Drawings spiritual life in the 20s. School Encyclopedia. Party control over spiritual life
abstract
Culture and spiritual life of Soviet society in the 20-30s
Introduction
architecture sculpture culture
In the 1920s and 1930s, complex and contradictory processes took place in the sphere of culture. The element of destruction brought to life by the revolution dealt a tangible blow to Orthodox culture, the culture of the Russian provinces. At the same time, the revolution could not overnight extinguish the creative energy of the Russian cultural revival. It is his impulses that explain the emergence in the early 1920s of many new artistic movements, scientific schools in sociology, psychology, pedagogy, and the natural sciences.
Despite the hardships of the civil war, folklore and ethnographic expeditions were organized, new museums and publishing houses were created. One of the most famous is the World Literature publishing house, which carried out a lot of educational work. Its editorial board included M. Gorky, A. Blok, N. Gumilyov, E. Zamyatin, K. Chukovsky.
Many literary circles and studios appeared, in which people from various social strata were engaged, they were led by well-known writers, such as V. Khodasevich, A. Bely. The amateur theatrical movement gained wide scope.
The October Revolution of 1917 marked the beginning of the transition to a new system of social relations, to a new type of culture. The implications of this transition are extraordinarily complex. In its course, not only the political superstructure of the noble society was destroyed, but also everything that made up its core - the noble culture - the pride of the world culture of the 19th and early 20th centuries. At the beginning of the XX century. IN AND. Lenin formulated the most important principles of the attitude of the Communist Party to artistic and creative activity, which formed the basis of the cultural policy of the Soviet state. In the work "Party Organization and Party Literature" (1905) V.I. Lenin criticized the desire of some creative people to be "outside" and "above" the class struggle, since "...it is impossible to live in society and be free from society." Therefore, the main goal of culture, according to V.I. Lenin, is "serving the millions and tens of millions of working people who make up the color of the country, its strength, its future" (4, p. 104).
The socialist society, ideally, was conceived as a society where a new culture was to be formed. Perfect economic and socio-political relations, according to the classics of Marxism-Leninism, would contribute to the growth of the spiritual culture of the broad masses of the people and at the same time would increase the level of education of the main part of the population, which in total would contribute to solving the key task - the formation of a comprehensively developed personality.
The October Revolution, according to its authors, was supposed to radically change the situation in the sphere of spiritual culture. For the first time, culture had to have the opportunity to belong to the people in the full and true sense, to serve as a spokesman for their interests and spiritual needs.
In the first post-October decade, the foundations of a new Soviet culture were laid. The beginning of this period (1918-1921) is characterized by the destruction and denial of traditional values (culture, morality, religion, way of life, law) and the proclamation of new guidelines for socio-cultural development: world revolution, communist society, universal equality and fraternity.
The peculiarities of the culture of that time, reflecting the ideological and practical experience of socialist construction, as well as peculiar cultural norms, patterns and forms of creative activity, include the following: the establishment of the teachings of Marxism-Leninism and the scientific concept of Darwinism as the fundamental basis for the formation of new socio-cultural values; Marxism became the spiritual core of the Soviet civilizational system and served as a theoretical tool for formulating a doctrine that reflected the problems of Russian reality; active use of culture in the destruction of social inequality.
The program position of the Bolsheviks, approved at the VIII Congress of the RCP (b) - "to open and make available to the working people all the treasures of art created on the basis of the exploitation of their labor", began to be implemented immediately after October 1917. The nationalization of culture acquired a huge scale. Already in 1917, the Hermitage, the Russian Museum, the Tretyakov Gallery, the Armory and many other museums became the property and disposal of the people. Private collections of S.S. were nationalized. Schukin, Mamontovs, Morozovs, Tretyakovs, V.I. Dahl, I.V. Tsvetaeva. In the process of nationalization, a lot of ignorance and lack of culture were not taken for values, a lot was taken away, plundered and destroyed. At the same time, new museums were created (fine arts at Moscow State University), furniture (Alexander Palace Neskuchny Garden), life of the 40s. XIX century, Morozov porcelain, painting and culture, various anti-religious museums. Only from 1918 to 1923. there were 250 new museums. The Soviet government also actively participated in this process.
The revolution, which set itself the task of building a new society and "remaking" a person, could not but affect the family as the custodian of traditional cultural values. Church marriage was abolished, its place was taken by a civil one with a simplified divorce system. Calls for "free love" are very popular. The main thing in these views is the liberation of women and men from the bourgeois family. The destruction of the family and life, which symbolized the old, former world with its bourgeois-religious morality, proceeded under the sign of the establishment of a new morality: everything that serves the world revolution is moral, and immoral is that which disorganizes the proletariat. Religious rituals are beginning to be actively replaced by communist ones: “red” weddings, christenings (lists of new names for newborns are posted in the registry offices - Revolution, Ninel, Energy, etc.).
In the 20s. the systematic implementation of the cultural policy of the party began, in which any philosophical or other system of ideas that went beyond the limits of Marxism in its Leninist version was qualified as “bourgeois”, “landlord”, “clerical” and recognized as counter-revolutionary and anti-Soviet, that is, dangerous for the existence of a new political order. Ideological intolerance became the basis of the official policy of the Soviet government in the sphere of ideology and culture.
In the minds of the bulk of the population, the establishment of a narrow class approach to culture began. Class suspicion of the old spiritual culture and anti-intellectual sentiments spread widely in society. Slogans were constantly spread about distrust of education, about the need for a "vigilant" attitude towards old specialists, who were regarded as an anti-people force.
This principle extended to an even greater degree and in a rigid form to the work of representatives of the intelligentsia. A political monopoly is being established in science, art, philosophy, in all spheres of the spiritual life of society, the persecution of representatives of the so-called noble and bourgeois intelligentsia. The expulsion of hundreds of thousands of educated people from the country caused irreparable damage to the elite culture, led to an inevitable decline in its overall level.
But the proletarian state was extremely suspicious of the intelligentsia that remained in the country. Step by step, the institutions of professional autonomy of the intelligentsia were liquidated - independent publications, creative unions, trade unions. The study of "irresponsible" intellectuals, and then the arrests of many of them became the practice of the 20s. Ultimately, this ended with the complete defeat of the main body of the old intelligentsia in Russia.
The new culture was directly connected with the heroes of the revolution. In the name of the power of the people, monuments to new heroes were erected on the old pedestals. New revolutionary symbols were seen as a prerequisite for the continuation of the revolution. This position was the basis for the change of historical names to the names of the living.
The first post-October decade demanded the creation of a new proletarian culture, opposing the entire artistic culture of the past. The mechanical transfer to the sphere of artistic creativity of the needs of a radical revolutionary restructuring of the social structure and political organization of society led in practice both to the denial of the significance of the classical artistic heritage, and to attempts to use only new modernist forms in the interests of building a new socialist culture.
1. The fight against illiteracy and the construction of the Soviet school
IN AND. Lenin, defining the main enemies of the socialist revolution, also called the illiteracy of the population of Russia. A resolute, almost military slogan, the elimination of illiteracy, has entered the everyday vocabulary. At the same time, Lenin clearly formulated the problem that worried him: “An illiterate person stands outside politics” (5, p. 128). Therefore, the task was not so much to teach people to read and write, but to influence their mentality through this process.
In 1913, Lenin wrote: “There is no such country in Europe, in which the masses of the people were so robbed in terms of education, light and knowledge, except for Russia” (5, p. 127).
On the eve of the October Revolution, about 68% of the adult population could not read and write. Especially bleak was the situation in the countryside, where the illiterates were about 80%, and in the national regions the proportion of illiterates reached 99.5%.
On December 26, 1919, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of the RSFSR", according to which the entire population from 8 to 50 years old was obliged to learn to read and write in their native or Russian language. The decree provided for the reduction of the working day for students with the preservation of wages, the organization of registration of the illiterate, the provision of premises for classes of educational programs, the construction of new schools. In 1920, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy was created, which existed until 1930 under the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR. The school experienced enormous financial difficulties, especially in the first years of the NEP. 90% of schools were transferred from the state budget to the local one. As a temporary measure, in 1922, tuition fees were introduced in cities and urban-type settlements, which were set depending on the well-being of the family. As the country's economic situation generally improved, government spending on education increased; patronage assistance from enterprises and institutions to schools has become widespread.
According to the 1926 census, the proportion of the literate population doubled compared to pre-revolutionary times and amounted to 60.9%. There was a noticeable gap in the level of literacy between urban and rural areas - 85 and 55% and between men and women - 77.1 and 46.4%.
Raising the educational level of the population had a direct impact on the process of democratization of higher education. Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of August 2, 1918 "On the rules for admission to higher educational institutions of the RSFSR" proclaimed that everyone over the age of 16, regardless of citizenship and nationality, gender and religion, was admitted to universities without exams, it was not required to provide a document on secondary education . The advantage in enrollment was given to the workers and the poorest peasantry. In addition, starting from 1919, workers' faculties began to be created in the country. At the end of the recovery period, graduates of workers' schools made up half of the students admitted to universities. By 1927, the network of higher educational institutions and technical schools of the RSFSR consisted of 90 universities (in 1914 - 72 universities) and 672 technical schools (in 1914 - 297 technical schools). By 1930 capital appropriations for schools had grown more than 10 times as compared with 1925/26. During this period, almost 40 thousand schools were opened. On July 25, 1930, the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On universal compulsory primary education” was adopted, which was introduced for children 8-10 years old in the amount of 4 classes.
By the end of the 1930s, the heavy legacy of tsarism - mass illiteracy - had been overcome.
2. Development of science
In the initial period of their coming to power, the Bolsheviks, busy with the civil war and the problems of the world revolution, to some extent put up with the existence of various trends in cultural and scientific life. The processes set by the Silver Age with its pluralism and deliberate removal from politics continued. Until 1922 in Moscow in the house of N.A. Berdyaev, weekly philosophical debates were held, and the Free Academy of Spiritual Culture also operated.
But if representatives of the humanitarian areas of science worked due to their own enthusiasm, often against the will of the authorities, then natural scientists, especially those who in one way or another contributed to strengthening the defense and economy of the country or had unconditional world recognition, the new government sought to attract to close cooperation. They were provided with more tolerable, in comparison with other segments of the population, living and working conditions. Many famous scientists considered it their duty to work for the good of the Motherland, although this did not mean at all that they shared the political and ideological views of the Bolsheviks. Among them we meet the names of the founder of the theory of modern aircraft construction N.E. Zhukovsky, creator of geochemistry and biochemistry V.I. Vernadsky, outstanding chemist N.D. Zelinsky, biochemist A.N. Bach, the father of astronautics K.E. Tsiolkovsky, Nobel Prize winner physiologist I.P. Pavlov, test agronomist I.V. Michurin, the largest specialist in crop production K.A. Timiryazev and others.
With the introduction of NEP, the traditional forms of scientific work revived. Private publications were allowed, the publication of well-known popular science magazines - "Byloye", "Voice of the Past", "Economist", "Law and Life" was resumed. Professional congresses began to convene: agricultural scientists, economists, doctors.
3. Religion and church
The question of the attitude of the Soviet state towards religion and the church deserves special attention. The most important document regulating state-church relations was the decree on the separation of the church from the state and the school from the church, adopted in 1918. The decree emphasized that every citizen could profess any religion or none. According to the decree, all the property of the church and religious societies existing in Russia was declared public property.
What was the position of the clergy in relation to the Soviet government? During the civil war, the clergy opposed the Soviet regime. This is anti-Bolshevik propaganda, and participation in armed demonstrations, protest rallies, strikes, refusal to issue birth registers. As a result, a massive wave of repression against the clergy swept through. In the Urals, for example, the clergy supported Kolchak and welcomed the Whites as their liberators. There was a religious oath in the Kolchak army and there were more than two thousand military priests. In the system of the white army, volunteer detachments of the Brotherhood of the Holy Cross were created. These squads bore the names of their patrons: “the regiment of Jesus”, “the regiment of the Virgin”, “the regiment of the prophet Elijah”. Such a detachment had to be led into battle not only by the commander, but also by the priest. But nothing helped. The White Army was defeated. The clergy had to make a choice: recognize Soviet power or continue the confrontation. With this in mind, Patriarch Tikhon (in 1917 the institution of the patriarchate was restored) sent a message to the clergy, urging them to non-interference and apathy, to submit to Soviet power.
After the death of Patriarch Tikhon in 1925, the authorities prevented the election of a new patriarch. Metropolitan Peter, who assumed patriarchal duties, was exiled in 1926 to Solovki.
Since the end of the 1920s, the course of the Soviet state in relation to religion and the church has become more rigid. Churches and monasteries are closed en masse, or even destroyed. In total, 15988 churches were closed across the country by 1933. In the Soviet period of our history, preference was given to an atheistic worldview. Active anti-religious propaganda was carried out under the slogan "Fight against religion, fight for socialism." The cultural atmosphere of society was dominated by the spirit of rationality, admiration for the power of science, technology, reason and daring. Belief in a “bright future” replaced religious faith for the majority of the population.
4. Bolsheviks and intelligentsia. Russian culture in emigration
IN AND. Lenin, although by the nature of his activity belonged to the Russian intelligentsia, did not like it. He believed that the Russian intelligentsia was infected with petty-bourgeois ideology, and therefore it was a source of hesitation, doubt, and instability. Thus, the intelligentsia is an accomplice of the bourgeoisie. Naturally, in this case, the intelligentsia could not expect anything good from the Soviet government. Hence its mass exodus abroad. Those who could - left on their own, and those who were expelled by the Soviet government. Suffice it to recall the famous “philosophical ship”, when in 1922 famous Russian philosophers, scientists and other figures of Russian culture were sent abroad on it. The majority of those who left had a hard time with their forced departure, because they were true patriots of their Motherland, and therefore did everything possible to preserve Russian culture.
Considering that their emigration is a temporary phenomenon and if not they, then their children will return to their homeland, Russian emigrants sought to educate the younger generation in the spirit of Russian national traditions. In cities where large colonies of Russian emigration were formed - Paris, Berlin, Prague, Belgrade, in Chinese Harbin - Russian schools, gymnasiums and higher educational institutions were created, where teaching was conducted in their native language. And many outstanding teachers, scientists, philosophers were involved in the educational process.
Publishing houses are being created that print books in Russian, and numerous newspapers and magazines are published. Great educational work was carried out by the Russian Orthodox Church abroad, as well as the Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris, whose professors were Russian philosophers - S. Bulgakov, V. Zenkovsky, V. Ilyin, G. Fedotov, S. Frank. It was thanks to the great educational work that the Russian emigration retained its national character, and the children of emigrants who left their homeland at a young age or were born in emigration received education in their native language and did not break ties with Russian culture, but continued to develop it even in conditions of complete separation from their native soil.
The largest detachment of Russian culture in exile was represented by figures of artistic culture. These were almost all famous writers and poets of that time: A. Averchenko, M. Aldanov, L. Andreev, M. Artsybashev, K. Balmont, N. Berberova, I. Bunin, Z. Gippius, M. Gorky, B. Zaitsev , A. Kuprin, I. Odoevtseva, M. Osorgin, I. Severyanin, A. Tolstoy, V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva, I. Shmelev and many others. Subsequently, A. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, A. Kuprin, M. Tsvetaeva returned to their homeland. Feeling deep nostalgia for Russia, the vast majority of Russian writers actively continued their work, contributing to the development of Russian literature.
5. Beginning of "new" art
An important place in the cultural life of the 1920s was occupied by discussions about attitudes towards the cultural heritage of the past and about what the new culture should be like. Supporters of the left currents considered it necessary to abandon bourgeois culture, to break with the past, to create something absolutely new outside of historical and cultural traditions. In 1917, the Proletarian Culture (Proletkult) organization was formed, whose members were opponents of the old culture and advocated the creation of a new one, insisting that it be purely proletarian, i.e. should be addressed to the proletariat and created only by proletarian artists and writers. In addition, representatives of the avant-garde believed that art is a means of transforming social reality and educating a new person. The most important position of their aesthetic system: art is not only a way of reflecting the real world, real reality, but also a means of transforming and changing it. A prominent figure in Proletkult A. Gastev introduced the term "social engineering". In relation to art, it meant a radical restructuring of art by means of not only social life, but also the human psyche.
Another very influential creative group was RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers). Organizationally, the association took shape at the First All-Russian Congress of Proletarian Writers in Moscow in October 1920. Over the years, the leading role in the association was played by L. Averbakh, F. V. Gladkov, A. S. Serafimovich, V. I. Panferov and a number of others. Calling for a struggle for high artistic skill, arguing with the theoreticians of Proletkult, the RAPP, at the same time, remained on the point of view of proletarian culture. In 1932 the RAPP was dissolved.
In general, in the 20s. most cultural organizations and the press saw the task of Soviet society in coming to its own culture, eradicating the cult of the artistic past and relying on the best practices of the present. The main task of proletarian art was considered not to stylize the past, but to create the future.
6. Literature and art
A number of prominent artists, and above all writers and poets, actively opposed such ideas. In this row are the names of A. Platonov, E. Zamyatin, M. Bulgakov, M. Tsvetaeva, O. Mandelstam, for whom the unconditional priority of the universal humanistic principle was an immutable law of creativity.
The fate of those who did not submit to the communist dictate was, as a rule, tragic. The most talented representatives of Soviet culture perished in concentration camps and dungeons of the NKVD. Of the members of the Writers' Union alone, 600 people were repressed. Many cultural figures were deprived of the opportunity to publish their books and exhibit paintings. Many outstanding works created in those years did not reach the reader and viewer immediately. Only in 1966 was the novel by M. A. Bulgakov "Master and Margarita" published, in 1986-1988 "Juvenile Sea", "Pit" and "Chevengur" by A. P. Platonov were published, in 1987 "Requiem" was published A.A. Akhmatova.
The paths of ideological and political self-determination and the life destinies of many people of art were not easy in this critical era. For various reasons and in different years, great Russian talents turned up abroad, such as: I.A. Bunin, A.N. Tolstoy, A.I. Kuprin, M.I. Tsvetaeva, E.I. Zamyatin, F.I. Chaliapin, A.P. Pavlova, K.A. Korovin and others. Before others, he realized the impossibility for himself to live and work outside the Motherland A.N. Tolstoy, who returned from emigration in 1922.
Literary and art magazines played an important role in the artistic life of the country. New magazines such as Novy Mir, Krasnaya Nov, Molodaya Gvardiya, Oktyabr, Zvezda, Seal and Revolution became popular. Many outstanding works of Soviet literature were published for the first time on their pages, critical articles were published, and heated discussions were held. The production of newspapers, magazines and books increased. In addition to all-Union and republican newspapers, almost every enterprise, factory, mine, state farm published its own large-circulation or wall newspaper. Books were published in more than 100 languages of the world. A network of libraries developed.
The idea of "forging a new man" by means of literature and art was one of the central ideas in the discussions of the creative intelligentsia of the 1920s, it was shared by representatives of various currents of the Russian avant-garde. The LEF group, which included V. Mayakovsky, D. Burliuk, O. Brik, was engaged in the search for new expressive forms to solve this problem in literature, in the theater - Vs. Meyerhold, in architecture - K. Melnikov, in cinema - S. Eisenstein, G. Kozintsev and many others. In the visual arts, the left movements were represented by: the Society of Easel Artists (OST), the "4Arts" group (K. Petrov-Vodkin, P. Kuznetsov), the Society of Moscow Artists (OMH) (P. Konchalovsky, I. Mashkov, A. Lentulov , R. Falk), constructivists (V. Tatlin, L. Lissitzky), etc.
Supporters of the left currents, due to their revolutionary nature, found themselves in the center of a social explosion, they were the first to cooperate with the new government, seeing in it a kindred force. They took part in the implementation of the monumental propaganda plan, were engaged in the "revolutionary" design of cities.
The fundamental concept of creating a new man put forward by the avant-garde became the main task of Soviet culture. However, on the issue of expressive means and forms of the new culture, the ruling party made a choice in favor of traditionalism and realism, prohibiting experiments in this area by directive order and declaring socialist realism the unified and obligatory artistic method for Soviet literature and art. This choice was made largely in connection with the belief of the Bolsheviks that the new culture, which will have to appeal to the undereducated and cultural sections of the population, should use the most familiar and understandable forms for these social strata.
7. Architecture and sculpture
In 1918, the implementation of Lenin's plan for monumental propaganda began. In accordance with this plan, monuments were removed that, in the opinion of the new government, did not represent historical and artistic value, for example, monuments to Alexander III in St. Petersburg and General Skobelev in Moscow. At the same time, monuments (busts, figures, steles, commemorative plaques) to the heroes of the revolution, public figures, writers, and artists began to be created. The idea of the plan of monumental propaganda was inspired by the idea of the "City of the Sun" by T. Campanella, where the city walls were decorated with murals that served to educate citizens. The new monuments were supposed to make the ideas of socialism visually visual. Both well-known masters (S.T. Konenkov, N.A. Andreev) and young sculptors from different schools and trends, up to students of art schools, were involved in the work.
By the first anniversary of the revolution, a monument to K. Marx and F. Engels was opened in Moscow. In Petrograd, in 1917-1920, a monument was created to the "Fighters of the Revolution" - the Field of Mars. The monument was a group of low, regular-shaped granite monoliths placed in the center of the entire complex, turned into a green parterre. In 1918-1919, an obelisk of Freedom with the text of the first Soviet constitution was erected in the center of Sovietskaya Square in Moscow. In total, 25 monuments were erected in Moscow in 1918-1920, and 15 in Petrograd. Many monuments have not survived, mainly because they were made in temporary materials (gypsum, concrete, wood).
An important milestone in the history of Soviet architecture was the creation of the Mausoleum of V.I. Lenin on Red Square in Moscow according to the project of A.V. Shchusev. The first wooden Mausoleum was built on January 27, 1924. It was a modest, low cube, tinted with gray paint, topped with three ledges. The structure was created as a temporary one, and not only because a few hours were allotted for its construction - the very form of perpetuating the memory of V.I. Lenin was not determined. The second, already larger, wooden Mausoleum was built in the spring of 1924. For its final form, the unification of the memorial structure and the tribune was of fundamental importance. The main elements of the three-tier construction were also determined: a wide massive base with a solemn portal, a stepped pyramid rising above them and a laconic crowning portico. The final project of the Mausoleum made of concrete and stone was completed in 1929, and in October 1930 its construction was completed. The mausoleum organically fit into the appearance of Red Square. The height of the granite mausoleum is 12 meters, it is one third of the height of the Senate and one sixth of the height of the Spasskaya tower. The tiered and pyramidal silhouette, coming from ancient traditions, turned out to be organically combined with the expressive laconicism inherent in the innovative trends in architecture of the 1920s.
8. Graphics and painting
In the 1920s, graphics were the most mobile, operational and widespread type of fine art: magazine and newspaper drawings, posters. They most quickly responded to the events of the time due to their conciseness and intelligibility. During these years, two types of posters developed - heroic and satirical, the most prominent representatives of which were Moore and Denis. Moore (D.S. Orlov) owns political posters that have become classics of Soviet graphics “Have you signed up as a volunteer?” (1920), "Help!" (1921 - 1922). In the latter, he achieves a mood of extraordinary drama, even tragedy.
The posters of Denis (V.N.Denisov) are built according to a different principle. They are satirical, accompanied by poetic texts, and the influence of popular popular prints is noticeable in them. Denis also makes extensive use of the caricature portrait technique. He is the author of such well-known posters as "Either death to capital, or death under the heel of capital" (1919), "Fist-eater" (1921).
In addition to graphics, the main forms of painting also developed in the 1920s and 1930s. In the fine arts in these years there were different directions. The art of the Russian avant-garde not only continued to develop, but also experienced a true flowering. The time of revolutionary transformations attracted artists to new creative experiments. In Russia, such avant-garde trends as cubism, futurism, and abstract art have become widespread. The largest representatives of the Russian avant-garde - M.3. Chagall, N.S. Goncharova, K.S. Malevich, V.V. Kandinsky, M.F. Larionov, A.V. Lentulov, P.N. Filonov. The avant-gardists were intolerant of representatives of classical art, they considered themselves revolutionary artists creating a new proletarian art. They held in their hands many printed organs and exhibition premises.
Along with avant-gardism, there was art that continued and developed realistic traditions. The realism of the 1920s and 1930s relied on the vast experience of critical realism, but it could not but reckon with the discoveries of avant-garde art. In those years, realism often had a romantic or symbolic coloring in the work of artists such as A.A. Rylov, B.M. Kustodiev, K.F. Yuon, K.S. Petrov-Vodkin. At that time, many artists expressed their feeling and experience of life, contemporary events with the help of poetic metaphors, symbols and allegories. Examples of this are Kustodiev's painting "Bolshevik" (1920), Yuon's "New Planet" (1921), Petrov-Vodkin's "1918 in Petrograd" (1920).
Conclusion
So, a socialist revolution is taking place in Russia. And after several years of civil war, Soviet power was established on the territory of the former Russian Empire, headed by the Bolshevik Party. The price of this revolution for Russian culture was very high. If we talk in general about the concept of the cultural policy of the Bolshevik Party, then the tasks of creating a new type of culture - a socialist culture - were put forward as a long-term perspective. Therefore, the cultural revolution became the main socio-cultural component of the post-October era. Its essence was that it was seen as a process of radical breaking of the existing stereotypes of social consciousness and spiritual and moral guidelines in people's behavior.
At the same time, the cultural revolution is a state policy aimed at changing the social composition of the post-revolutionary intelligentsia and breaking with the main traditions of the cultural past. The creator of the slogan of the cultural revolution V.I. Lenin in his work "Pages from a Diary" defined its main tasks as follows: the elimination of cultural backwardness and, above all, illiteracy of the country's population; open space for the development of the creative forces of the working people; the formation of the socialist intelligentsia and ensuring the dominance of the ideology of scientific communism.
The practical line of the Bolshevik Party in the field of culture, reflected in numerous decrees of the first years of Soviet power, was aimed at solving two problems. First, the establishment of party control over all institutions that shape the way of thinking and mood in society (publishing houses, film studios, theaters, libraries, museums, etc.); secondly, raising the general cultural level of the people, mainly workers and peasants.
The twenties were promising and fruitful in the development of national culture. The specificity of these years consisted primarily in the variety of forms of socio-economic development, in the dynamism of political life. To a certain extent, a beneficial reflection of the brilliant "Silver Age" fell on the cultural image of the country.
One of the main tasks of Soviet art was to create the image of a positive hero, an active life changer, selflessly devoted to the party and the state, to whom all Soviet people, especially young people, were to be equal.
The most important feature of Soviet culture was the strict control over it by the party and the state. Already in the 1920s, cultural institutions were nationalized, and a management system began to take shape, which lasted until the 1990s.
Summing up the first post-revolutionary decade of the existence of domestic culture, it must be said that the worldview foundations of the new system were laid here, a galaxy of young cultural figures was formed, and the first generation of the new (Soviet) intelligentsia was brought up on communist ideals. At the same time, two trends collided in cultural development: one was a direct revolutionary onslaught, a kind of schematization of reality, the other was a deeper understanding of the patterns and contradictions of a turning point. In general, it was a time of intense creative search for something new in all areas of spiritual culture.
List of used literature
1. Danilov, A.A. History of Russia, XX century: textbook. for 9 cells. general education institutions / A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulin.- 7th ed.- M.: Enlightenment, 2001
2. Cultural revolution and spiritual process / S.A. Krasilnikov, L.F. Mass, V.L. Soskin // Historians answer questions. - M .: Moskovsky Rabochiy, 1998
3. Culturology: textbook. allowance / ed. M.A. Bart. - M.: MGU, 1996
4. Lenin, V.I. Party organization and party literature: full. coll. op. v. 41.- 5th ed.- M .: Publishing house of political literature, 1967
5. Lenin, V.I. Complete works: v. 28.- M.: Publishing house of political literature, 1967
6. Political system of the 20-30s / Yu.S. Borisov // Historians answer questions. - M .: Moskovsky Rabochiy, 1999
7. Pages of the history of Soviet artistic culture 1917 - 1932. - M., 1989
8. These difficult 20-30s / Yu.S. Borisov // Pages of the history of Soviet society. - M .: Publishing house of political literature, 1992
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The revival of industry, transport and agriculture in the postwar period. The contradictions of the social and political life of society: the building of socialism, a new wave of Stalinist repressions. The position of science, literature and art in the 20-30s of the XIX century.
abstract, added 09/21/2013
Russian culture in the 18th century, its features and specificity. Peter's reforms in the field of education, education. Figures of the Russian Enlightenment. Folklore and literature of the time. Achievements in the field of architecture. Psychology of bureaucracy under Peter.
abstract, added 11/10/2010
Social-class structure and economy of Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. The evolution of the political system. The value system of medieval Russia, its cultural development. Church transformations: split and registration of the Old Believer church. Spiritual culture.
abstract, added 04/22/2009
The process of the birth of the Indus civilization, its characteristics. Socio-political structure of the Harappan society; the economy of the Harappans, their external relations. Features of the Harappan culture (religion, architecture, fine arts, writing).
term paper, added 08/01/2011
Restoration of the system of public education and cultural and educational work in Pridnestrovie in the post-war period. Development of general education, vocational, higher education and science. Museum network and theatrical art of Pridnestrovie.
term paper, added 08/27/2012
Causes of the deep crisis of culture in the 90s of the twentieth century. New trends in cultural life in the period of perestroika. School reform 1980-90 Manifestations of the crisis of fundamental and applied science. Artistic and spiritual life of the country in the 80-90s.
abstract, added 04/28/2010
The beginning of the 19th century is the time of the cultural and spiritual upsurge of Russia, the progress of Russian culture, the development of education, science, literature and art. The growth of the national self-consciousness of the people and the new democratic principles that were taking root in Russian life.
report, added 03/29/2009
Totemism, mythology as one of the forms of primitive religion. Neolithic burials in Northern Kazakhstan. Paleolithic: the emergence of painting, sculpture, engraving, ornamentation. Skill, expressiveness, emotional coloring of Paleolithic art.
Education in the first years of Soviet power Fight against illiteracy Construction of the Soviet school December 26, 1919 - Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on the beginning of a campaign to combat illiteracy August 2, 1918 - Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on preferential admission to universities of workers and poor peasants September 30, 1918 - All-Russian Central Executive Committee - "Regulations on a unified labor school"
Poster 1918 Poster by Elizaveta Kruglikova
Ioganson BV Rabfak goes a year.
Repin I.E. Self-portrait of Mr. Chagall M.Z. Self-portrait of Mr. Kandinsky V.V.
Altman N. Portrait of A. A. Akhmatova
New trends in artistic culture
Literature of the 20s Singing of revolutionary romance, study of life problems and psychological conflicts Creativity of Sergei Yesenin Satire I.E. Babel "Cavalry" A.S. Serafimovich "Iron Stream" K.A. Trenev "Love Yarovaya" M.A. Sholokhov "Don stories" D.A. Furmanov "Chapaev" M.M. Zoshchenko I.A. Ilf and E.P. Petrov "Twelve chairs" V.V. Mayakovsky "Bedbug", "Bath"
Sergei Alexandrovich Yesenin () We still do not realize much, Pets of Lenin's victory, And we sing new songs In the old way, As our grandparents taught us. Friends! Friends! What a split in the country, What sadness in the merry boil! To know, that's why I want so much, Having pulled up my pants, To run after the Komsomol. …………………………………………………… I am not a new person! What to hide? I stayed in the past with one foot, In an effort to catch up with the steel army, I slide and fall with the other. From the poem "Russia is leaving", 1924
"Windows of Satire ROSTA" a series of posters created by Soviet poets and artists who worked in the system of the Russian Telegraph Agency (ROSTA).
October 1917 is considered the beginning of a new period in the history of Russian culture. The path of development of domestic art was not easy and contradictory. Along with indisputable achievements, there were mistakes and miscalculations.
One of the most difficult periods in the history of Russian art is the 1920s. This is the beginning of the search, the time of existence of the most diverse groupings with their platforms, manifestos, and a system of expressive means. This is a period of widespread development of enlightenment.
Pre-revolutionary Russia was a country with the greatest artistic culture, which gave the world great literature, music, painting, and wonderful folk art. But at the same time, the literacy of the masses was extremely low, therefore, in the first post-revolutionary years, one of the most important tasks was to teach the people to read and write, to familiarize ordinary people with theater, music and other forms of art.
However, the growing struggle against dissidents to a very large extent affected the intelligentsia, the peasantry, the clergy, who from time immemorial were the bearers of professional and folk art. Many cultural achievements of the past were completely or partially destroyed. Temples were wiped off the face of the earth, ancient Russian singing died out for many years, many of the largest artists found themselves outside Russia. Many artistic treasures also ended up abroad, including outstanding exhibits of the Hermitage: Botticelli's Adoration of the Magi, Perugino's triptych Crucifixion with the Mother of God, Saints John, Jerome and Mary Magdalene, Raphael's Saint George, Madonna Alba, Titian "Venus in front of a mirror" and many others.
In the 1920s, the Wandering traditions came to life, because the artistic life of the country demanded art that was sharply social and understandable to the masses.
Painting, sculpture, architecture.
The diverse and contradictory phenomena of Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century - symbolism, "world art", cubism, constructivism, futurism, cubo-futurism, etc. - did not disappear with the beginning of a new era, they found continuation in new artistic associations. Thus, the traditions of the “World of Art” were continued by the artists of the “Fire-Tsvet” society, which included M. Dobuzhinsky, A. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, M. Voloshin and others. "Knife" (New Society of Painters). Among them are P. Konchalovsky, N. Mashkov and others. They used the techniques of primitivism, lubok, wrote mainly in the genre of landscape and still life. The "4 Arts" and OMH (Society of Moscow Artists) groups united masters of the older generation. Among the members of the "4 Arts" are Petrov-Vodkin, Kuznetsov, Saryan, Favorsky, the most active members of the OMC are Lentulov, Falk, Rozhdestvensky, Grabar, Gerasimov and others.
Already in the first months of Soviet power, the government adopted a number of important decrees: June 17, 1918 - "On the protection of libraries and depositories", November 26, 1918 - "On scientific, literary, musical and artistic works." Decrees were signed on the nationalization of the Tretyakov Gallery, the Hermitage, the Russian Museum and others (1918). The Decree "On the monuments of the Republic" was published, after which the implementation of the plan of monumental propaganda began. Monuments to the heroes of the revolution, public figures, as well as scientists, writers, poets, artists, composers, artists began to be created. Examples are the monuments to Radishchev (author Sherwood), installed in front of the Winter Palace in Petrograd, Dostoevsky (author Merkulov) on Tsvetnoy Boulevard in Moscow, G. Garibaldi (work by Zala) in Petrograd near the Moscow Gate, etc.
In the difficult years of the civil war and foreign intervention for the country, the most mobile, operational form of fine art was graphics and, especially, poster. The poster most quickly responded to events, was printed in large numbers in different national languages. Thus, the first poster "The Tsar, the Pope and the Fist" (1918) was published immediately in 10 languages. During the years of the civil war, the development two types of poster – political and satirical. Moor (Dmitry Stakhievich Orlov) worked in the genre of political posters. His posters "Did you sign up as a volunteer?" and "Help" have rightly become classics of Soviet graphics. The most famous author of the satirical poster was Denis (Viktor Nikolaevich Denisov). His posters are deeply satirical, sometimes full of humor, accompanied by poetic texts: “On the Grave of the Counter-Revolution”, “The World-Eating Fist”, “The Constituent Assembly”, etc. ”(Russian Telegraph Agency), where Cheremnykh, Mayakovsky, Moor played a special role. The posters called for the defense of the country, branded deserters, agitated for a new way of life (“Comrades, do not panic!”, “We must be prepared!”. “ROSTA Windows” existed from the autumn of 1919 until 1921.
In 1918, a mass publication of the classics of Russian and world literature was undertaken - the "People's Library". Many well-known artists took part in the creation of the illustrations: Kustodiev, Benois, Lebedev, Kupriyanov and others (for example, Kustodiev's illustrations for Pushkin's Dubrovsky).
The revolution brought to life new forms of fine art: decoration of agitation trains, agitation steamboats, monumental panels, decoration of squares, streets, houses. They were performed by such masters as Petrov-Vodkin, Yuon, Lansere, Brodsky, and others. A tendency to metaphor, hyperbole, and symbolism was characteristic. Examples are "Bolshevik" Kustodiev, "New Planet" Yuon.
The architects had a lot of ideas. They created gigantic plans for the construction of never-before-seen cities of the future. But there were no opportunities for the implementation of these projects.
The architect Rudnev in St. Petersburg on the Field of Mars created a monument to the "Victims of the Revolution".
Architects were greatly influenced constructivism and similar to it functionalism. The main idea of constructivism is the conscious construction of the human environment. The constructivists contrasted the luxury of bourgeois life with the simplicity and emphasized usefulness of their constructions. Tatlin designed a kind of work "Tower of the 3rd International".
The principles of constructivism were developed in the West by Corbusier, who worked for us for some time. "Soviet constructivism" is represented in the project of the Palace of Labor in Moscow by the three Vesnin brothers (a giant complex that connects the Palace of Congresses, the House of Soviets, the theater, the House of Culture, etc.) Of the implemented projects, one can name the Moscow Houses of Culture, the Palace of Culture of the Moscow Automobile Plant, the building of the Moscow Telegraph and others. One of the interesting architectural structures of this period is the Lenin Mausoleum by the architect Shchusev (1st project - 1924, 2nd - 1930).
Functionalism is a direction in the architecture of the 20s, requiring strict compliance of buildings and other structures with the production and household processes (functions) that take place in them.
Functionalism originated in Germany and the Netherlands. He gave reasonable methods and norms for planning residential complexes (standard sections and apartments, “linear” building of blocks with the ends of buildings facing the street). This entailed the monotony and schematism of architectural forms.
In 1922, the AHRR (Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia) arose, whose members worked in the historical and revolutionary genre (“Leniniana” by Brodsky, “Tachanka”, “Trumpeters of the First Cavalry” by Grekov). Kasatkina ("Vuzovka"), Ryazhsky ("Delegate", "Chairwoman") worked in the genre of portraiture. The lyrical landscape is presented in the works of Yuon, Osmerkin, Baksheev.
In the sculpture of the 20s, the name of Andreev should be highlighted. He created a whole series of sculptural portraits of Lenin.
In 1926, the Society of Russian Sculptors (ORS) was founded in Moscow, which included Golubkina, Matveev, Andreev, Shadr, Mukhina, and others.
Literature.
The collapse of the white movement led to the fact that hundreds of thousands of Russians, fearing the dictatorship of the proletariat, the power of the Bolsheviks, left their homeland. Among them is an impressive list of Russian writers: L. Andreev, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, I. Bunin, G. Grebenshchikov, A. Kuprin, D. Merezhkovsky, I. Severyanin, V. Nemerovich-Danchenko, V. Khodasevich, M Tsvetaeva, I. Shmelev and many others.
Their lives were often tragic. Bunin died in Paris (1953) in real need. Kuprin lived in great poverty, returned to his homeland deeply ill and soon died of cancer. His wife committed suicide during the blockade. Shmelev spent his last years in complete solitude, experienced severe
physical suffering, died in the Convent of the Intercession of the Mother of God near Paris. Tsvetaeva also lived in complete poverty and was very lonely. The whole family lived on the money of her daughter, who knitted hats and sold them. In 1939, Tsvetaeva returned to her homeland, and in 1941 committed suicide.
A difficult fate fell to many writers who remained in Russia. From the very beginning of the Soviet period, there was a polarization of the writers into “us” and “they”. “We” are those who traced, in their words, “the main road of proletarian culture”, which were socially adequate to the revolution. "They" - "stumbling", writers-fellow travelers.
There was an intensive change in the system of moral values. New concepts of good and evil were actively introduced into the mass consciousness.
Socio-artistic searches were extremely numerous, hence the many literary circles, groupings, associations that could still coexist in the 1920s, although fierce disputes flared up between them.
A great influence on the literature and art of those years had Proletcult(proletarian culture) - the most massive literary, artistic and educational organization of the early 20s (1917 - 1932). The heyday of its activity falls on 1918-1920. The leading theoretician of Proletcult was A. A. Bogdanov. A physician by training, he was an economist, philosopher, natural scientist, writer and public figure. He put forward the so-called "organizational theory", the essence of which was that any art reflects the experience and worldview of only one class and is unsuitable for another. This means that the proletariat does not need all the previous literature and masterpieces of the Russian classics of the 19th century, but a new proletarian culture should be created immediately. From the beginning of the 1920s, Bogdanov devoted himself entirely to natural science research, and in 1926 he organized the world's first Institute of Blood Transfusion, and died a year and a half later, having put scientific experience on himself.
But his ideas lived for a long time and were accepted. Associations of proletarian writers, first All-Russian (VAPP), then Russian (RAPP). RAPP was led by L. Averbakh. This organization included Rodov, Lelevich, Vesely, Bezymensky, and others. They were distinguished by extreme rationalism, ultra-classism, and the consideration of art as an instrument of political struggle. The opposite position was taken by the group "Pass", which was led by Voronsky. It included the poet E. Bagritsky, the writers Malyshkin, Prishvin, the critic Gorbov, and others. They defended universal human values. In February 1921, a circle formed in St. "Serapion brothers”: V. Ivanov, M. Zoshchenko, V. Kaverin, K. Fedin, E. Polonskaya, N. Tikhonov and others. They saw their task in search of new forms of artistic expression, in
mastering the "technique of writing" and, like "Pass", defended the values of the human person.
In 1922, V. Mayakovsky created a group "Lef" with the magazine "Left Front". These included N. Aseev, S. Tretyakov, A. Rodchenko, O. Brik.
There were also other literary groups.
The revolution gave birth to a new literary language. It was the language of the street, the poster, the dialect of the rally, the front-line dugout. Stumps of words were introduced - “sovdep”, “revolutionary committee”, “head of division”, etc. Class hatred, bitterness, and soulless blind atheism were considered humane. In many works, the painting of terror, violence, chopping heads, images of the wolf principle in man reigned. At the same time, in the literature of the 1920s, there was a conscious concern for the fate of universal human values, for the future.
The requirement of accessibility gave rise to a peculiar literary genre - skaz. The tale as a story of a non-professional seemed close to the social lower classes, because it was written in an accessible way, almost in the everyday language of the people. The brightest writer who turned to the tale was M. Zoshchenko.
Many writers caught the social order and created works in accordance with this order. There was no violence in this, on the contrary, it was an internal need. The most striking examples are Sholokhov's Quiet Flows the Don, Seifulina's Virineya, Fadeev's Defeat, Furmanov's Chapaev, Shishkov's Gloomy River, Serafimovich's Iron Stream, and others. Unfortunately, these works have been treated one-sidedly for many years. , in the light of social realism. Recent studies convincingly prove that these works are deeper and more complex. They often show doubt, and sometimes anxiety.
Different works had different fates. Some quickly appeared in the light, others lay in the tables of the authors for many years. Such is the sad fate of the works of A. Platonov ("Juvenile Sea", "Pit", "Chevengur"), Bulgakov ("Heart of a Dog", "Master and Margarita", "Running"), Akhmatova ("Requiem") and many others.
Often in the works of the 1920s the theme of the future was raised, and it was seen by different authors in different ways. E. Zamyatin in the novel "We" spoke about the transformation of the utopian kingdom of the commune into a barracks hell. In M. Kozyrev's novel "Leningrad" social accents are shifted: in the city of the future, the bourgeoisie is busy with exhausting labor, and the proletarians, being a privileged class, work only two hours a day, the rest of the time they indulge in idleness.
In the 1920s, poems by Yesenin, Mayakovsky, Mandelstam, Pasternak, Gorky's prose, and others were published.
Music. musical organizations.
Musical art was also included in the general social process and experienced the same difficulties and contradictions as other art forms. S. Rachmaninov, I. Stravinsky, N. Medtner, F. Chaliapin left the country. S. Prokofiev was abroad for a long time.
But there were musicians in the country who carried out a successive connection with the pre-revolutionary era: A. Glazunov, M. Ippolitov-Ivanov, R. Glier, N. Myaskovsky, Yu. Shaporin and others.
The complexity of social and public life gave rise to various musical groups, circles, movements, many of them were influenced by Proletkult. But the activities of some proletarians ran counter to the theoretical principles of this direction. Here, first of all, one should name A. Kastalsky, V. Kalinnikov, D. Vasiliev-Buglay, who relied on folk songs in their work.
The leading musical associations of those years were RAPM (Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians) and ASM (Association of Contemporary Music yka). RAPM was founded in 1923 with the aim of creating a mass revolutionary musical repertoire.
The activity of RAPM had its positive and negative aspects. On the one hand, RAPM paid great attention to choral music among the masses and the creation of propaganda and educational literature (it published the magazines Music and October, Proletarian Musician). But, on the other hand, he waged a tense struggle with everyday music, in particular, with foxtrots, Charleston, gypsy music, considering such music to be his “musical enemy”. Such a position slowed down the development of pop genres for a long time. The printed articles of the Rapmists for many decades closed access to the works of Stravinsky, Prokofiev, and foreign classics of the 20th century.
ASM emerged as a branch of the International Society for Contemporary Music at the Russian Academy of Artistic Sciences. The ASM included many major composers and musical figures, including A. Alexandrov, B. Asafiev, N. Myaskovsky, D. Shostakovich, and others. Their publication was the journal "Modern Music". One of the goals of this organization was the dissemination of new music - Russian and foreign. Thanks to the activities of the ASM, such well-known composers as Hindemith, Milhaud, Berg, Honegger, Bartok and others came to our country with concerts. But the ASM did not escape the errors that manifested themselves in the rejection of academic experience and in isolation from the democratic environment.
In 1925, a new organization appeared - the "Production Collective" (Prokoll), created by young musicians of the Moscow Conservatory under the leadership of A. Davidenko. It included V. Bely, Z. Levina, B. Shekhter, N. Chemberdzhi. Subsequently, D. Kabalevsky joined them. They set as their goal the collective composition of music, mainly choral. Prokollovites have done a lot to promote musical art
among the workers. But creating a musical language understandable to the masses, sometimes they simplified it.
The main directions of musical art.
1 . Mass character. In the theatrical and musical performances of the 1920s, mass character, spectacle, and posterity were emphasized. The traditions of mass performances are rooted in the ancient Greek theater in the open air, in the festivities of the French Revolution. Music was included in the action. sounded
revolutionary songs, as well as the music of Beethoven, Chopin, Scriabin, Rimsky-Korsakov. Sometimes there was a completely new design of the performance. For example, Avraamov's Symphony of Hoots. This included factory and ship horns, sirens, engine horns, sounds of bells, cannons, machine guns. A kind of "music of machines" arose. Thus, a new image appears in Russian culture - the image of the City. This circumstance brings mass actions closer to one of the stylistic trends in the art of the 1920s - constructivism.
Constructivism existed only in theater music. The most illustrative examples of musical constructivism were Mosolov's symphonic play "The Plant" from the ballet "Steel", Deshevov's piano piece "Rails", the episode "Factory" from Prokofiev's ballet "Steel Skok", etc.
2. Collectivity of creativity . Collective forms of creativity also belong to the specific features of the 1920s. There were many collective ideas. Thus, the Prokollovites created such collective works as Sat. "Songs of penal servitude and exile", collections of children's songs, piano pieces, the first Soviet oratorio "The Way of October". A collective ballet "Four Moscows" was conceived, where different composers (Polovinkin, Alexandrov, Shostakovich, Mosolov) were to write music for each act. But it didn’t get to the point of staging because of the negative reviews of the Rapmovites (especially Mosolov’s music).
The most curious collective undertaking was First Symphony Ensemble (persimfans) without a conductor, organized on the initiative of the professor of the Moscow Conservatory Zeitlin. For 10 years (from 1922 to 1932) the orchestra played in workers' clubs, Red Army barracks, demonstrating miracles of cohesion and will. Famous soloists such as Horowitz, Sofronitsky, Nezhdanova, Obukhova and others performed with the orchestra. Soon the Vtorsimfans appeared at the Moscow Conservatory. Under the influence of Persimfans, orchestras without conductors arose in other Russian cities, as well as abroad. But nothing could replace the talent of a real conductor, so such orchestras eventually ceased to exist.
3. Concert and performing activities. In the first post-revolutionary years, a chain of musical circles and studios arose in which workers and soldiers studied music and the art of choral singing under the guidance of teachers, students of conservatories, and artists. Enthusiasts-
ascetics opened folk conservatories in Kharkov, Minsk, Tashkent, Bukhara and other cities. In those years, literally before our eyes, the concert life grew and the audience changed. In just a few months of 1918, 106 concerts took place in Petrograd, and more than 40 in Moscow. For the season 1917 - 1918. in Moscow alone, 40 operas were staged, which were performed 300 times. Outstanding creative events were: the performance of all Beethoven's symphonies conducted by Koussevitzky, a cycle of concerts from the music of Scriabin. Outstanding musicians took part in the concerts - Igumnov, Neuhaus, Sofronitsky, Goldenweiser, Nezhdanova, Chaliapin, Sobinov, Gliere, Golovin and others. Wagner, Rossini, etc.
In the 1920s, bright chamber ensembles appeared: the quartets to them. Glazunov, Stradivarius, Vilhom, Beethoven. D. D. Shostakovich actively collaborated with the latter. Among the choirs, the Alexandrov Song and Dance Ensemble (1928) stood out.
The main genres of musical art.
1.Song . The song was one of the leading genres of those years. Such songs as "The Internationale" (P. Degeiter, E. Pottier), "La Marseillaise" (Rouget de Lisle), created in France long before October, but consonant with the new revolutionary era, enjoyed great popularity. There were also new songs that eventually became truly folk - “Chapaev the Hero Walked in the Urals”, “Through Valleys and Hills”, “Yablochko”. The song "Apple" was the most popular, because it conveyed the rhythm of a new life, new intonations. Its text was constantly changing, it was sung by revolutionaries and enemies of the revolution. Composers often used it in their works, for example, Gliere in the ballet The Red Poppy, Deshevov in the opera Ice and Steel, Paliashvili in The Solemn Cantata, etc.
The first composition songs belong to the brothers Pokrass and Davidenko. These were songs about the Red Army, about the heroes of the civil war: “March of Budyonny” by Dm. Pokrassa, “The Red Army is the strongest of all” Himself. Pokrassa, "Budyonny's Cavalry" Davidenko. They are dominated by active, chased, marching intonations.
The creation of a song repertoire was stimulated by various competitions. In 1921, Yurasovsky's song "Hammer and Sickle" received one of the main prizes at the Soviet music competition.
2.Musical Theatre. A stormy, tense atmosphere permeated all kinds of creativity. Poetic and theatrical battles were especially fierce. For the history of music, the theater is of particular interest, since many musical initiatives were born in its bowels.
Great innovation was theater Sun. Meyerhold, who sought to revive the features of the ancient theater (dance, melodious cry). Meyerhold acted as one of the theater reformers. He put forward the slogan "theatrical
October", broke some outdated theatrical forms, dreamed that the theater would be taken to the streets, and nature would become its scenery. In reading the classics, Meyerhold sought the musical organization of the action. The first Soviet play, Mystery Buff by Mayakovsky, was staged at the Meyerhold Theater, and later other plays by Mayakovsky - Bedbug, Bathhouse.
K. Stanislavsky I saw my way in revealing the inner psychological world of the characters. From 1918 he headed the opera studio of the Bolshoi Theatre.
A. Tairov created a subtle, aesthetic, beautiful colorful theater with chanting and the cult of the actor. From 1914 he directed the Chamber Theatre.
E. Vakhtangov strove for a synthesis of visual and expressive means.
A special place in the theatrical life of the new Russia was occupied by the Blue Blouse Theater and TRAM (Working Youth Theatre). The Blue Blouse Theater staged propaganda performances, it was called the "living newspaper". TRAM did a lot for the development of the Soviet stage and vaudeville, in his performances modern dances performed by a jazz band sounded, funny parodies were played out. In 1920 - 21 years. the first children's theater appeared, at the origins of which stood N. Sats.
Along with the drama theater, the audience of the 20s was of great interest. called Musical Theatre. He absorbed certain features of the dramatic theater, and this is no coincidence. Many theater directors took part in staging opera performances. Stanislavsky staged the opera Eugene Onegin, Meyerhold, who staged Wagner's Tristan and Isolde even before the revolution, became the "godfather" of outstanding Soviet operas such as The Gambler, Prokofiev's The Love for Three Oranges, and Shostakovich's The Nose.
The first opera on the Soviet theme was Gladkovsky's opera "For Red Petrograd" in collaboration with Prussak, a little later the operas "Ice and Steel" by Deshevy, "North Wind" by Knipper, "Dam" by Mosolov appear.
The most significant operas of that time were Shostakovich's The Nose (after Gogol), Prokofiev's operas - The Fiery Angel (after Bryusov), The Gambler (after Dostoevsky), The Love for Three Oranges (after Gozzi's fairy tale).
In an atmosphere of bold experiments and contrasts, the Soviet ballet. One of the first ballets was Deshevy's Red Whirlwind. The most interesting examples in this genre were Prokofiev's "Steel Lope", Shostakovich's "Golden Age", Gliere's "Red Poppy".
3. Symphonic music. In the 1920s, the leading musical genres, including the symphony, were laid in Soviet music. Myaskovsky's works are called the symphonic chronicle. During this period, he creates from the fourth to the eleventh symphonies. The first three symphonies are written by Shostakovich, Prokofiev creates the first four symphonies.
Gradually, in the art of the 20s, changes are outlined. Courage, catchiness, novelty of the experiment gives way to an appeal to tradition, to the classical culture of the past. These trends were developed in the next decade, in the art of the 30s.
SPIRITUAL LIFE OF THE USSR IN THE 1920s.
- 1. The fight against illiteracy.
- 2. Power and intelligentsia.
- 3. Party control.
- 4. "Smenovehovstvo".
- 5. Bolsheviks and the Church.
- Pavlova Anelya Vasilievna
- A history teacher
- MOU secondary school No. 12 of Vyshny Volochyok
- the task was to overcome cultural inequality, to make the treasures of culture accessible to the working people.
- elimination of illiteracy: in 1919, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of the RSFSR", according to which the entire population from 8 to 50 years old was obliged to learn to read and write in their native or Russian language.
- In 1923, the voluntary society "Down with illiteracy" was established under the chairmanship of M.I. Kalinin.
- In 1923, the voluntary society "Down with illiteracy" was established under the chairmanship of M.I. Kalinin. Howled opened thousands of points for the elimination of illiteracy educational program.
- On September 30, 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee approved the "Regulations on the unified labor school of the RSFSR."
- It is based on the principle of free education.
- By the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of August 2, 1918, workers and peasants received the preferential right to enter universities
- The next important milestone was the adoption in 1930 of the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On universal compulsory primary education."
- By the end of the 1930s, mass illiteracy in our country had largely been overcome.
- S. V. Rakhmaninov, K. A. Korovin, A. N. Tolstoy, M. I. Tsvetaeva, E. I. Zamyatin, F. I. Chaliapin, A. P. Pavlova, I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin and others.
- 500 prominent scientists who headed departments and entire scientific areas: P.A. Sorokin, K.N. Davydov, V.K. Agafonov, S.N. Vinogradsky and others
- Abroad were:
- Lowering the spiritual and intellectual level
- Can the intelligentsia work with the Bolsheviks? - Maybe I should. (A.A. Blok)
- V.I.Vernadsky
- K.E. Tsiolkovsky
- N.E. Zhukovsky
- I.P. Pavlov
- N.I.Vavilov
- V.M. Bekhterev
- K.A. Timiryazev
- N.D.Zelinsky
- M. Voloshin
- A. Akhmatova
- N. Gumilyov
- V. Mayakovsky
- M. Bulgakov
- W. Meyerhold
- and etc.
- ideological, political and social movement that arose in the early 1920s. among the Russian foreign liberal-minded intelligentsia. It got its name from the collection "Change of milestones", published in Prague in July 1921.
- The Smenovekhovites set themselves the task of reconsidering the position of the intelligentsia in relation to post-revolutionary Russia.
- The essence of this revision was the rejection of armed struggle with the new government, the recognition of the need to cooperate with it in the name of the well-being of the Fatherland.
- A.N. Tolstoy
- S.S. Prokofiev
- M. Gorky
- M. Tsvetaeva
- A.I. Kuprin
- The movement suited the leaders of the Bolsheviks, because it made it possible to split the emigration and achieve recognition of the new government.
- Returned to their homeland:
- The attitude of the Bolsheviks:
- The party and the state have established complete control over the spiritual life of society.
- 1921 - trial of the Petrograd military organization (famous scientists and cultural figures).
- 1922 - expulsion from the country of 160 prominent scientists and philosophers.
- 1922 - Establishment of Glavlit, and then Glavrepertkom (censorship).
- Thus, just as the class struggle does not stop in our country in general, so it does not stop on the literary front either. In a class society there is not and cannot be a neutral art.
- The Party must emphasize the necessity of creating fiction designed for a truly mass reader, both worker and peasant; it is necessary to break bolder and more decisively with the prejudices of the nobility in literature
- On December 11 (24), 1917, a decree appeared on the transfer of all church schools to the Commissariat of Education.
- On December 18 (31), the effectiveness of church marriage is annulled in the eyes of the state and civil marriage is introduced.
- January 21, 1918 - a decree was published on the complete separation of church and state and on the confiscation of all church property.
- The decree provided for specific measures to ensure that religious organizations carry out their functions.
- The free performance of rituals that did not violate public order and was not accompanied by infringement on the rights of citizens was guaranteed, religious societies were granted the right to free use of buildings and objects for worship.
- Widespread closure of temples;
- Confiscation of church property for revolutionary needs;
- Arrests of clerics;
- Deprivation of their voting rights;
- Children from families of the clergy were deprived of the opportunity to receive a special or higher education.
- http://www.pugoviza.ru/cgi-bin/yabb2/YaBB.pl?num=1220371796
- http://alkir.narod.ru/rh-book/l-kap9/l-09-03-3.html
- http://www.uralligaculture.ru/index.php?main=library&id=100007
- http://www.xumuk.ru/bse/993.html
- http://literra.ru/2006/10/
- http://mp3slovo.com/list2_13_5.html
- http://russianway.rhga.ru/catalogue-books/index.php?SECTION_ID=326&ELEMENT_ID=23253
- http://dugward.ru/library/blok/blok_mojet_li.html
- Sources: A.A. Danilov, History of Russia in the 20th - early 21st century
- M., "Enlightenment", 2008.
- Internet resources:
The first peace treaties. An attempt to "ignite" the fire of the world revolution. foreign policy factor. Comintern. International situation and foreign policy in the 20s. Decisions of the Genoa Conference. The Rappal Treaty and its Significance. Features of contracts. Stripe of recognition. Diplomatic conflicts with the West. General strike. Contradictions of the capitalist countries. Directions of foreign policy in the 20s.
"Building communism" - Hunger. Have there been times with similar events. State with strict rules. How people imagined a new home-state. 10 years after the revolution. The inhabitants of the country. The war between the inhabitants of one state for power in the country. One big house-state with very strict orders. The working people elected the Soviets of People's Deputies. Who will build. Ruin. The power will belong to the working people. One big house-state.
"USSR in 1920-1930" - September 28, 1939 - an agreement on friendship and border with Germany. Collectivization. Formation of Stalin's regime of personal power. Music. Appeasement of Germany by England and France at the expense of Czechoslovakia. 3 stages of foreign policy of the 20s. Theater of working youth. Three types of farms were allowed. Stalin. Peculiarities. 1927 - 1929 - deterioration of relations with Western countries. "New Art". Results and results.
"Policy of the NEP" - Property of the church. The need to move to the NEP. Grain procurement crisis. Lenin fell seriously ill. New economic policy. The public sector was marginal. Chervonets. The Council of People's Commissars is conducting a complete nationalization of enterprises. The first Soviet tractors. Volkhovstroy. Food order. War communism. Comedy. Cannibals. NEP years. Danger. Lenin. Party censorship. economic activities. Labor opposition. Surplus appraisal.
"Development of the USSR in the 20-30s." - The essence of the NEP. Fight of opinions. Collectivization. Socio-political life in the 30s. Nation-state building. Three different periods of cultural construction. Great fracture. Results and consequences. The policy of "exporting the revolution". Concession. Characteristic. Foreign policy of the USSR in the 20s. Education of the USSR. The main stages of industrialization. Industrialization. Formation of the Stalinist regime.
"Culture of the USSR in the 20-30s" - Sorokin P.A. Mass compulsory literacy education. The results of educational program. Ukrainian house. Formation of skills to work with additional literature. Cultural revolution. I. Repin. Reform of Russian spelling. Development of exact and natural sciences. Science under ideological pressure. Ilya Repin. Geneticist N. I. Vavilov. Transition to universal primary education. Creation of a socialist system of public education.
