Creation of the modern Russian literary language. Formation and development of the literary language. The scheme of the formation of the Russian language
The history of the Russian literary language as an independent scientific discipline arose in the 20th century. Although the study of the peculiarities of the Russian literary language belongs to a very early period, since "vague and one-sided, but vitally effective, practical ideas about the process of the historical development of the language invariably accompany the evolution of the Russian literary language and precede the emergence of the scientific history of the Russian literary language."
Since the 18th century, observations have been made on the connections of the Russian literary language with other Slavic and European languages, on the composition of the Church Slavonic language, its similarities with the Russian language and its difference from it.
For understanding the national specifics of the Russian literary language, the creation in 1755 of the “Russian Grammar” by M.V. Lomonosov was extremely important. The publication of the “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” (1789-1794), the appearance of the teachings of M.V. Lomonosov about the three styles of the Russian literary language, set forth in the discussion “On the Usefulness of Church Books”, “Rhetoric” and “Russian Grammar”, since the creator theory for the first time pointed out the main elements of the Russian literary national language, anticipating Pushkin's style. (4, p. 18).
The question of the origin of the Russian literary language has not been resolved by experts, moreover, they argue that the final solution is not close.
Such a keen interest in the problems of the origin of the Russian literary language is explained by the fact that the whole concept of its further development, the formation of the national literary language from the 17th to the 19th century, depends on one or another understanding of the process of formation of the Old Russian literary language (6, p. 53).
The history of the Russian literary language with its obviousness convinces that the language reacted very sensitively to various changes in the history of the people and, above all, in public life, that the history of the appearance and use of many words and expressions finds its justification in the development of social thought. So, for example, in the 40-60s of the 19th century, such words as socialism, communism, constitution, reaction, progress, etc. (5, p. 4) came into general use.
As a result of the October Revolution, the very composition of the native speakers of the literary language expanded significantly, since already in the first years after the revolution, masses of working people who had not previously had the opportunity to do so began to join the literary language.
In the Soviet era, the ratio of the literary language and dialects changed. If earlier dialects had a certain influence on the literary language, then after the revolution, thanks to the powerful development of culture and the dissemination of knowledge through schools, theater, cinema, and radio, the population began to energetically join the means of literary expression. In this regard, many features of local dialects began to quickly disappear; remnants of the old dialects are now preserved in the countryside mainly among the older generation.
The Russian literary language freed itself in the Soviet era from the influence of class jargons that existed in the past and to a certain extent influenced the norms of the literary language. (5, p. 415).
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, bibliographic reviews were published that summed up the study of the Russian literary language. Kotlyarevsky A.A. Ancient Russian writing: Experience of bibliological presentation of the history of its study. - 1881; Bulich S.K. Essay on the history of linguistics in Russia. - 1904; Yagich I.V. History of Slavic Philology. - 1910.
In the 20th century, the history of the Russian literary language becomes the subject of special attention.
V.V. Vinogradov did a lot to create the science of the Russian literary language, the list of his main works on the history of the Russian literary language and the language of writers includes more than twenty works (4, p. 19).
The works of G.O Vinokur left a deep mark on the development of the history of the Russian literary language: “The Russian literary language in the first half of the 18th century”, 1941; "Russian language", 1945; "On the history of the rationing of the Russian written language in the 18th century." 1947; and etc.
To solve the problems of the origin of the Russian literary language, the formation of the Russian national language, the studies of L.P. Yakubinsky - "The History of the Old Russian Language", published in 1953, and "A Brief Essay on the Origin and Initial Development of the Russian National Literary Language", published in 1956.
The issue of the origin of the Russian literary language, the problems of the formation of the Russian national language, the history of the Russian literary language of the older period (Moscow state) are the subject of the works of F.P. Filin (4, p. 21).
The richness and power of the Russian literary language was created thanks to the ongoing impact on the literary language of the living national language. The language of Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Saltykov - Shchedrin, L. Tolstoy and many other luminaries of the Russian figurative word owes its brightness, strength, captivating simplicity primarily to the living sources of folk speech.
Thus, the history of the Russian literary language is, first of all, the history of a continuous and ever-developing process of literary processing of the wealth of the national language and creative enrichment and replenishment of them at the expense of new linguistic and stylistic values (5, p 46).
History of the Russian literary language
“The beauty, magnificence, strength and richness of the Russian language is quite clear from books written in past centuries, when our ancestors did not know any rules for writing yet, but they hardly thought that they exist or can be” - arguedMikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov .
History of the Russian literary language- formation and transformation Russian language used in literary works. The oldest surviving literary monuments date back to the 11th century. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, this process took place against the backdrop of the opposition of the Russian language, which was spoken by the people, to the French language nobles. Classics Russian literature actively explored the possibilities of the Russian language and were innovators of many linguistic forms. They emphasized the richness of the Russian language and often pointed out its advantages over foreign languages. On the basis of such comparisons, disputes have repeatedly arisen, for example, disputes between Westerners And Slavophiles. In Soviet times, it was emphasized that Russian language- language of builders communism, and during the reign Stalin campaign against cosmopolitanism in literature. The transformation of the Russian literary language continues at the present time.
Folklore
Oral folk art (folklore) in the form fairy tales, epics, proverbs and sayings are rooted in distant history. They were passed from mouth to mouth, their content was polished in such a way that the most stable combinations remained, and linguistic forms were updated as the language developed. Oral creativity continued to exist even after the advent of writing. IN new time to the peasant folklore worker and urban, as well as army and thieves (prison-camp) were added. At present, oral folk art is most expressed in anecdotes. Oral folk art also influences the written literary language.
The development of the literary language in ancient Russia
The introduction and spread of writing in Russia, which led to the creation of the Russian literary language, is usually associated with Cyril and Methodius.
So, in ancient Novgorod and other cities in the XI-XV centuries were in use birch bark letters. Most of the surviving birch bark letters are private letters of a business nature, as well as business documents: wills, receipts, bills of sale, court records. There are also church texts and literary and folklore works (conspiracies, school jokes, riddles, housekeeping instructions), educational records (alphabets, warehouses, school exercises, children's drawings and scribbles).
Church Slavonic writing, introduced by Cyril and Methodius in 862, was based on Old Church Slavonic, which in turn came from the South Slavic dialects. The literary activity of Cyril and Methodius consisted in translating the books of the Holy Scriptures of the New and Old Testaments. The disciples of Cyril and Methodius translated into Church Slavonic from Greek a large number of religious books. Some researchers believe that Cyril and Methodius introduced not Cyrillic, but Glagolitic; and the Cyrillic alphabet was developed by their students.
Church Slavonic was a bookish language, not a spoken language, the language of church culture, which spread among many Slavic peoples. Church Slavonic literature spread among the Western Slavs (Moravia), the Southern Slavs (Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania), in Wallachia, parts of Croatia and the Czech Republic, and, with the adoption of Christianity, in Russia. Since the Church Slavonic language differed from spoken Russian, church texts were subject to change during correspondence, Russified. The scribes corrected the Church Slavonic words, bringing them closer to the Russian ones. At the same time, they introduced the features of local dialects.
To systematize Church Slavonic texts and introduce uniform language norms in the Commonwealth, the first grammars were written - grammar Lawrence Zizania(1596) and grammar Meletius Smotrytsky(1619). The process of formation of the Church Slavonic language was basically completed at the end of the 17th century, when Patriarch Nikon liturgical books were corrected and systematized.
With the spread of Church Slavonic religious texts in Russia, literary works gradually began to appear that used the writing of Cyril and Methodius. The first such works date back to the end of the 11th century. This " Tale of Bygone Years"(1068)," The Tale of Boris and Gleb”,“ The Life of Theodosius of Pechorsky ”,“ A Word on Law and Grace"(1051)," Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh" (1096) and " A word about Igor's regiment"(1185-1188). These works are written in a language that is a mixture of Church Slavonic with Old Russian.
Reforms of the Russian literary language of the 18th century
The most important reforms of the Russian literary language and the versification system of the 18th century were made Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. IN 1739 he wrote a "Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry", in which he formulated the principles of a new versification in Russian. In controversy with Trediakovsky he argued that instead of cultivating poems written according to schemes borrowed from other languages, it is necessary to use the possibilities of the Russian language. Lomonosov believed that it was possible to write poetry with many types of feet - disyllabic ( iambic And trochee) and trisyllabic ( dactyl,anapaest And amphibrach), but considered it wrong to replace stops with pyrrhic and spondei. Such innovation of Lomonosov caused a discussion in which Trediakovsky and Sumarokov. IN 1744 three transcriptions of the 143rd were published psalm performed by these authors, and readers were asked to comment on which of the texts they consider to be the best.
However, Pushkin's statement is known, in which Lomonosov's literary activity is not approved: “His odes ... are tiring and inflated. His influence on literature was harmful and still reverberates in it. Grandiloquence, sophistication, disgust at simplicity and accuracy, the absence of any nationality and originality - these are the traces left by Lomonosov. Belinsky called this view "surprisingly correct, but one-sided." According to Belinsky, “In the time of Lomonosov, we did not need folk poetry; then the great question - to be or not to be - was for us not nationality, but Europeanism ... Lomonosov was Peter the Great of our literature.
In addition to his contribution to the poetic language, Lomonosov was also the author of scientific Russian grammar. In this book, he described the riches and possibilities of the Russian language. Grammar Lomonosov was published 14 times and formed the basis of the Russian grammar course of Barsov (1771), who was a student of Lomonosov. In this book, Lomonosov, in particular, wrote: “Charles the fifth, the Roman emperor, used to say that it was decent to speak Spanish with God, French with friends, German with enemies, Italian with the female sex. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would add to that that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would find in it the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, richness and strength in images brevity of Greek and Latin. It's interesting that Derzhavin later he spoke similarly: “The Slavic-Russian language, according to the testimony of foreign estheticians themselves, is not inferior either in courage to Latin or in fluency to Greek, surpassing all European ones: Italian, French and Spanish, much more so German.”
Modern Russian literary language
The creator of the modern literary language is considered Alexander Pushkin. whose works are considered the pinnacle of Russian literature. This thesis remains dominant, despite the significant changes that have taken place in the language over the almost two hundred years that have passed since the creation of his major works, and the obvious stylistic differences between the language of Pushkin and modern writers.
Meanwhile, the poet himself pointed to the paramount role N. M. Karamzina in the formation of the Russian literary language, according to A. S. Pushkin, this glorious historian and writer "liberated the language from an alien yoke and returned its freedom, turning it to the living sources of the people's word."
« Great, mighty…»
I. S. Turgenev belongs, perhaps, to one of the most famous definitions of the Russian language as “great and mighty”:
In days of doubt, in days of painful reflections on the fate of my homeland, you alone are my support and support, O great, powerful, truthful and free Russian language! Without you - how not to fall into despair at the sight of everything that happens at home? But one cannot believe that such a language was not given to a great people!
The history of the Russian literary language is a section of Russian studies that studies the emergence, formation, historical transformations of the structure of the literary language, the correlative relationships of its constituent system components - styles, both linguistic and functional-speech and individual author's, etc., the development of writing, book and oral - colloquial forms of the literary language. The theoretical basis of the discipline is a complex and versatile (historical-cultural, historical-literary, historical-poetic and historical-linguistic) approach to the study of the structure of lit. language, its norms at different stages of historical development. The concept of the history of the Russian literary language as a scientific discipline was developed by V. V. Vinogradov and adopted by modern Russian linguistics. She replaced the approach that previously existed in science, which was a commentary on Rus. lit. language 18-19 centuries. with a collection of heterogeneous phonetic-morphological and word-forming facts against the background of understanding the language as a tool of Russian. culture (works by E. F. Budde).
In Russian Philology of the 19th century there were four historical and linguistic concepts of the emergence and development of the ancient Russian literary language. 1. The Church Slavonic language and the Old Russian folk literary language are styles of the same “Slavonic”, or old Russian literary language (A.S. Shishkov, P.A. Katenin, etc.). 2. The Church Slavonic (or Old Slavonic) language (the language of church books) and the Old Russian language of business and secular writing are different, albeit closely related, languages that were in close interaction and confusion until the end. 18 - beg. 19th centuries (A. Kh. Vostokov, partly K. F. Kalaidovich, M. T. Kachenovsky and others).
3. The Old Russian literary language is based on the Church Slavonic language (M. A. Maksimovich, K. S. Aksakov, partly N. I. Nadezhdin, and others). According to Maksimovich, “Church Slavonic not only gave rise to the written language of Russian... but, more than all other languages, had a part in the further formation of our national language” (“History of Ancient Russian Literature”, 1839). 4. The basis of other Russian. lit. language - a living East Slavic folk speech, close in its main structural features to the Old Slavic language. By adopting Christianity, the people “have already found all the books necessary for worship and for teaching in the faith, in a dialect that differed very little from its popular dialect”; “Not only in authentic works of Russian. scribes, but also in translations, the older they are, the more we see nationalities in the expression of thoughts and images ”(I. I. Sreznevsky,“ Thoughts on the history of the Russian language and other Slavic dialects ”, 1887). The separation of the bookish and folk language, caused by changes in the colloquial, dialectal speech of the Eastern Slavs, dates back to the 13th-14th centuries. This led to the fact that the development of the Old Russian literary language was determined by the ratio of two speech elements - the written common Slavic (Old Slavic, Old Slavonic) and the oral and written national Old Russian. The following periods are distinguished in the development of the Russian literary language: the literary language of Ancient Russia (from the 10th to the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries); the literary language of Muscovite Russia (from the late 14th - early 15th centuries to the 2nd half of the 17th century); literary language of the initial era of the formation of Russian. nations (from the middle of the 17th century to the 1880s and 1890s); the literary language of the era of the formation of the Russian nation and the formation of its national norms (from the end of the 18th century); Russian literary language of the modern era. The spread and development of writing and literature in Russia begins after the adoption of Christianity (988), i.e. with con. 10th c. The oldest of the written monuments are translations from the Greek language (Gospel, Apostle, Psalter ...) Ancient Russian authors created during this period original works in the genres of preaching literature (“Words” and “Teachings” of Metropolitan Hilarion, Kirill of Turov, Luka Zhidyata, Kliment Smolyatich), pilgrimage literature (“The Journey of Hegumen Daniel”), etc. The basis of the book-Slavonic type of language was the Old Slavonic language. Ancient Russian literature during this period of its history also cultivated narrative, historical and folk art genres, the emergence of which is associated with the development of the folk cultural or folk processed type of the ancient Russian literary language. These are The Tale of Bygone Years (12th century) - an ancient Russian chronicle, the epic work The Tale of Igor's Campaign (end of the 12th century), The Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh (12th century) - an example of "secular, hagiographic" genre, "The Prayer of Daniil the Sharpener" (12th century), "The Word of the Destruction of the Russian Land" (late 13th - early 14th centuries). A special group of the vocabulary of the Old Russian language is made up of Old Slavic words that have the same root as the corresponding Russian words, differing in sound appearance: breg (cf. coast), vlas (cf. hair), vrata (cf. gate), head (cf. head), tree (cf. tree), srachica (cf. shirt), keep (cf. bury), one (cf. one), etc. In the Old Russian language, a number of purely lexical parallels are also distinguished, for example, marriage and wedding; vyya and neck; muddy and go; speak, speak and say, speak; cheek and cheek; eyes and eyes; percy and chest; mouth and lips; forehead and forehead, etc. The presence of such lexical pairs enriched the literary language functionally, semantically and stylistically. The Old Russian literary language inherited from the Old Slavonic language the means of artistic representation: epithets, comparisons, metaphors, antitheses, gradations, etc. By the middle of the 12th century. Kievan Rus falls into decay, a period of feudal fragmentation begins, which contributed to the dialectal fragmentation of the Old Russian language. From about the 14th century on the East Slavic territory, closely related East Slavic languages \u200b\u200bare formed: Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian. The Russian language of the Muscovite era (14th-17th centuries) had a complex history. The main dialect zones took shape - the North Great Russian dialect (approximately north of the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of Nizhny Novgorod) and the South Great Russian dialect (up to the borders with the Ukrainian zone in the south and the Belarusian one in the west). From the end of the 14th century in Moscow, glories and church books are being edited to bring them into their original form, corresponding to the Greek originals. This editing was carried out under the leadership of Metropolitan Cyprian and was supposed to bring Russian writing closer to South Slavic. In the 15th century Rus. The Orthodox Church leaves the tutelage of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, and the patriarchate is established in it in 1589). The rise of Muscovite Russia begins, the authority of the grand-ducal power and sinks, the church is growing, the idea of the continuity of Moscow in relation to Byzantium, which has found its expression in the ideological formula "Moscow is the third Rome, and the fourth cannot be", is becoming widespread, which receives a theological, state-legal and historical and cultural understanding. In the book-Slavic type of the literary language, archaic spellings based on the South Slavic spelling norm are spreading, a special rhetorical manner of expression arises, flowery, lush, saturated with metaphors, called the “convolution of words” (“weaving of words”).
From the 17th century the language of Russian science and the national literary language are being formed. The tendency towards internal unity, towards rapprochement of lit. spoken language. In the 2nd floor. 16th century in the Muscovite state, book printing began, which was of great importance for the fate of the Russian. lit. language, literature, culture and education. The handwritten culture was replaced by a written culture. In 1708, the civil alphabet was introduced, in which secular literature was printed. The Church Slavonic alphabet (Cyrillic) is used only for confessional purposes. In the literary language of the end of the 17th-1st floor. 18th century book-Slavic, often even archaic, lexical and grammatical elements, words and turns of speech of a folk-colloquial and “order” (“business”) character, and Western European borrowings are closely intertwined and interact.
Origin of the Russian language. The modern Russian language is a continuation of the Old Russian (East Slavonic) language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, which formed in the 9th century. Old Russian nationality within the Kievan state.
This language had a great similarity with the languages of other Slavic peoples, but already differed in some phonetic and lexical features.
All Slavic languages (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian) come from a common root - a single Proto-Slavic language that probably existed until the 10th-11th centuries.
In the XIV-XV centuries. As a result of the collapse of the Kiev state, on the basis of a single language of the Old Russian people, three independent languages arose: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which, with the formation of nations, took shape in national languages.
The formation and development of the book and writing tradition in Russia and the main stages in the history of the Russian language. The first texts written in Cyrillic appeared among the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century. By the first half of the X century. refers to the inscription on the korchaga (vessel) from Gnezdovo (near Smolensk). This is probably an inscription indicating the name of the owner. From the second half of the X century. also preserved a number of inscriptions indicating the belonging of objects. After the baptism of Russia in 988, book writing arose. The Chronicle reports on "many scribes" who worked under Yaroslav the Wise. Mostly liturgical books were copied. The originals for the East Slavic handwritten books were mainly South Slavic manuscripts dating back to the works of the students of the creators of the Slavic script Cyril and Methodius. In the process of correspondence, the original language was adapted to the East Slavic language and the Old Russian book language was formed - the Russian version (variant) of the Church Slavonic language. In addition to books intended for worship, other Christian literature was copied: the works of the holy fathers, the lives of the saints, collections of teachings and interpretations, collections of canon law.
The oldest surviving written monuments include the Ostromir Gospel of 1056-1057. and the Arkhangelsk Gospel of 1092. The original writings of Russian authors were moralizing and hagiographic works. Since the bookish language was mastered without grammars, dictionaries and rhetorical aids, compliance with language norms depended on the author's well-read and his ability to reproduce those forms and constructions that he knew from model texts. Chronicles constitute a special class of ancient written monuments. The chronicler, outlining historical events, included them in the context of Christian history, and this united the chronicles with other monuments of book culture of spiritual content. Therefore, the annals were written in the bookish language and were guided by the same corpus of exemplary texts, however, due to the specifics of the material presented (concrete events, local realities), the language of the annals was supplemented with non-bookish elements. Separately from the book tradition, a non-book written tradition developed in Russia: administrative and judicial texts, official and private office work, household records. These documents differed from book texts in both syntactic constructions and morphology. At the center of this written tradition were legal codes, beginning with Russkaya Pravda, the oldest copy of which dates back to 1282.
Legal acts of an official and private nature adjoin this tradition: interstate and interprincely agreements, donations, contributions, wills, bills of sale, etc. The oldest text of this kind is the charter of the Grand Duke Mstislav to the Yuryev Monastery (c. 1130). Graffiti occupies a special position. For the most part, these are prayer texts written on the walls of churches, although there are graffiti and other (factual, chronographic, act) content. Starting from the first half of the XIII century. there is a division of the ancient Russian people into the inhabitants of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia, later Muscovite Russia, and Western Russia (later - Ukraine and Belarus). As a result of the development of dialects in the second half of the XII century. - the first half of the XIII century. on the future Great Russian territory, Novgorod, Pskov, Rostov-Suzdal dialects and the aka dialect of the upper and middle Oka and the interfluve of the Oka and the Seim developed.
In the XIV-XVI centuries. the Great Russian state and the Great Russian nationality are taking shape, this time becomes a new stage in the history of the Russian language. In the 17th century the Russian nation is taking shape and the Russian national language is beginning to take shape. During the formation of the Russian nation, the foundations of the national literary language were formed, which is associated with the weakening of the influence of the Church Slavonic language and the development of a language of a national type, based on the traditions of the business language of Moscow. The development of new dialect features gradually stops, the old dialect features become very stable.
Formation of the literary language. In the second half of the XVI century. in the Moscow state, book printing began, which was of great importance for the fate of the Russian literary language, culture and education. The first printed books were church books, primers, grammars, dictionaries. In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, on which secular literature was printed. Since the 17th century the trend towards convergence of book and spoken language is increasing. In the XVIII century. society begins to realize that the Russian national language is capable of becoming the language of science, art, and education. A special role in the creation of the literary language during this period was played by M.V. Lomonosov. He possessed great talent and wished to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians; he wrote "Russian Grammar", in which he gave a set of grammatical rules, showed the richest possibilities of the language. It is especially valuable that M.V. Lomonosov considered language a means of communication, constantly emphasizing that people needed it for "a concordant common cause of the flow, which is controlled by the combination of different thoughts." According to Lomonosov, without language, society would be like an unassembled machine, all parts of which are scattered and inactive, which is why their very "existence is vain and useless." M.V. Lomonosov wrote in the preface to the "Russian Grammar": "The master of many languages, the Russian language, not only by the vastness of the places where it dominates, but also by its own space and contentment is great in front of everyone in Europe. Incredibly, this will seem foreign and some natural Russians, who have worked more on foreign languages than on their own." And further: "Charles the Fifth, the Roman emperor, used to say that it was decent to speak Spanish with God, French - with friends, German - with enemies, Italian - with the female sex. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, to I would add to this that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, for I found in him the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, moreover, the richness and brevity of the Greek and Latin language, strong in images. Since the 18th century The Russian language is becoming a literary language with generally recognized norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech.
Creativity A.S. Pushkin laid the foundation for the modern Russian literary language. The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of the literary language up to the present day. In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, and also against the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words.
If the scientific and literary works of the Lomonosov era look rather archaic in their language, then the works of Pushkin and all literature after him became the literary basis of the language we speak today.
The state of the Russian literary language is currently an acute problem for the state, for the whole society. This is explained by the fact that the entire historical experience of the people is concentrated and represented in the language: the state of the language indicates the state of society, its culture, its mentality. Disorder and - vacillation in society, the decline of morality, the loss of characteristic national features - all this affects the language, leads to its decline.
The preservation of the language, concern for its further development and enrichment is a guarantee of the preservation and development of Russian culture. Therefore, every citizen of the Russian Federation, no matter who he works, no matter what position he holds, is responsible for the state of the language of his country, his people.
Of greatest interest for understanding the formation and development of the literary language is the 18th century, when progressive-minded circles of society tried to raise the authority of the Russian language, to prove its viability as the language of science and art.
A special role in the formation of the literary language during this period was played by M.V. Lomonosov. Possessing talent, vast knowledge, passionately desiring to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, he creates the first in Russian "Russian Grammar", in which for the first time he presents the scientific system of the Russian language, draws up a set of grammatical rules, shows how to take advantage of its rich potential.
During this period, the concentration of national language elements is planned due to the selection of the most common features of the South Russian and North Russian dialects. At the same time, the democratization of the language also begins: its lexical composition, grammatical structure, in a significant amount, includes elements of the lively oral speech of the urban merchants, service people, lower clergy, and literate peasants.
Along with democratization, the language begins to gradually free itself from the influence of the Church Slavonic language.
In the 17th century, the Russian language was updated and enriched with Western European languages: Polish, French, Dutch, German, Italian. This was especially evident in the formation of the scientific language, its terminology: philosophical, economic, legal, scientific and technical.
At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, representatives of the democratically minded Russian intelligentsia, expressing their attitude to the reform of the literary language and its styles, emphasized that the question of the literary language should not be resolved without determining the role of living folk speech in the structure of the national language. In this regard, the work of the great writers of the first half of the 19th century, Griboedov and Krylov, is indicative, they proved what inexhaustible possibilities live folk speech has, how original, original, rich the language of folklore is.
The creator of the modern Russian literary language is rightfully considered A.S. Pushkin. His contemporaries wrote about the reformatory nature of the poet's work. So, N.V. Gogol rightly asserted: “It, as if in a lexicon, contains all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. He is more than all, he further than all pushed the boundaries for him and more showed all his space.
The 19th century is the "silver age" of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, there is an unprecedented flowering of Russian literature. The work of Gogol, Lermontov, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Ostrovsky, Chekhov and others is gaining universal appreciation. Russian journalism reaches extraordinary heights: articles by Belinsky, Pisarev, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky. Achievements of Russian scientists Dokuchaev, Mendeleev, Pirogov, Lobachevsky, Mozhaisky, Kovalevsky, Klyuchevsky and others are receiving worldwide recognition.
The development of literature, journalism, science contributes to the further development and enrichment of the Russian language. The vocabulary is replenished with new socio-political, philosophical, economic, technical terminology: worldview, integrity, self-determination, proletariat, humanity, education, reality, and many others. etc. Phraseology is enriched: center of gravity, bring to one denominator, negative value, reach apogee, etc.
Scientific and journalistic literature increases the stock of international terminology: agitation, intelligentsia, intellectual, conservative, maximum, etc.
The rapid development of science, the steady growth of magazine and newspaper production contributed to the formation of functional styles of the literary language - scientific and journalistic.
One of the most important features of the literary language as the highest form of the national language is its normativity. Throughout the 19th century, the process of processing the national language was going on in order to create unified grammatical, lexical, spelling, orthoepic norms. These norms are theoretically substantiated in the works of Vostokov, Buslaev, Fortunatov, Shakhmatov; are described and approved in the grammars of Vostokov, Grech, Kalaidovich, Grot, etc.
The richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the Russian language is reflected in dictionaries (historical, etymological, synonymous, foreign words) that appear in the 19th century.
Well-known philologists of that time publish articles in which they determine the principles of the lexicographic description of words, the principles of vocabulary selection, taking into account the goals and objectives of the dictionary. Thus, questions of lexicography are being developed for the first time.
The largest event was the publication in 1863-1866. the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl. The dictionary was highly appreciated by contemporaries. Its author in 1863 received the Lomonosov Prize of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences and the title of honorary academician.
So, by the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian literary language was formed, its norms were defined, the morphological and syntactic structures were described, dictionaries were compiled and published, fixing and legitimizing its spelling, lexical, morphological features.
When characterizing the literary language of the 20th century, two chronological periods should be distinguished: I - from October 1917 to April 1985 and II - from April 1985 to the present. What happens to the Russian literary language during these periods?
After the formation of the Soviet Union, its development and enrichment continued. The vocabulary of the literary language is most clearly increasing. The volume of scientific terminology, for example, related to cosmology and astronautics, is growing especially intensively. A large number of words are created denoting new phenomena and concepts that reflect fundamental changes in the state, political, economic structure of the country, for example, Komsomol member, regional committee, virgin lands, collective farm, socialist competition, kindergarten, etc. Artistic, journalistic, popular science literature has replenished an arsenal of expressive and visual means of the literary language. In morphology, syntax, the number of synonymous variants increases, differing from each other in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring.
Researchers of the Russian language since the 20s. XX century paid special attention to the theory of literary language. As a result, they determined and characterized the system-structural division of the literary language. Firstly, the literary language has two types: book-written and oral-colloquial; secondly, each type is realized in speech. Book-written is presented in special speech (written - scientific speech and written official business speech) and in artistic and visual speech (written journalistic speech and written artistic speech). The oral-colloquial type is presented in public speech (scientific speech and oral radio and television speech) and in colloquial speech (oral colloquial everyday speech).
In the 20th century, the formation of the Russian letter language ended, which began to be a complex dark structural organization.
The second period - the period of perestroika and post-perestroika - attached particular importance to the processes that accompany the functioning of the language at all stages of its existence, made them more significant, more clearly expressed, brighter, more clearly presented. First of all, we should talk about a significant replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian language with new words (government structure, barter, foreign currency, Internet, cartridge, case, kiwi, adidas, hamburger, etc.), about updating a large number of words found; previously in the passive. In addition to new words, many words have been brought back to life that seemed to have gone out of use forever - gymnasium, lyceum, guild, governess, corporation, trust, department, communion, blessing, carnival, etc.
Speaking about the replenishment of the vocabulary of the literary language, it should be noted: a striking feature of our current language development is the clogging of speech with borrowings. The "foreignization" of the Russian language is a concern for linguists, literary critics, writers, many people; the Russian language is dear to those who are concerned about its future fate.
Throughout its history, the Russian language has been enriched not only at the expense of internal resources, but also at the expense of other languages. But in some periods this influence, especially the borrowing of words, was excessive, and then there is an opinion that foreign words do not add anything new, since there are Russian words that are identical to them, that many Russian words cannot compete with fashionable borrowings and are forced out them.
The history of the Russian literary language shows: borrowing without measure clogs speech, makes it not understandable to everyone; reasonable borrowing enriches speech, gives it greater accuracy.
In connection with significant changes in the conditions for the functioning of the language, another problem is currently becoming relevant, the problem of language as a means of communication, language in its implementation, the problem of speech.
What features characterize the functioning of the literary language at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century?
First, the composition of participants in mass communication has never been so numerous and diverse (by age, education, official position, political, religious, social views, party orientation).
Secondly, official censorship has almost disappeared, so people express their thoughts more freely, their speech becomes more open, confidential, and relaxed.
Thirdly, speech begins to dominate spontaneous, spontaneous, not prepared in advance.
Fourth, the diversity of communication situations leads to a change in the nature of communication. It is freed from rigid formality, it becomes more relaxed.
New conditions for the functioning of the language, the emergence of a large number of unprepared public speeches lead not only to the democratization of speech, but also to a sharp decline in its culture.
How is it shown? Firstly, in violation of the orthoepic (pronunciation), grammatical norms of the Russian language. Scientists, journalists, poets, ordinary citizens write about it. Especially a lot of criticism is caused by the speech of deputies, television and radio workers. Secondly, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the democratization of the language reached such proportions that it would be more correct to call the process liberalization, or, more precisely, vulgarization.
On the pages of the periodical press, in the speech of educated people, jargon, colloquial elements and other non-literary means poured in a stream: grandmas, piece, piece, stolnik, baldness, pump out, launder, unfasten, scroll and many more. etc. Common even in official speech became the words: party, disassembly, lawlessness and much more.
There are quite a few people who declare that swearing and swearing are considered a characteristic, distinguishing feature of the Russian people. If we turn to oral folk art, proverbs and sayings, it turns out that it is not entirely legitimate to say that the Russian people consider swearing an integral part of their lives. Yes, people are trying to somehow justify it, to emphasize that scolding is a common thing: Scolding is not a reserve, and without it not for an hour; Swearing is not smoke - the eye will not eat out; Hard words break no bones. It seems to even help in the work, you can’t do without it: You won’t swear, you won’t do the job; Without swearing, you can't unlock the lock in the cage.
But something else is more important: Arguing, arguing, but scolding is a sin; Do not scold: what comes out of a person, then he will be filthy; Swearing is not resin, but akin to soot: it doesn’t cling, it stains like that; With abuse people dry, and with praise they get fat; You won’t take it with your throat, you won’t beg with abuse.
This is not only a warning, this is already a condemnation, this is a ban.
The Russian literary language is our wealth, our heritage. He embodied the cultural and historical traditions of the people. We are responsible for his condition, for his fate.
Fair and relevant (especially at the present time!) are the words of I.S. Turgenev: “In the days of doubt, in the days of painful reflections on the fate of my homeland - you are my only support and support, O great, powerful, truthful and free Russian language! Without you - how not to fall into despair at the sight of everything that happens at home? But it is impossible to believe that such a language was not given to a great people!”
