентинов, цирцеитов, таррацинитов3 и всякий иной латинский народ, подчиненный римлянам. Если какой-либо народ и не подчинен римлянам, карфагенянам возбраняется нападать на их города; а если бы какой город они взяли, то обязуются возвратить его в целости римлянам. Карфагенянам возбраняется сооружать укрепления в Ланий, и если бы они вторглись в страну как неприятели, им возбраняется проводить там ночь». Карфагеняне находили нужным воспретить римлянам плавание на длинных кораблях дальше Прекрасного мыса с целью, как мне кажется, воспрепятствовать ознакомлению римлян с местностями Биссатиды и Малого Сирта 4, которые называются у них эмпориями5 и отличаются высокими достоинствами. Если бы кто занесен был туда против желания бурей или [загнан] неприятелем и нуждался бы в чем-либо необходимом для жертвы или для поправки судна, карфагеняне дозволяют взять это, но ничего больше и притом требуют непременного удаления приставших сюда в пятидневный срок. По торговым делам римлянам дозволяется приезжать в Карфаген и во всякий другой город Ливии по сю сторону Прекрасного мыса, а также в Сардинию и подчиненную карфагенянам часть Сицилии, причем карфагеняне обещают от имени государства обеспечить каждому это право. Из договора явствует, что карфагеняне говорят о Сардинии и Ливии, как о собственных владениях; напротив, относительно Сицилии они ясно отличают только ту часть ее, которая находится во власти карфагенян, и договариваются только о ней. Равным образом и римляне заключают договор только относительно Лация, не упоминая об остальной Италии, так как она не была тогда в их власти... После этого договора они заключили другой 6, в который карфагеняне включили тирян и народ Утики. К Прекрасному мысу прибавляются теперь Мастия и Тарсена7, и они требуют, чтобы дальше этих пунктов римляне не ходили за добычей и не основывали города. Вот каково приблизительно содержание договора: «Быть дружбе между римлянами с союзниками и карфагенянами, тирянами, народом Утики с союзниками на следующих условиях: римлянам возбраняется плавать поту сторону Прекрасного мыса, Мастии и Тарсена как за добычей, так и для торговли и основания города. Если бы карфагеняне овладели в Лации каким-либо городом, независимым от римлян, то они могут взять деньги и пленных, а самый город обязаны возвра- 41 тпть. Если бы какие-либо карфагеняне взяли в плен кого-либо из народа, который заключил с римлянами писаный договор, но не находящегося под властью римлян, карфагенянам возбраняется привозить пленных в римские гавани; если же таковой будет доставлен туда и римлянин наложит на него руку, то < пленный отпускается на свободу. То же самое возбраняется и римлянам. Если римлянин в стране, подвластной карфагеняна.м возьмет воды или съестных припасов, ему возбраняется с этими съестными припасами обижать какой-либо народ, связанный с карфагенянами договором и дружбою. То же самое возбраняется и карфагенянам. Если же случится что-нибудь подобное, обиженному запрещается мстить за себя; в противном случае деяние его будет считаться государственным преступлением. В Сардинии и Лидии никому из римлян не дозволяется ни торговать, ни основывать городов, ни приставать где-либо, разве для того только, чтобы запастись продовольствием или починить судно. Если римлянин будет занесен бурей, то обязан удалиться в пятидневный срок. В той части Сицилии, которая подвластна карфагенянам, а также в Карфагене, римлянину наравне с гражданином предоставляется совершать продажу и всякие сделки. То же самое предоставляется и карфагенянину в Риме». В этом договоре карфагеняне еще более определенно заявляют право собственности на Ливию и Сардинию и запрещают римлянам всякий доступ к ним; напротив, относительно Сицилии они определенно называют только подвластную им часть ее. Точно так же выражаются римляне о Лации, обязывая карфагенян не причинять обид ардеатам, анциатам, цирцеитам и тарра- цийитам. Это те города, которые лежат при море на границе латинской земли, в отношении которой и заключается договор. ...Последний договор до войны карфагенян за Сицилию римляне заключили во время переправы Пирра в Италию8. В нем подтверждается все то, что было в прежних договорах, и прибавляются следующие условия: «Если бы римляне или карфагеняне пожелали заключить письменный договор с Пирром, то оба народа обязаны выговорить себе разрешение помогать друг другу в случае вторжения неприятеля, какая бы из двух стран ни подверглась нападению. Тот или другой народ нуждался бы в помощи, карфагеняне обязаны доставить суда грузовые и военные, но жалованье, своим воинам каждая сторона обязана уплачивать сама. Карфагеняне обязуются помогать римлянам и на море в случае нужды; но никто не вправе понуждать команд}" к высадке на сушу, раз она того не желает». Что касается клятвы, то она должна была быть такого рода: первые догоЕоры карфагеняне утвердили клятвою во имя отеческих богов, а римляне, согласно древнему обычаю, во имя Юпитера Камня 9, последний же договор именем Марса Эниа- лия10. Клятва Юпитером Камнем состоит приблизительно в следующем: утверждающий клятвою договор берет в руку камень 42 и, поклявшись от имени государства, произносит такие слова: «Да будут милостивы ко мне боги, "если я соблюду клятву; если же помыслю или учиню что-либо противное клятве, пускай все люди невредимо пребывают на собственной родине, при собственных законах, при собственных достатках, святынях, гробницах, один я да буду повергнут, как этот камень». При этих словах произносящий клятву кидает камень. Перев. Ф. Г. Мищенко. 1 О первом договоре римлян с карфа!енянами мы находим сведения только у Полибия, который относит его к 508 г. до н. э. Это свидетельство не может считаться в полной мере достоверным, тем более что дальше По- либий допускает фактическую ошибку - первыми консулами по традиции были Люций Юний Брут и Люций Тарквнний Коллатин, а не Марк Гораций. 2 Прекрасный мыс находился недалеко от Карфагена, по направлению на север. 3 Имеются в виду жители городов Лация: Ардеи, Анция, Лаврента, Цирцей, Таррацины. 4 Биссатида и Малый Сирт - местности на северном побережье Африки, обладающие удобными гаванями. 5 Эмпорий - по-гречески торговый пункт. 6 Есть основание предполагать, что об этом же договоре мы находим упоминание у Ливия, датируется он 348 г. до и. э. 7 Города Мастия и Тарсена находятся в южной Испании, недалеко от так называемых «Геракловых столбов». 6 Имеется в виду договор 279 г. до н. э. 9 Римляне клялись именем Камня Юпитера, считая его символом божества. 10 Эниалий - первоначально эпитет Марса, бога войны, позднее - самостоятельное божество, именем которого клялись римляне. № 13. ПРИЧИНЫ ПЕРВОЙ ПУНИЧЕСКОЙ ВОЙНЫ (Полиб"Ий, 1, 10-11) Мамертины" ...прежде уже потеряли помощь Регия; теперь... и собственные силы их были сокрушены вконец2. Поэтому одни из них, найдя убежища у карфагенян, передались им сами, передали и город; другая часть мамертинов отправила посольство к римлянам с предложением принять их город и с просьбою помочь им, как родственным с ними,по крови. Римляне долго колебались, что предпринять, так как помощь мамертинам была бы явною непоследовательностью. Еще так недавно римляне казнили жесточайшею казнью собственных граждан за то, что они нарушили уговор с региянамп, и тут же помогать мамертинам, почти в том же виноватым не только перед мессенцами, но и перед городом региян, было бы непростительною несправедливостью. Все это римляне понимали; но они видели также, что карфагеняне покорили не только Ливию, но и большую часть Иберии, что господство их простирается на все острова Сардинского и Тирренского морей, и сильно боялись, как бы не приобрести в карфагенянах, в случае покорения ими Сицилии, опас- 43 пых и страшных соседей, которые окружат их кольцом и будут угрожать всей Италии. Было совершенно ясно, что, если римляне откажут в помощи мамертинам, карфагеняне быстро овладеют Сицилией. Имея

CHRESTOMATIA ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD (Part 2. History of Antiquity)

for 1st year students of the Faculty of History

correspondence department

Voronezh 2011

Reader on the history of the ancient world. (Part 2. History of Antiquity) - Voronezh: Publishing house of the Voronezh State University, 2007. - p.

Compiled by Cand. ist. Sci., Associate Professor, VSPU O. V. Karmazina

cand. ist. Sci., Associate Professor VSPU L.A. Sakhnenko

Reviewer

Xenophon

State of Lacedaemonians, 5-7; 8-10

... Having made the Spartans the order in which they, like all other Greeks, dined each in their own home, Lycurgus saw in this circumstance the reason for very many frivolous actions. Lycurgus made their comradely dinners public in the hope that this would most likely make it impossible to violate orders. He allowed the citizens to consume food in such quantities that they would not be overly satiated, but also did not suffer a shortage; however, game is often served as an addition, and rich people sometimes bring wheat bread; thus, while the Spartans live together in tents, their table never suffers from either a lack of food or an excessive cost. Likewise with regard to drinking: stopping unnecessary drinking, relaxing the body, relaxing the mind, Lycurgus allowed everyone to drink only to satisfy their thirst, believing that drinking under such conditions would be both harmless and most pleasant. With general dinners, how could anyone seriously damage himself and his household by the delicacy of food or drunkenness? In all other states, peers are, for the most part, together and are least ashamed of each other; Lycurgus in Sparta united the ages so that young people were brought up mainly under the guidance of the experience of their elders. It is customary to talk about the deeds committed by someone in the state on fiditiyas; therefore, there is almost no place for arrogance, drunken antics, indecent deeds, foul language. And another good side of this arrangement of dining outside the home: when returning home, the participants in the fidithias should walk and be careful not to stumble in a drunken state, they should know that they should not stay where they had dinner, that they should walk in the dark , as in the daytime, as well as with a torch, it is not allowed to go to those who are still serving garrison service. Further, noting that the very food that gives a good complexion and health to the working, gives ugly fullness and illness to the idle, Lycurgus did not neglect this either ... That is why it is difficult to find people who are healthier, more physically enduring than the Spartans, since they exercise the legs, arms and neck alike.

In contrast to most Greeks, Lycurgus considered the following necessary. In other states, everyone disposes of his own children, slaves and property; and Lycurgus, wishing to arrange so that the citizens did not harm each other, but were beneficial, provided everyone equally

dispose of both his own children and strangers: after all, if everyone knows that the fathers of those children whom he disposes are in front of him, then inevitably he will dispose of them as he would like to treat his own children. If a boy who has been beaten by someone else complains to his father, it is considered shameful if the father does not beat his son again. So the Spartans are sure that none of them orders the boys anything shameful. Lycurgus also allowed, if necessary, to use other people's slaves, also established the general use of hunting dogs; therefore, those who do not have their dogs invite others to hunt; and who does not have time to go hunting on his own, he willingly gives dogs to others. They also use horses: whoever gets sick, or who needs a carriage, or who wants to go somewhere as soon as possible - he takes the first horse he comes across and, as soon as the need is passed, puts it back in good working order. And here is another custom, not accepted by the rest of the Greeks, but introduced by Lycurgus. In case people are late on the hunt and, without capturing supplies, will need them, Lycurgus established that he who had supplies left them, and the needy could open the locks, take as much as needed, and lock the rest again. Thus, due to the fact that the Spartans share with each other in this way, even poor people, if they need anything, have a share in all the wealth of the country.

Also, in contrast to the rest of the Greeks, Lycurgus established the following orders in Sparta. In other states, each as far as possible makes himself a fortune: one is engaged in agriculture, the other is a ship owner, the third is a merchant, and some feed on crafts; in Sparta, Lycurgus, forbade the free to engage in anything related to profit, but established that only activities that provide the state with freedom should be recognized as suitable for them. And really, what is the point of striving for wealth where, by his regulations on equal contributions for meals, on the same way of life for all, the legislator has suppressed any desire to acquire money for the sake of pleasant profit? There is no need to accumulate wealth for clothes, since in Sparta the decoration is not the luxury of a dress, but the health of the body. And to spend on comrades, it is also not worth saving money, since Lycurgus suggested that it is more glory to help comrades with personal work than money - the first he considered a matter of the soul, the second only a matter of wealth. Lycurgus also forbade unfair enrichment by such orders. First of all, he installed such a coin that; if she got into the house for only ten minutes, it would not hide from either masters or domestic slaves, because it would require a lot of space and a whole cart for transportation. Gold and silver are monitored, and if anyone has any, the owner is liable to a fine. So why strive for enrichment where possession brings more grief than waste-pleasure?

In Sparta, laws are especially strictly obeyed ... I, however, do not think that Lycurgus began to introduce this wonderful order without first obtaining the consent of the most influential persons in the state ... Since, according to influential people, obedience is the greatest blessing in the city, and in the army, and in the house, these same people, naturally, gave strength to the ephoric power: the stronger the power, the more, in their opinion, it should induce citizens to obey. Ephors have the right to punish anyone they want, they have the power to recover immediately, they have the power and remove them from office before the expiration of their term and imprison officials, initiate a process against them that threatens death ...

In Sparta, laws are especially strictly obeyed ... I, however, do not think that Lycurgus began to introduce this wonderful order without first obtaining the consent of the most influential persons in the state ... Once, according to influential people, obedience is the greatest blessing in the city, and in the army, and in the house, these same people, naturally, gave strength to the ephoric power: the stronger the power, the more, in their opinion, it should induce citizens to obey. Ephors have the right to punish anyone they want, have the power to recover immediately, have the power and remove them from office before the expiration of their term, and imprison officials, initiate a process against them that threatens death.

"Reader on the history of the ancient world", under. V. V. Struve, vol. II. M., Uchpedgiz, 1951, No. 49.

PAUSANIA, DESCRIPTION OF HELLAS, 111.20 (6)

... Near the sea was the town of Gelos ... Subsequently, the nobles took it by siege. The inhabitants of this city became the first public slaves of the Lacedaemonians and the first were called helots, i.e. "Taken prisoner", which they really were. The name of the helots then extended to the slaves acquired later, although, for example, the Messenians were Dorians ...

LIBANIUM, SPEECH, 25, 63

The Lacedaemonians gave themselves against the helots, complete freedom to kill them, and about them Critias says that in Lacedaemon there is the most complete slavery of some, and the most complete freedom of others. “After all, because of what else,” says Critias himself, “if not because of distrust of these same helots, the Spartiat is taking the handle of the shield from their house? After all, he does not do this in war, because there it is often necessary to be extremely quick. He always walks with a spear in his hands in order to be stronger than the helot, if he rebelled, being armed only with a shield. They also invented constipation for themselves, with the help of which they suppose to overcome the machinations of the helots. "

It would be the same (criticizes Libanius Kritia) that living together with someone, feeling fear of him and not daring to take a break from waiting for dangers. And how can those who, during breakfast, and in a dream, and when sending any other need, are armed with fear of slaves, how can such people ... enjoy real, freedom.? ... Just like the kings of they were by no means free, in view of the fact that the ephors had the power to knit and execute the king, so all spargiati were deprived of their freedom, living in conditions of hatred up to the side of the slaves.

"Reader on the history of the ancient world", under. V. V. Struve, vol. II. M., Uchpedgiz, 1951, No. 54.

PERICL

Translation by S.I. Sobolevsky, processing of the translation for this reprint by S.S. Averintsev, notes by M.L. Gasparov.

2. Pericles was ... both on the paternal and maternal side, from the house and clan that occupied the first place. Xanthippus, the conqueror of the barbarian generals under Mycal, married Agarist from the clan of Cleisthenes, who expelled the Pisistratids, courageously overthrew tyranny, gave laws to the Athenians and established a political system, mixing different elements in it, which was quite expedient for the consent and well-being of citizens. Agarista dreamed that she gave birth to a lion, and a few days later she gave birth to Pericles. He had no bodily defects; only the head was oblong and disproportionately large. That is why he is depicted on almost all statues with a helmet on his head - obviously because the sculptors did not want to present him in a shameful way ...

The closest person to Pericles, who breathed into him a majestic way of thinking, which raised him above the level of an ordinary leader of the people, and generally gave his character a high dignity, was Anaxagoras of Clazomenus, whom his contemporaries called "Mind" - whether because they were surprised at his great, extraordinary to the mind that manifested itself in the study of nature, or because he was the first to set the principle of the structure of the universe not by chance or necessity, but by the mind, pure, unmixed, which in all other mixed objects emits homogeneous particles.

5. Nourishing extraordinary respect for this man, imbued with his doctrine of celestial and atmospheric phenomena, Pericles, as they say, not only assimilated himself a lofty way of thinking and a lofty speech, free from flat, nasty buffoonery, but also a serious facial expression inaccessible to laughter , a calm gait, modesty in the manner of wearing clothes, not disturbed by any affect during speech, an even voice and similar properties of Pericles made a surprisingly strong impression on everyone ... The poet Ion claims that Pericles' treatment of people was rather arrogant and that his self-praise was mingled with a lot of arrogance and contempt for others ...

7. In his youth, Pericles was very afraid of the people: by himself he seemed like the tyrant Peisistratus; his pleasant voice, the lightness and speed of his language in conversation by this resemblance inspired fear in very old people. And since he owned wealth, came from a noble family, had influential friends, he was afraid of ostracism and therefore did not engage in public affairs, but on campaigns he was brave and looked for dangers. When Aristides died, Themistocles was in exile, and Cimon's campaigns were held for the most part outside Hellas, then Pericles with ardor began political activities. He took the side of democracy and the poor, and not on the side of the rich and aristocrats - contrary to his natural inclinations, completely non-democratic. Apparently, he was afraid that he might be suspected of striving for tyranny, and besides, he saw that Cimon was on the side of the aristocrats and was extremely loved by them. Therefore, he enlisted the favor of the people in order to ensure his safety and gain strength to fight Kimon.

Now after this Pericles changed his whole way of life. In the city he was seen walking along only one road - to the square and to the Soviet. He refused invitations to dinners and all this kind of friendly, short relationships ... Pericles behaved the same in relation to the people: in order not to satiate him with his constant presence, he appeared among the people only from time to time, did not speak on any business and did not always speak in the National Assembly, but saved himself ... for important matters, and did everything else through his friends and other speakers sent to them. One of them, they say, was Ephialtes, who crushed the power of the Areopagus ...

8. Pericles, tuning his speech as a musical instrument ... far surpassed all orators. For this reason, they say, he was given his famous nickname. However, some think that he was nicknamed "Olympian" for the buildings with which he decorated the city, others - that for his successes in government activities and in commanding the army; and there is nothing incredible that a combination of many qualities inherent in him contributed to his fame. However, from the comedies of that time, the authors of which often mention his name both seriously and with laughter, it is clear that this nickname was given to him mainly for his gift of speech: as they say, he thundered and threw lightning when he spoke to the people , and wore a terrible perun on the tongue ...

9. Thucydides depicts the political system under Pericles as aristocratic, which was democratic in name only, but in fact was the dominance of one dominant person. According to the testimony of many other authors, Pericles taught the people to cleruchias, receiving money for shows, receiving rewards; as a result of this bad habit, the people from modest and hard-working under the influence of the then political events became wasteful and willful. Let's consider the reason for this change based on the facts.

At first, as mentioned above, Pericles, in the struggle against the glory of Cimon, tried to win the favor of the people; he was inferior to Cimon in wealth and money with which he attracted the poor. Kimon invited citizens in need every day to dine, clothed the elderly, removed the fences from his estates so that whoever wanted to enjoy their fruits. Pericles, feeling defeated by such demagogic devices, on the advice of Damonides of Ay, turned to the division of public money, as Aristotle testifies. By distributing money for spectacles, by paying remuneration for the performance of judicial and other duties and various aids, Pericles bribed the masses of the people and began to use them to fight the Areopagus, of which he was not a member ... So, Pericles and his adherents, having gained greater influence from the people, defeated the Areopagus: most of the court cases were taken away from him with the help of Ephialtos, Cimon was expelled through ostracism as a supporter of the Spartans and an enemy of democracy, although in wealth and origin he was not inferior to anyone else, although he won such glorious victories over the barbarians and enriched the fatherland with a large number money and booty, as described in his biography. So great was the power of Pericles among the people!

10. The expulsion by means of ostracism of persons subjected to it was limited by law to a certain period - ten years ...

11 ... Pericles then especially loosened the bridle of the people and began to be guided in his policy by the desire to please him: he constantly arranged some solemn spectacles, or feasts, or processions in the city, entertained the inhabitants with noble entertainments, every year he sent sixty triremes, on which many citizens sailed for eight months and received a salary, at the same time acquiring skills and knowledge in maritime affairs. In addition, he sent a thousand Klerukh people to Chersonesos, to Naxos five hundred, to Andros half of this number, to Thrace a thousand to settle among the Bisalts, others to Italy, with the renewal of Sybaris, which was now called the Furies. In carrying out these measures, he was guided by the desire to free the city from the restless crowd, which was doing nothing and because of idleness, and at the same time to help the poor people, as well as to keep the allies under fear and observation in order to prevent their attempts to revolt by settling Athenian citizens near them.

12. But what gave the inhabitants the most pleasure and served as a decoration for the city, which led the whole world to amazement, which, finally, is the only proof that the glorified power of Hellas and its former wealth is not a false rumor, is the construction of magnificent buildings. But for this, more than for all other political activities of Pericles, the enemies condemned him and vilified him in the People's Assembly. “The people dishonor themselves,” they shouted, “they are notorious for the fact that Pericles transferred the general Hellenic treasury to himself from Delos; The most plausible excuse that the people can use to justify this reproach is that fear of the barbarians forced them to take the general treasury from there and keep it in a safe place; but this justification was taken from the people by Pericles. The Greeks understand that they endure terrible violence and are exposed to open tyranny, seeing that with the money they are forced to contribute intended for the war, we gild and dress the city like a dandy woman, weaving it with expensive marble, statues of gods and temples worth thousands talents ".

In view of this, Pericles pointed out to the people: “The Athenians are not obliged to give the allies an account of the money, because they are waging a war in defense of them and restraining the barbarians, while the allies do not supply anything - neither a horse, nor a ship, nor a hoplite, but only pay money; and money does not belong to the one who gives it, but to the one who receives, if he delivers what he receives. But, if the state is sufficiently supplied with the items necessary for war, it is necessary to spend its wealth on such works that, after their completion, will give the state eternal glory, and during execution will immediately serve as a source of prosperity, due to the fact that all kinds of work and different needs that awaken all sorts of crafts, give employment to all hands, bring income to almost the entire state, so that it decorates and feeds itself at its own expense. And indeed, people young and strong were given income from public sums of campaigns; and Pericles wanted the mass of workers, who did not carry out military service, not to be destitute, but at the same time not to receive money in inactivity and idleness.

Therefore, Pericles presented to the people many grandiose projects of structures and work plans that required the use of various crafts and designed for a long time so that the population remaining in the city had the right to use public funds no less than citizens who are in the fleet, in garrisons, on campaigns ...

14. Thucydides and the speakers of his party raised the cry that Pericles was wasting money and depriving the state of revenue. Then Pericles in the Assembly asked the people the question whether he found that much wasted. The answer was that a lot. "In that case," said Pericles, "let these costs be not on your account, but on mine, and on the buildings I will write my name." After these words of Pericles, the people, whether delighted with the greatness of his spirit, or not wanting to yield to him the glory of such buildings, shouted that he should attribute all costs to the public account and spend, sparing nothing. Finally, he entered into a fight with Thucydides, at the risk of being ostracized himself. He succeeded in expelling Thucydides and defeating the opposing party.

15. When in this way the discord was completely eliminated and complete unity and harmony occurred in the state, Pericles concentrated in himself Athens itself and all the affairs that depended on the Athenians - the contributions of the allies, the army, the navy, the islands, the sea, the great power, the source of which served both the Greeks and the barbarians, and the supreme dominion, fenced off by conquered peoples, friendship with kings and an alliance with petty rulers.

But Pericles was no longer the same - he was not, as before, an obedient instrument of the people, easily yielding and peaceable to the passions of the crowd, as if the wind blows; Instead of the old weak, sometimes somewhat compliant demagogy, like pleasant, gentle music, in his policy he pulled the song in an aristocratic and monarchical way and pursued this policy in accordance with the state good, straightforward and adamant. For the most part, he led the people with conviction and instruction, so that the people themselves wanted the same. However, there were cases when people expressed dissatisfaction; then Pericles pulled the reins and, directing him to his own good, forced him to obey his will ...

In a people who have such a strong power, all kinds of passions naturally arise. Pericles alone knew how to skillfully manage them, influencing the people mainly with hope and fear, like two rudders: he restrained his impudent self-confidence, then, with a decline in spirit, he encouraged and consoled him. He proved by this that eloquence, in the words of Plato, is the art of controlling souls and that its main task is to be able to correctly approach various characters and passions, as if to some tones and sounds of the soul, which require a touch or blow of a very skillful arms. However, the reason for this was not just the power of the word, but, as Thucydides says, the glory of his life and the trust in him: everyone saw his selflessness and incorruptibility. Although he made the city of greatness the greatest and richest, although he surpassed in power many kings and tyrants, some of whom made treaties with him, obligatory even for their sons, he did not increase his fortune by a single drachma against that which his father left him.

16. And yet he was omnipotent; Thucydides speaks about this directly; indirect evidence of this is the evil antics of comedians who call his friends the new pisistratids, and from him they demand an oath that he will not be a tyrant, since his prominence is not in line with democracy and is too burdensome. And Teleklides indicates that the Athenians provided him

All the tribute from the cities; he could tie any city or leave it free,

And protect it with a strong wall and destroy the walls again.

Everything is in his hands: alliances, power, strength, peace, and wealth.

This position of Pericles was not a happy coincidence, it was not the highest point of some fleeting brilliant state activity or the grace of the people for it - no, for forty years he excelled among the Ephialts, Leocrates, Mironids, Kimonov, Tolmids and Thucydides, and after the fall of Thucydides and exiled by his ostracism, he had for at least fifteen years continuous, sole power, although the post of strategist is given for one year. With such power, he remained incorruptible, despite the fact that he was not indifferent to money matters.

When Pericles ... was at the peak of his political power ..., he proposed that only those whose father and mother were Athenian citizens should be considered Athenian citizens. When the Egyptian king sent forty thousand medimns of wheat as a gift to the people, and the citizens had to share it among themselves, on the basis of this law, many lawsuits arose against illegitimate children, the origin of which until then either did not know, or looked at it through their fingers; many have also become victims of false denunciations. On this basis, nearly five thousand people were found guilty and sold into slavery; and the number of those who retained the right of citizenship and recognized as real Athenians turned out to be equal to fourteen thousand two hundred and forty ...

When Pericles was already dying, his best citizens and his surviving friends sat around him. They talked about his high qualities and political power, listed his exploits and the number of trophies: he raised nine trophies in memory of the victories won under his leadership for the glory of the fatherland. So they spoke to each other, thinking that he had already lost consciousness and did not understand them. But Pericles listened attentively to all this and, interrupting their conversation, said that he was surprised how they glorified and remembered such merits of him, in which an equal share belongs to happiness and which had already been with many generals, but they did not speak of the most glorious and important merit. "Not a single Athenian citizen," he added, "did not wear a black cloak because of me."

As for Pericles, the events made the Athenians feel what he was to them, and regret it. People who were burdened during his life by his power, because it overshadowed them, now, as he was gone, having experienced the power of other orators and leaders, they confessed that there had never been a person who could better combine modesty with a sense of dignity and majesty with meekness. And his strength, which aroused envy and which was called autocracy and tyranny, as they now understood, was the salutary bulwark of the state system: destructive troubles fell on the state and a deep corruption of morals was revealed, which he, weakening and humbling it, did not give the opportunity to manifest itself and turn into an incurable disease.

The text is cited from the edition: Aristotle. "Politics. Athenian politics". Series: "From the Classical Heritage". M, Thought, 1997, p. 271 - 343.

PART ONE

X. Development of democracy

26. This is how the supervisory authority was taken away from the Areopagite council. And after that, the state system began to lose its strict order more and more due to the fault of people who set themselves demagogic goals ...

(2) Although in all administration in general the Athenians did not adhere to the laws as strictly as before, nevertheless they did not change the order of electing the nine archons; only in the sixth year after the death of Ephialtos, it was decided that the preliminary elections of candidates for further drawing of lots in the commission of nine archons should also be made from the Zeugites, and for the first time among them Mnesifides was the archon. Until that time, everyone was from horsemen and pentakosiomedims, while Zeugites usually performed rank-and-file positions, unless some deviation from the laws was allowed. (3) In the fifth year thereafter, under the archon Lysicrates, thirty judges, so-called "on demes", were again established, and in the third year after him, under Antidote, due to the excessive number of citizens, at the suggestion of Pericles, it was decided that he could not have civil rights one who does not come from both citizens.

27. After that, Pericles acted as a demagogue ... Then the state system became even more democratic. Pericles took away some of the rights of the Areopagites and especially strongly insisted on the development of sea power in the state. Thanks to her, the common people felt their power and tried to concentrate all political rights in their hands.
(2) Then, in the 49th year after the Battle of Salamis, under Archon Pythodorus, a war began with the Peloponnesians, during which the people, locked in the city and accustomed to receiving salaries in military service, partly consciously, partly out of necessity, began to show more decisiveness. to run the state yourself.
(3) Also, the salary in the courts was introduced for the first time by Pericles, using a demagogic device in contrast to the wealth of Cimon. The fact is that Cimon, having a purely royal state, at first performed brilliantly only public liturgies, then began to give content to many of his demots. So, everyone from the Lakiads could come to him every day and receive a modest allowance. In addition, his estates were all unfenced, so that everyone could enjoy the fruits. (4) Pericles, not having such a condition to compete with him in generosity, took advantage of the advice of Damonides of Ei (this Damonides was considered in many matters to be Pericles' adviser, and therefore he was subsequently ostracized). This advice consisted in the fact that since Pericles does not have the same personal means as Cimon, then it is necessary to give the people his own means. It was from these considerations that Pericles introduced the salary for judges. On this basis, some consider him to be the culprit of moral decay, since it is not so much decent people who are always bothering about election, but random people. (5) After this, bribery also began, and Anitus was the first to set an example of this, after he was a strategist in the campaign at Pylos. Sued by some for the loss of Pylos, he bribed the court and obtained an acquittal.

28. As long as Pericles stood at the head of the people, affairs of state went relatively well; when he died, they went much worse ...

PART ONE

IV. Archons

55 ... As for the so-called nine archons ... At present, six Thesmophetes and a secretary for them are elected by lot, in addition, the Archon, Basileus and Polemarch - one of each Philae in turn. (2) They are subjected first of all to the Council of Five Hundred - everyone except the secretary, and this last one is only in court, like other officials (all who are elected by lot and by a show of hands, take office only after the doquimasia), nine archons - both in the Council, and a second time in court. At the same time, in the past, the one who was rejected by the Council at doquimasia could no longer take office, but now an appeal to the court is allowed, and this latter has a decisive vote in doquimasia ...

56 ... (2) The archon, immediately upon assuming office, first of all announces through the herald that everyone is allowed to own the property that everyone had before taking office, and to keep it until the end of his administration. (3) Then he appoints the three richest of all the Athenians to represent the tragedies ... (4) He is in charge of the processions: first, the one that is arranged in honor of Asclepius ... He also arranges competitions in Dionysius and Fargelia. These are the festivities that he has care of.
(6) In addition, he is filed with complaints in public and private matters. He examines them and sends them to court. These include cases of mistreatment of parents, mistreatment of orphans, mistreatment of an heiress, damage to orphan property, insanity when someone accuses another of wasting his fortune out of his mind ... ... At the same time, he has the right to impose disciplinary sanctions on those guilty or bring them to trial. Further, he leases the property of orphans and heiresses until the woman turns 14, and takes security from the tenants. Finally, he also collects maintenance from the guardians if they do not give it to the children.

57 ... Basileus is in charge of the Mysteries first of all ... then Dionysias ... He also arranges all competitions with torches; also, he is in charge of the stepfather's sacrifices, one might say, all.
(2) He is filed with written complaints in cases of impiety, as well as in cases where someone disputes the right of another to the priesthood. Then, he examines all disputes between clans and priests on matters of worship. Finally, he initiates all murder proceedings, and it is his duty to declare the criminal deprived of the protection of laws.
(3) Proceedings of murder and infliction of wounds, if someone deliberately kills or injures another, are dealt with in the Areopagus; also cases of poisoning, if someone causes death by giving poison, and cases of arson. This is exclusively the circle of cases on which the council of the Areopagus judges ... The judges sit in a sacred place under the open sky, and the basileus takes off his wreath during the trial. A person on whom such an accusation gravitates is not allowed to the sacred places all this time, and even to the square he is not supposed to enter; but at this moment he enters the sacred place and there speaks in his own defense ...

58. Polemarchus makes a sacrifice to Artemis the Huntress and Enialia ... (2) He also initiates private lawsuits concerning meteks, equals and proxenes ... (3) He personally leads litigation in court about violation of obligations towards the former owner and about the lack of a prostate , about the inheritances and heiresses of the Metecs, and in general the polemarch is in charge of all those affairs of the Metecs that the Archon deals with citizens.

59. The Fesmofets have the authority, first of all, to appoint which judicial commissions and on what days the court should be created, then transfer the leadership of these commissions to officials; these latter act in accordance with what the Thesmophets indicate. (2) Then, they report to the people on the received emergency applications, put before the consideration of the case on the removal of officials by test voting, all kinds of proposals for preliminary judgments, complaints about illegal actions and statements that the proposed law is unsuitable, as well as about the actions of prohedrons and epistats and reporting by strategists ...

ARISTOTLE. POLITICS

II, 4. That the equation of property has its significance in the state community, this, apparently, was clearly recognized also by some of the ancient legislators. So, for example, Solon established a law, which is also valid in other states, according to which it is prohibited to acquire land in any quantity ..

II, 9, 2. Solon is considered by some to be a good legislator. He, as they say, overthrew the oligarchy, which was at that time excessive, freed the people from slavery and established democracy "according to the precepts of the fathers", successfully establishing a mixed system: namely, the Areopagus is an oligarchic institution, the replacement of posts by elections is aristocratic, the jury is democratic. Solon, apparently, did not abolish the previously existing institutions - the council of the Areopagus and the election of officials, but established democracy in the same way that he made juries from the entire composition of citizens. That is why some accuse him: he, they say, abolished the first, when he gave power over everything to the court, since the court is drawn by lot. It was when the court gained strength, then the people as a tyrant began to please and finally turned politics into a modern democracy.

III, 2, 10 ... This is what, for example, in Athens Cleisthenes did after the expulsion of the tyrants: he included in the Philos many foreigners and slaves who lived there. With regard to them, it is not controversial who a citizen is, but how he became one - illegally or by right.

VI, 2, 9-11, 6-27. In order to establish this kind of democracy and strengthen the people, its leaders usually try to accept as many people as possible into their midst and make citizens not only legitimate, but also illegitimate and even those whose only one parent has civil rights - father or mother. The fact is that all these elements are especially sympathetic to such a democracy ... Further, for such a democracy are also useful the methods that Cleisthenes used in Athens when he wanted to strengthen democracy, and those leaders who tried to establish a democratic system in Cyrene. Precisely, new phratries and phratries must be organized and, moreover, in large numbers; private cults should be combined in a small number and made public; in a word, it is necessary to invent all the means so that everything mixes up with each other as much as possible, and at the same time, so that the former associations are broken.

Aristotle. Athenian polity. Applications. M.-L., Socekgiz, 1936, S. 119-152.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

VORONEZH STATE

PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

CHRESTOMATIA ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD (Part 2. History of Antiquity)

correspondence department

Voronezh 2011

Reader on the history of the ancient world. (Part 2. History of Antiquity) - Voronezh: Publishing house of the Voronezh State University, 2007. - p.

Compiled by Cand. ist. Sci., Associate Professor VSPU

cand. ist. Sci., Associate Professor VSPU

Reviewer

Topic 1. SOCIETY AND STATE OF SPARTA

1. Characteristics of sources.

2. The emergence of the Spartan state.

3. Dependent population of ancient Sparta.

4. “Community of Equals”:

1) its organization, the role of regulation;

2) basic occupations, everyday life;

3) family relations;

4) upbringing and education of the Spartans.

5. The state system of ancient Sparta.

Sources and Literature

Workshop on the history of the ancient world. Issue 2. Ancient Greece and Rome / Ed. ... M. 1981. Topic 2.

Aristotle. Politics, II, VI // Aristotle. Op. in 4 volumes.T.4. M., 1984. S. 428-434.

Plutarch. Lycurgus // Comparative Biographies. M., 1961.T.1. S.53-77.

On the problem of “Likurgov legislation” // Problems of ancient statehood. L., 1952.S. 33-59.

Andreev “riders” // VDI. 1969. No. 4. S.24-36.

Andreev as a type of polis // Ancient Greece. Vol. 1. Formation and development of the policy. M., 1983.S. 194-216.

Andreev Sparta: culture and politics // VDI. 1987. No. 4. S. 70-86.

Andreev gynecocracy // Woman in the ancient world. M., 1995.S. 44-62.

Dyakonov, helots and serfs in early antiquity // VDI. 1973. No. 4. FROM.

Zhurakovsky on the history of ancient pedagogy. M., 1963.

From the new works on lotia and similar forms of dependence // VDI. 1961. No. 2. S. 138-142.

Kolobov Sparta (X - VI centuries BC). L., 1957.

Pechatnova of Sparta: the period of archaism and classics. SPb .: Humanitarian Academy. 2001 .-- 600s. (http: // centant. ***** / centrum / publik / books / pechatnova / 001.htm)

Strogetsky of the conflict between the eporate and the royal power in Sparta // Antique policy. L., 1979.S. 42-57.

The text is cited by edition: Plutarch. Comparative biographies in two volumes, Moscow: Nauka Publishing House, 1994. Second edition, revised and enlarged. T. I.
Translation, translation processing for this reprint, notes.

1. It is impossible to report anything strictly reliable about the legislator Lycurgus: there are the most contradictory stories about his origin, and about travels, and about death, as well as about his laws, and about the structure he gave to the state. But most of all, the information about the time in which he lived is divergent ...

2. Of the ancestors of Lycurgus, Soi gained the greatest fame, during whose reign the Spartans enslaved the helots and took away a lot of land from the Arcadians ... Eurypont was the first to weaken the one-man rule of the royal power, currying favor with the crowd and pleasing it. As a result of these indulgences, the people grew bolder, and the kings who ruled after Eurypontos either aroused the hatred of their subjects with drastic measures, or, seeking their favor or out of their own impotence, bowed down to them, so that lawlessness and disorder took possession of Sparta for a long time. The king, the father of Lycurgus, also died from them ...

4. Having set off, Lycurgus first visited Crete. He studied the state structure, became close to the most famous of the Cretans and approved and learned some of the local laws, so that later they could plant them in his homeland ... The Egyptians claim that Lycurgus visited them and, fervently praising the isolation of the soldiers from all other groups of the population, transferred this order to Sparta, separated the artisans and artisans and created an example of a state, truly beautiful and pure ...

5. The Lacedaemonians yearned for Lycurgus and repeatedly invited him to return, saying that the only difference between their current kings and the people is the title and honors that they receive, while the nature of a leader and mentor is visible in him, a kind of power that allows him to lead people. The kings themselves were also looking forward to his return, hoping that in his presence the crowd would treat them more respectfully. The Spartans were in such a state of mind when Lycurgus came back and immediately began to change and transform the entire state structure. He was convinced that individual laws would not be of any use if, as if healing a sick body suffering from all sorts of ailments, with the help of cleansing agents, did not eliminate the bad mixing of juices and prescribe a new, completely different way of life. With this in mind, he first set out for Delphi. Having made sacrifices to God and questioning the oracle, he returned, carrying that famous saying in which the Pythia called him "God-loving," rather a god than a man; to a request for good laws, an answer was received that the deity promises to grant the Spartans orders incomparably better than in other states. Encouraged by the announcements of the oracle, Lycurgus decided to involve the best citizens in the execution of his plan and conducted secret negotiations first with friends, gradually capturing an ever wider circle and rallying everyone for the business he had conceived ...

Of the many innovations of Lycurgus, the first and most important was the Council of Elders. In conjunction with ... the tsarist power, possessing an equal right to vote in deciding the most important matters, this Council became a guarantee of prosperity and prudence. The state, which rushed from side to side, leaning now towards tyranny, when the kings won the victory, now to complete democracy, when the crowd prevailed, putting the power of the elders in the middle, like ballast in the hold of a ship, the power of the elders, gained balance, stability and order: twenty-eight the elders now constantly supported the kings, resisting democracy, but at the same time helping the people to keep the fatherland from tyranny. Aristotle explains the named number by the fact that before Lycurgus had thirty supporters, but two, frightened, withdrew from participation in the case. The spheres, however, say that from the very beginning there were twenty-eight of them ...

6. Lycurgus attached so much importance to the power of the Council that he brought from Delphi a special divination on this score, which is called "retra". It reads: “To erect the temple of Zeus of Sillanius and Athena of Sillania. Divide into philes and obs. Establish thirty elders together with chiefs. From time to time to convene a Meeting between Babika and Knakion, and propose and dissolve there, but domination and power belong to the people. " The order "to divide" refers to the people, and phylae and obs refer to the names of units and groups into which it should have been divided. By "leaders" are meant kings. ... Aristotle claims that Knacion is a river, and Babika is a bridge. Meetings took place between them, although in that place there was no portico or any other shelter: according to Lycurgus, nothing like this contributes to sound judgment, on the contrary, it causes only harm, occupying the mind of the audience with trifles and nonsense, scattering their attention for they, instead of doing business, are looking at statues, paintings, theater pleas, or the ceiling of the Council, which is overly ornamented. None of the ordinary citizens were allowed to submit their judgment, and the people, converging, only approved or rejected what the elders and kings would suggest. But later, the crowd of various kinds of exceptions and additions began to distort and disfigure the approved decisions, and then the tsars Polydor and Theopomp made the following note to the retra: "If the people decide incorrectly, the elders and kings should dissolve" the people on the grounds that they distort and reinterpret the best and most useful. 7. So, Lycurgus gave state administration a mixed character, but his successors, seeing that the oligarchy is still too strong ..., throw on it, like a bridle, the power of the ephorian overseers - about one hundred and thirty years after Lycurgus, under King Theopompus. The first ephors were Elat and his comrades.

8. The second and most daring of Lycurgus's transformations is the redistribution of land. Since terrible inequality reigned, crowds of the poor and needy burdened the city, and all the riches passed into the hands of a few, Lycurgus, in order to expel arrogance, envy, anger, luxury and even older, even more formidable ailments of the state - wealth and poverty, persuaded the Spartans to unite everything land, and then divide them anew and continue to preserve property equality, and look for superiority in valor, for there is no other difference between people, no other primacy than that which is established by censure of the shameful and praise of the beautiful. Moving from words to deeds, he divided Laconia between the periecs, or, in other words, the inhabitants of the surrounding places, into thirty thousand plots, and the lands belonging to the city of Sparta itself - into nine thousand, according to the number of Sparta families ... Each allotment was of this size to bring seventy medims of barley per man and twelve per woman, and a proportionate quantity of liquid food. Lycurgus believed that this would be sufficient for a way of life that would preserve his fellow citizens strength and health, while they should not have other needs ...

9. Then he took up the division of movable property, in order to completely eliminate all inequality, but realizing that open seizure of property would cause sharp discontent, he overcame greed and greed by indirect means. Firstly, he removed all gold and silver coins from use, leaving only iron coins in circulation, and even that, with a huge weight and size, assigned an insignificant value, so that a large warehouse was required to store an amount equal to ten mines, and for transportation - paired harness. As the new coin spread, many types of crime in Lacedaemon disappeared. Who, in fact, could have the desire to steal, take bribes or plunder, since it was unthinkable to hide the uncleanly acquired property, and it did not represent anything enviable, and even that which was broken into pieces did not receive any use? After all, Lycurgus, as reported, ordered to temper iron by dipping it in vinegar, and this deprived the metal of its strength, it became fragile and no longer suitable for anything else, for it did not give in to any further processing.

Then Lycurgus expelled useless and unnecessary crafts from Sparta. However, most of them, and without that, would have left after the generally accepted coin, not finding a market for their products. It was pointless to carry iron money to other Greek cities - they did not have the slightest value there, and they only made fun of them - so the Spartans could not buy anything from foreign trifles, and in general merchant cargoes stopped coming to their harbors. Within the confines of Laconia, neither a skillful orator, nor a wandering charlatan fortuneteller, nor a pimp, nor a goldsmith or silversmith was now there - there was no more coin there! But because of this, the luxury, gradually losing everything that supported and nourished it, faded and disappeared by itself. Well-to-do citizens lost all their advantages, since the access to the people was closed to wealth, and it was hiding in their homes without any business. For the same reason, ordinary and necessary utensils - beds, armchairs, tables - were made by the Spartans like nowhere else, and the Laconian coton was considered, according to Cretius, indispensable in campaigns: if you had to drink water that was unsightly in appearance, it hid the color of the liquid with its color, and since the dregs lingered inside, settling on the inner side of the convex walls, the water reached the lips already somewhat purified. And here the merit belongs to the legislator, for the artisans, forced to abandon the production of useless objects, began to invest all their skill in the essentials.

10. In order to inflict an even more decisive blow on luxury and passion for wealth, Lycurgus carried out the third and most beautiful transformation - he instituted common meals: citizens gathered together and all ate the same dishes, deliberately set for these meals ... This, of course, is extremely important , but more importantly, thanks to joint nutrition and its simplicity, wealth, as Theophrastus says, ceased to be enviable, ceased to be wealth. It was impossible either to take advantage of the luxurious decoration, nor to enjoy it, nor even to put it on display and at least to indulge his vanity, since the rich man went to the same meal with the poor man ... It was also impossible to come to a general dinner, having previously had enough at home: everyone was vigilantly watching a friend after a friend and, if they found a person who did not eat or drink with the others, they censured him, calling him unbridled and pampered.

12. The Cretans call common meals "Andriy", and the Lacedaemonians "fiditias" - whether because they were reigned by friendship and benevolence, or because they taught simplicity and frugality. Likewise, nothing prevents us from supposing, following the example of some, that the first sound is here added and that the word "edithii" should be derived from the word "food" or "food."

About fifteen people gathered for the meal, sometimes a little less or more. Each companion brought a monthly medimn of barley flour, eight hoys of wine, five mines of cheese, two and a half mines of figs, and, finally, a very small amount of money to buy meat and fish. If one of them made a sacrifice or hunted, a part of the sacrificial animal or prey came for the common table, but not all of the whole, for he who hesitated in the hunt or because of the sacrifice could dine at home, while the rest had to be present. The Spartans strictly observed the custom of joint meals until later times. When King Agid, having defeated the Athenians, returned from the campaign and, wanting to dine with his wife, sent for his part, the polemarchs refused to hand her over. The next day the king, in anger, did not bring the prescribed sacrifice, and the polemarchs imposed a fine on him.

Children also attended meals. They were brought there as if to a school of common sense, where they listened to conversations about state affairs, witnessed amusements worthy of a free man, learned to joke and laugh without vulgar antics and meet jokes without offense. Calmly enduring ridicule was considered one of the main advantages of a Spartan. Anyone who became unbearable could ask for mercy, and the mocker immediately fell silent. The senior at the table said to each of those who entered, pointing to the door: "Speeches do not go beyond the threshold." They say that those who wanted to become a participant in the meal were subjected to the following test. Each of the companions took a piece of bread crumb in his hand and, like a pebble for voting, silently threw it into a vessel, which the servant brought, holding it on his head. As a sign of approval, the lump was simply lowered, and whoever wanted to express his disagreement, he first squeezed the crumb tightly in his fist. And if at least one such lump was found, corresponding to a drilled stone, the seeker was refused admission, wishing that everyone sitting at the table could find pleasure in each other's company ... Of the Spartan dishes, the most famous is black soup. The old men even gave up their share of meat and yielded it to the young, while they themselves ate their fill of soup. There is a story that one of the Pontic kings, solely for the sake of this stew, bought himself a Laconian cook, but having tasted it, he turned away with disgust, and then the cook told him: "The king, in order to eat this stew, you must first swim in Eurote." Then, moderately drinking wine with dinner, the Spartans went home without lighting lamps: they were forbidden to walk with fire, both in this case and in general, so that they would learn to confidently and fearlessly move around in the darkness of the night. Such was the arrangement of common meals.

13. Lycurgus did not write down his laws, and this is what is said about this in one of the so-called retros ... So, one of the retros, as already mentioned, said that written laws are not needed. Another, again directed against luxury, demanded that in every house the roof should be made with only an ax, and the door with only a saw, without the use of at least one more tool ... There is no person so tasteless and reckless to enter the house , worked simply and crudely, to bring beds on silver legs, purple bedspreads, gold cups and a companion of all this is a luxury. Willy-nilly it is necessary to adjust and adapt the bed to the house, to the bed - the bed, to the bed - other furnishings and utensils ...

14. Starting his upbringing, in which he saw the most important and most beautiful work of the legislator, from afar, Lycurgus first turned to the issues of marriage and childbearing. ... He strengthened and tempered the girls with exercises in running, wrestling, throwing a discus and a javelin, so that the embryo in a healthy body would develop healthy from the very beginning, and the women themselves, giving birth, would simply and easily cope with torments. Forcing the girls to forget about effeminacy, pampering and all women's whims, he taught them, no worse than young men, to take part in solemn processions naked, to dance and sing while performing some sacred rites in front of young people. It happened to them both to let go of jokes, aptly condemning faults, and to give praise to the worthy in songs, awakening jealous ambition in young men. Those who received praise for valor and gained fame from girls retired, rejoicing, and barbs, even playful and witty, stung no less painful than strict suggestions: after all, kings and elders came to watch this spectacle along with the rest of the citizens. At the same time, the nakedness of the girls did not contain anything bad, for they remained bashful and did not know licentiousness, on the contrary, she taught simplicity, to care for the health and strength of the body, and women assimilated a noble way of thinking, knowing that they too are able to join valor and honor ...

15. All this in itself was also a means of encouraging marriage - I mean processions of girls, nudity, competitions in the presence of young people ... At the same time, Lycurgus established a kind of shameful punishment for bachelors: they were not allowed to hymnopedias, in winter, by order of the authorities, they had to walk naked around the square, singing a song composed by him in reproach (the song said that they suffer just retribution for disobeying the laws), and, finally, they were deprived of those honors and respect, what the youth showed to the elders .. The brides were taken away, but not too young, not yet of marriageable age, but blossoming and mature. ... Having introduced such an order, such bashfulness and restraint in the conclusion of marriages, Lycurgus with no less success expelled the empty, woman's feeling of jealousy: he considered it reasonable and correct that, having cleared the marriage of all licentiousness, the Spartans gave the right to every worthy citizen to have a relationship with women for the sake of the production of offspring, and taught fellow citizens to laugh at those who avenge such actions by murder and war, seeing in marriage property that does not tolerate division or complicity ... These orders, established in accordance with nature and the needs of the state, were so far from the so-called "availability", which subsequently prevailed among Spartan women, that adultery seemed generally unthinkable ...

16. The father did not have the right to dispose of the child's upbringing himself - he took the newborn to a place called "leshoy", where the oldest fillet relatives were sitting. They examined the child and, if they found him strong and well-built, ordered him to be brought up, immediately assigning him one of the nine thousand allotments. If the child was puny and ugly, he was sent to the Apophetes (that was the name of the cliff on Taygeta), believing that his life was not needed either by himself or by the state, since he was denied health and strength from the very beginning. For the same reason, women washed newborns not with water, but with wine, testing their qualities: they say that sick people with epilepsy and in general sick people die from unmixed wine, and healthy people are tempered and become even stronger. The nurses were caring and skillful, the children were not swaddled to give freedom to the members of the body, they were raised unpretentious and not picky in food, not afraid of darkness or loneliness, not knowing what self-will and crying are. Therefore, sometimes even strangers bought nurses from Laconia ... Meanwhile, Lycurgus forbade the Spartan children to be taken into the care of educators bought for money or hired for a fee, and the father could not raise his son as he pleased.

As soon as the boys reached the age of seven, Lycurgus took them away from their parents and divided them into detachments so that they lived and ate together, learning to play and work alongside each other. At the head of the detachment, he put someone who was superior to others in intelligence and was the bravest of all in fights. Others looked up to him, obeyed his orders and silently endured punishment, so that the main consequence of this lifestyle was the habit of obeying. The children were often watched over by the elderly and constantly quarreled between them, trying to provoke a fight, and then carefully observed what qualities each naturally possessed - whether the boy was courageous and stubborn in fights. They learned to read and write only to the extent that it was impossible to do without it; otherwise, all education was reduced to the requirements of unquestioning obedience, steadfastly enduring hardships and gaining the upper hand over the enemy. With age, the requirements became more and more stringent: the children were cut short, they ran barefoot, and learned to play naked. At the age of twelve they already walked about without a tunic, receiving once a year a himation, dirty, neglected; baths and anointing were unfamiliar to them - for the whole year they enjoyed only a few days. They slept together, in silts and detachments, on mats that they prepared for themselves, breaking with their bare hands reed panicles on the bank of the Eurotas ...

17 .... Old people ... attend gymnasiums, are present at competitions and verbal skirmishes, and this is not for fun, because everyone considers himself to some extent the father, educator and leader of any of the teenagers, so there was always someone to reason with and punish the offender. Nevertheless, from among the most worthy husbands, a pedon is also appointed - supervising children, and at the head of each detachment, the teenagers themselves put one of the so-called irens - always the most reasonable and brave. (Irene is the name of those who have already matured for the second year, Melliren are the oldest boys.) Irene, who has reached twenty, commands her subordinates in fights and disposes of them when it comes time to take care of dinner. He instructs the big ones to bring firewood, the kids - vegetables. Everything is obtained by theft: some go to the gardens, others with the greatest caution, using all their cunning, make their way to the common meals of their husbands. If the boy was caught, he was severely beaten with a whip for careless and awkward theft. They also stole every other food that came to hand, learning to deftly attack sleeping or gaping sentries. The punishment for those caught was not only beatings, but also hunger: the children were fed very poorly, so that, enduring hardships, they themselves, willy-nilly, become more impudent and cunning ...

18. When stealing, the children were extremely careful; one of them, as they say, having stolen a fox, hid it under his cloak, and although the animal tore his stomach with claws and teeth, the boy, to hide his deed, was fastened until he died. The authenticity of this story can be judged by the current ephebes: I myself saw how not one of them died under the blows at the altar of Orthia ... Often Irene punished the boys in the presence of the elderly and the authorities, so that they were convinced how justified and just his actions were. During the punishment he was not stopped, but when the children dispersed, he answered if the punishment was harsher or, on the contrary, softer than it should have.

19. Children were taught to speak in such a way that in their words acrid acuteness was mingled with grace, so that short speeches provoked extensive reflection ...

21. Singing and music were taught with no less diligence than clarity and purity of speech, but the songs also contained a kind of sting that aroused courage and forced the soul into enthusiastic impulses for action. Their words were simple and artless, the subject was dignified and moral. These were mainly glorifications of the happy fate of those who fell for Sparta and reproaches to cowards doomed to drag out life in insignificance, promises to prove their bravery, or - depending on the age of the singers - boasting about it ...

24. The upbringing of the Spartan continued into adulthood. No one was allowed to live the way he wanted: as if in a military camp, everyone in the city obeyed strictly established orders and did whatever was assigned to them that were useful to the state. Considering themselves to belong not to themselves, but to the fatherland, the Spartans, if they had no other assignments, either watched the children and taught them something useful, or they themselves learned from the old. After all, one of the benefits and advantages that Lycurgus brought to his fellow citizens was an abundance of leisure. It was strictly forbidden for them to engage in craft, and in the pursuit of profit, requiring endless work and trouble, there was no need, since wealth had lost all its value and attractive power. Their land was cultivated by helots, bringing in the assigned tax. One Spartan, being in Athens and hearing that someone was condemned for idleness and the condemned returned in deep despondency, accompanied by friends, who were also saddened and grieved, asked those around him to show him the man to whom freedom was imputed to a crime. That is how low and slavish they considered all manual labor, all kinds of cares associated with profit! As expected, litigation disappeared along with the coin; and need and excessive abundance left Sparta, their place was taken by the equality of wealth and the serenity of complete simplicity of morals. All their free time from military service, the Spartans devoted to round dances, feasts and festivities, hunting, gymnasiums and forestry.

25. Those under the age of thirty did not go to the market at all and made the necessary purchases through relatives ... However, for older people it was considered shameful to constantly push around in the market, and not spend most of the day in gymnasiums and leshi. Gathering there, they talked decorously, without a word mentioning either profit or trade - hours passed in praise for worthy deeds and censure of bad ones, praises combined with jokes and ridicule that inconspicuously admonished and corrected ... In a word, he taught his fellow citizens to so that they did not want and did not know how to live apart, but, like bees, were in an indissoluble connection with society, everyone was closely rallied around their leader and entirely belonged to the fatherland, almost completely forgetting about themselves in a fit of inspiration and love of glory ...

26. As already mentioned, Lycurgus appointed the first elders from among those who took part in his plan. Then he decreed, instead of the dead, every time to choose from among citizens who have reached sixty years, the one who will be recognized as the most valiant. There was probably no greater competition in the world and no victory more desired! And rightly so, after all, it was not about who among the agile is the most agile or among the strongest, but about who is the wisest and best among the kind and wise, who will receive the supreme reward for virtue until the end of his days, if here this word is applicable - power in the state will be the master over life, honor, in short, over all the highest benefits. This decision was made as follows. When the people came together, special electives closed in the house next door, so that no one could see them either, and they themselves would not see what was happening outside, but would only hear the voices of those gathered. The people in this case, as in all others, decided the matter with a cry. The applicants were not introduced all at once, but in turn, in accordance with the lot, and they silently passed through the Meeting. Those who were locked up had signs on which they noted the strength of the cry, not knowing who they were shouting to, but only concluding that the first, second, third, generally another applicant came out. The chosen one was the one to whom they shouted more and louder than others ...

27. The laws concerning burial were no less remarkable. Firstly, having put an end to all superstition, Lycurgus did not interfere with burying the dead in the city itself and placing gravestones near temples so that young people, getting used to their appearance, would not be afraid of death and would not consider themselves defiled by touching a dead body or stepping over a grave. Then he forbade burying anything with the deceased: the body was to be buried wrapped in a purple cloak and entwined with olive greens. It was forbidden to write the name of the deceased on the gravestone; Lycurgus made an exception only for those who fell in the war and for the priestesses ...

For the same reason, he did not allow him to leave the country and travel, fearing that other people's mores would not be brought to Lacedaemon, they would not imitate someone else's, disordered life and a different way of government. Moreover, he expelled those who flocked to Sparta without any need or definite purpose - not because, as Thucydides claims, that he was afraid that they would not adopt the system he had established and learn valor, but rather, fearing how would not these people themselves become teachers of vice. After all, together with foreigners, other people's speeches invariably appear, and new speeches bring new judgments, from which many feelings and desires are inevitably born, as opposed to the existing state system as wrong sounds are to a harmonious song. Therefore, Lycurgus considered it necessary to more vigilantly protect the city from bad morals than from the infection that could be brought from outside.

28. In all this there is not a trace of injustice, for which some blame the laws of Lycurgus, believing that they instruct quite enough in courage, but too little in justice. And only the so-called crypt, if only she, as Aristotle claims, - the Lycurgian innovation, could inspire some, including Plato, a similar judgment about the Spartan state and its legislator. This is how the crypts came about. From time to time, the authorities sent young men who were considered the smartest to wander around the neighborhood, supplying them only with short swords and the most necessary food supply. During the day they rested, hiding in secluded corners, and at night, leaving their shelters, they killed all the helots they captured on the roads. They often went around the fields, killing the strongest and strongest helots. Thucydides in the "Peloponnesian War" says that the Spartans chose the helots who distinguished themselves with special bravery, and those with wreaths on their heads, as if preparing to gain freedom, visited temple after temple, but a little later they all disappeared - and there were more than two thousand of them - and neither then, nor later could anyone tell how they died. Aristotle especially dwells on the fact that the ephors, accepting power, first of all declared war on the helots in order to legalize the murder of the latter. In general, the Spartans treated them roughly and cruelly. They forced the helots to drink unmixed wine, and then brought them to common meals to show the youth what drunkenness is. They were ordered to sing trashy songs and dance ridiculous dances, forbidding amusements befitting a free man ... So, the one who says that in Lacedaemon he is free to the end free, and the slave is completely enslaved, absolutely correctly defined the current state of affairs. But, in my opinion, all these severities appeared among the Spartans only later, namely, after the great earthquake, when, as they say, the helots, having set out with the Messenians, rampaged terribly throughout Laconia and almost destroyed the state.

Xenophon

State of Lacedaemonians, 5-7; 8-10

... Having made the Spartans the order in which they, like all other Greeks, dined each in their own home, Lycurgus saw in this circumstance the reason for very many frivolous actions. Lycurgus made their comradely dinners public in the hope that this would most likely make it impossible to violate orders. He allowed the citizens to consume food in such quantities that they would not be overly satiated, but also did not suffer a shortage; however, game is often served as an addition, and rich people sometimes bring wheat bread; thus, while the Spartans live together in tents, their table never suffers from either a lack of food or an excessive cost. Likewise with regard to drinking: stopping unnecessary drinking, relaxing the body, relaxing the mind, Lycurgus allowed everyone to drink only to satisfy their thirst, believing that drinking under such conditions would be both harmless and most pleasant. With general dinners, how could anyone seriously damage himself and his household by the delicacy of food or drunkenness? In all other states, peers are, for the most part, together and are least ashamed of each other; Lycurgus in Sparta united the ages so that young people were brought up mainly under the guidance of the experience of their elders. It is customary to talk about the deeds committed by someone in the state on fiditiyas; therefore, there is almost no place for arrogance, drunken antics, indecent deeds, foul language. And another good side of this arrangement of dining outside the home: when returning home, the participants in the fidithias should walk and be careful not to stumble in a drunken state, they should know that they should not stay where they had dinner, that they should walk in the dark , as in the daytime, as well as with a torch, it is not allowed to go to those who are still serving garrison service. Further, noting that the very food that gives a good complexion and health to the working, gives ugly fullness and illness to the idle, Lycurgus did not neglect this either ... That is why it is difficult to find people who are healthier, more physically enduring than the Spartans, since they exercise the legs, arms and neck alike.

In contrast to most Greeks, Lycurgus considered the following necessary. In other states, everyone disposes of his own children, slaves and property; and Lycurgus, wishing to arrange so that the citizens did not harm each other, but were beneficial, provided everyone equally

dispose of both his own children and strangers: after all, if everyone knows that the fathers of those children whom he disposes are in front of him, then inevitably he will dispose of them as he would like to treat his own children. If a boy who has been beaten by someone else complains to his father, it is considered shameful if the father does not beat his son again. So the Spartans are sure that none of them orders the boys anything shameful. Lycurgus also allowed, if necessary, to use other people's slaves, also established the general use of hunting dogs; therefore, those who do not have their dogs invite others to hunt; and who does not have time to go hunting on his own, he willingly gives dogs to others. They also use horses: whoever gets sick, or who needs a carriage, or who wants to go somewhere as soon as possible - he takes the first horse he comes across and, as soon as the need is passed, puts it back in good working order. And here is another custom, not accepted by the rest of the Greeks, but introduced by Lycurgus. In case people are late on the hunt and, without capturing supplies, will need them, Lycurgus established that he who had supplies left them, and the needy could open the locks, take as much as needed, and lock the rest again. Thus, due to the fact that the Spartans share with each other in this way, even poor people, if they need anything, have a share in all the wealth of the country.