Experience shows that any of us, often against our will, may find ourselves in a situation in which he has no one to rely on and needs to hold out at any cost, no matter - a few hours before dawn or several days, weeks, months before help arrives. You will learn how to provide yourself with water, food, warmth in winter and shelter from the heat in summer. The author gives advice proven on his own experience and convincingly proves that not so much is needed to survive in any conditions - the desire to survive, certain knowledge and self-confidence.

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The given introductory fragment of the book Survival textbook in extreme situations (Igor Molodan, 2016) provided by our book partner - the company Liters.

1. Emergencies

Survival

Survival in our days is of increasing interest, which is associated, however strange it may seem at first glance, with the urbanization of society. There is nothing surprising in the fact that unprepared people, getting into critical situations, lose a sense of confidence in their abilities, cease to think and act adequately. Depending on the circumstances, such behavior can lead not only to serious health consequences, but also to death. That is why it is worth studying the ways and methods of survival in various situations that threaten life and health.

Today, it is customary to distinguish between two main directions in the science of survival - forced survival and voluntary survival. The supporters of the second call themselves autonomists, and any of us can be in the position of the first. The only difference is that autonomists have the ability to choose equipment. The tips collected in the book can be applied not only during autonomous survival, no matter whether forced or voluntary, but also in an ordinary trip. After all, the second is a de facto formed separate type of tourism, although it differs in its goals and objectives from other types of tourism.

Social survival Is a set of measures aimed at maintaining health and working capacity in emergency situations associated with a person's stay in society. These can be accidents and disasters of a different nature (man-made, natural, in transport, in a combat zone). In this case, adaptive properties, physical condition and special knowledge are of the greatest importance.

Autonomous survival Is a set of activities aimed at maintaining health and performance in the wild.

Forced autonomous survival arises as a consequence of an unforeseen situation. Often it turns out to be associated with being in unfavorable conditions, for example, in a deserted area, caused by various factors (accidents, disasters, natural disasters, military conflicts, etc.). In any case, their preparedness in the broadest sense has a significant impact on the prospects of survivors: both the necessary knowledge and skills, and equipment, and physical form.

Depending on various factors (general condition, prospects of being quickly found by rescuers, etc.), forced autonomous survival can be active and passive.

Active autonomous survival - a set of actions aimed at the earliest possible way out of an emergency; almost always the main criterion is the decision to leave the scene. The factors that determine the transition to active autonomous survival are the good physical and mental state of the victims and favorable conditions (proximity to roads, settlements, etc.).

Passive autonomous survival - a set of actions aimed primarily at waiting for rescue at the scene or not far from it. When making a decision, the physical and mental state of the victims, the presence of wounded, weather conditions, confidence in the prompt deployment of search and rescue operations, etc. are also taken into account.

In terms of the time frame, forced autonomous survival can be short-term and long-term.

Short-term involuntary autonomous survival implies the minimum necessary time to go out to people on the condition that the victims (one or a group, it does not matter; if there are no special reservations, there are no significant differences in actions) made a decision to move from the moment the critical situation arose. Also, passive survival can be considered short-term autonomous survival, in which the victims were found and received the necessary assistance in a time sufficient to go out to people if they had made a decision to move.

Long-term involuntary autonomous survival (autonomous existence) does not have a strict time frame and is associated with the finding of a victim or a group of victims for various reasons in an area untouched by human activity until the moment of their detection, assistance and evacuation.

Tourist autonomous survival Is a planned set of scientific or recreational activities aimed at studying the possibilities of maintaining health and working capacity in an area untouched by human activity.

Tourist survival goals are determined from the very essence of the concept of tourist survival. They are:

Maintaining health in various natural and climatic conditions;

Preservation of working capacity, expressed in full-fledged activity in an area untouched by human activity, using limited resources;

The study of the psychological aspects of human behavior in an unfamiliar area and the development of scientific recommendations for overcoming adverse environmental factors.

Tourist survival challenges:

Working out the techniques of movement in an area untouched by human activity;

Practice in orienteering in various ways;

Study of plants and animals, including those suitable for human consumption or medical use;

Search for water sources and development of methods for its extraction and purification;

Construction and arrangement of shelters, creating comfortable living conditions, making clothing and equipment, etc., regardless of natural conditions.

Tourist survival can be expeditionary and sporting.

Expeditionary survival is aimed at developing and improving theoretical knowledge related to the preservation of human health and performance in various natural and climatic conditions.

Sports survival sets the goals of holding events of a competitive nature between autonomists with the implementation of certain tasks and standards.

The main stages of survival:

1. Movement in an area not touched by human activities.

2. Practicing survival skills in the selected region:

Searching for (or obtaining) food and water;

Fire lighting and cooking;

Shelter construction and production of the necessary equipment;

Medical aspects of survival.

3. Orientation and access to people.

Autonomous survival has already become a full-fledged type of extreme tourism. Its extremeness lies in the difficulty of predicting the development of the situation associated with being in the wild, certain risks not only for the health of the survivor, but also for his life. At the same time, tourist survival should not turn into a hidden suicide attempt. It must be organized and carefully planned. The minimum amount of multifunctional equipment must be carried with you, while convinced survivalists try to use it in exceptional situations related to the preservation of life and health, when the basic methods and methods of autonomous survival turned out to be insufficient.

The main difference between autonomous survival and other types of tourism is the abandonment of traditional equipment, food and water supplies. Autonomous survival routes are chosen in areas untouched by human activity, far from settlements. The schedule and pace of movement in autonomous survival are not strictly limited. The main task is to reach the destination without compromising the physical and emotional level.

Correctly selected clothing and equipment is the key to successful activities related to maintaining the health and performance of a survivor in various conditions. Equipment is permissible only that which is laborious to manufacture in natural conditions (knife, flask).

The complex of measures to preserve the health and working capacity of the survivor should not upset the balance of the ecosystem of the region, expressed in the ill-considered extermination of flora and fauna, the pollution and destruction of water sources, and careless behavior with fire. The use of natural resources is allowed solely to replenish the energy costs and water-salt balance of the surviving organism, to ensure safe movement, to create comfortable conditions for good rest and recovery of expended physical efforts.

Train disaster

Precautions:

It is best to be located in the carriages of electric trains and trains, which are in the middle of the train, as they are least affected during an accident; the safest shelves are the lower ones, located in the direction of movement of the train;

Bulky and heavy things must be put down, as with a strong push they can fall off the upper shelves and cause injury;

Do not overload the compartment doors at night, as it will be difficult to get out in the dark;

Before going to bed, you need to remember where your clothes, documents and money are; it is better to put essentials and valuables under the pillow;

At night, it is better to remove food, bottles, etc. from the table so that you do not get hurt in a collision;

It is better to sleep on the side shelves of reserved seat cars with your feet forward along the train, in order to exclude neck injuries at the time of a collision or emergency braking.

In the event of a train accident, you need to try to grab hold of the stationary parts of the car with your hands, group up and cover your head with your hands.

When turning the carriage, holding tightly to your shelf with your hands, you need to rest your legs with force on the upper shelf, wall, etc. and close your eyes so that fragments of glass do not fall into them. After the car has gained stability, you should look around and outline the exit routes. If there is no danger of fire, there is no need to rush to get out, it would be more correct to provide first aid to the injured, calm the children, and prevent panic. You need to leave the carriage one at a time, helping women, children and the elderly.

If the car is overturned or damaged, you will have to get out through the windows, opening the transoms or breaking the glass. In the latter case, it is necessary to clean the frames from debris. In the event of a break in the wires of the overhead line, you should move away from the cars for 30-50 m so as not to get under the step voltage. After evacuation to a safe place, the emergency dispatcher must be reported immediately.

The most dangerous thing is the fall of the carriage into the river. In this case, remember that the windows of the 3rd and 6th compartments are emergency exits for most carriages. If the car is filled with water, you do not need to try to get out right away - its pressure will be very strong, the resistance of the elements will lead to a waste of energy. It is better to spend these 10–20 seconds looking for documents and valuables. It is best to start getting out when the water pressure inside and outside begins to equalize. This usually happens after the car is about ⅔ filled with water. In a place already covered with water, you need to break the window with any metal object. Next, you need to take several deep breaths and exhalations, take in full lungs of air and throw the body out with an intense push; actively working with hands and feet, rise to the surface of the water.

Shipwreck

Panic is more dangerous in this situation than in many other circumstances. Without succumbing to it, you must try to clearly and quickly follow all the instructions of the captain. First of all, passengers need to put on life jackets and remove clothing and shoes that restrict movement. Then you need to take the documents, wrapping them in an airtight package, which every traveler on the ship should have, and put it under your underwear. Quickly, but without fuss, go up to the upper deck and, following the instructions of the captain and the crew, get into the lifeboat or raft, helping those in need and letting children and women forward.

If you cannot get into the boat, and a life jacket is not available for some reason, you need to look for any floating object (lifebuoy, board, empty plastic bottle with a lid, etc.) and, after looking around, jump into the water with your feet down. Once in the water, you need to sail 200-300 m away from the ship so that it doesn't get sucked under the water or the bottom of the ship. In the future, all who find themselves in the water need to get together to help each other and organize joint rescue efforts.

Having seen a boat in which there are free places, one should swim up to it from the stern; in no case should you be piled on board. If there is no room in the boat, you need to ask to drop the rope (rope), tie it around the waist and then sail in tow. It is important to save energy and periodically massage the limbs to restore blood circulation.

During a long voyage in a boat, you should not drink sea water. In the presence of fresh water, it is better to mix it with sea water in a ratio of 3: 1, so that the supply lasts as long as possible. If you are very thirsty, you need to periodically moisten a piece of cloth with seawater and wipe your body and head. For fishing, you should use the tackle that should be in every lifeboat. You can squeeze the juice out of the fish and drink it instead of water. One should never lose hope of salvation. You should fight for life in every possible way.

If you are picked up by a passing ship, you need to provide your data, the name of the ship, the time and place of the disaster (at least approximately), as well as the number of people who survived.

Aviation accident

In the event of an emergency in the air, you must strictly follow all the instructions of the crew commander and flight attendants. If no commands are received, you should fasten your seat belts, remove all sharp objects, jewelry, watches, cuddle children, lean forward in a chair and clasp your head with both hands. Do not try to get out of the seat until the aircraft has come to a complete stop. Remember, all movements are off centering and complicate the work of the crew. In any case, you should remain calm and suppress the occurrence of panic in the cabin.

After stopping the movement of the aircraft, you must immediately, observing the sequence, leave it using the emergency hatches (the rules of use are shown on them) and inflatable ladders. After evacuation, you should move away from the aircraft as far as possible, helping the wounded and children, and lie on the ground, covering your head with your hands if a fire starts.

After the evacuation of all passengers, we must try to provide first aid to the wounded. Independently or with the help of other passengers, you need to build sheds for children and the wounded from scrap materials; search for water sources and send a few of the best trained people for help.

In the event of a depressurization of the aircraft cabin at a high altitude, you must first put on an oxygen mask. Do not press it to your face, namely, put it on, because even with a mask you can lose consciousness, but it should not fall off your face. Then help to put on masks for children and those passengers who could not do it on their own. After that, you should buckle up and follow all instructions from the flight attendants and crew. The crew will do whatever is necessary to reach a height at which altitude hypoxia does not occur.

In the event of a fire, smoke fills the passenger compartment very quickly. Most airliners are designed so that in the event of a fire, passengers have a maximum of 2-3 minutes to leave the plane. You will have to walk on all fours to the emergency exit in smoke conditions. If the passage is blocked, the instructions advise you to lower the seat backs and move around them.

Man-made accident

In the event that toxic substances are released into the air, cover your nose and mouth with a handkerchief, collar, scarf, etc. to clear the inhaled air. Next, you need to notify the emergency services and leave the infected area as soon as possible.

If possible, then it is best to proceed to the place of residence or any other room that has not been contaminated. There you need to take off your outer clothing and wash it; if this is not possible, clothes should be folded into an airtight bag (for example, a plastic bag), all windows and doors should be closed and the cracks should be sealed with a wet cloth, ventilation devices and air conditioners should be turned off.

If there are obvious signs of poisoning (dizziness, nausea, vomiting, etc.), you should immediately seek medical attention. In the absence of signs of poisoning, it is advisable to take a shower or at least thoroughly wash exposed areas of the body and hair.

You should not hide in basements or cellars, as toxic gases heavier than air accumulate at the surface of the earth.

After eliminating the consequences of the accident, you should not eat vegetables, fruits and herbs without special processing. It is dangerous to eat milk and dairy products, eggs, as well as the meat of animals slaughtered after the alarm was announced in the contaminated area, to drink tap water and water from open sources, as all this can be contaminated.

Experts strongly recommend residents of megalopolises to avoid places with heavy traffic, try not to go outside during rush hours. You should also avoid being in industrial areas unnecessarily, especially on foggy days. If you cannot avoid going out with children, it is best to hold babies in your arms, and not to carry them in strollers or take them by the hand, since most of the toxic substances from the exhaust gases accumulate at a height of up to 1 m from the ground (this is especially noticeable in the early morning). You should not walk through tunnels and galleries, i.e. places most polluted with exhaust gases; parks and squares are much better suited for walking. Remember that smoking and gas stoves, coal and kerosene heating, the use of artificial insulation materials, and the contents of aerosol cans are the main sources of air pollution in living spaces.

Armed conflict

It would not be an exaggeration to say that for a civilian who, by the will of fate, found himself in an armed conflict zone, the main goal is survival and the earliest possible exit from the combat zone.

Clothes should not be bright and provocative. Military clothing is highly undesirable. You should not carry or wear expensive items and jewelry.

During bombing and shelling, you do not need to hide under tall buildings and stay in apartments, it is better to hide in a bomb shelter, basement or cellar. It is also advisable to avoid crowded places, gas stations and supermarkets.

If the terrain and weather conditions permit, you can hide in a forest belt, which is poorly visible by snipers.

In case of evacuation or moving to another place, you should not take many things, as this attracts the attention of looters. You only need to take documents and the most necessary for survival - clothes, described on p. 55–68 wearable emergency supply, first aid kit and money. It is better to hide the main amount of money and jewelry in advance in a place inaccessible to strangers.

While moving, it is advisable to always keep your hands in sight, and have a white scarf in one of the outer pockets in order to be able to signal the military patrols about your status.

If the meeting with the patrol could not be avoided, one should not panic and even more so try to escape. In this situation, it is best to carry out all orders of people with weapons as calmly as possible. At the first request, it is necessary to present documents and try to convince the patrol in the absence of any aggressive intentions. If a curfew is imposed, there is no need to violate it for no particular reason.

You should not travel in an expensive car. It can be simply taken away without much ceremony.

It should also be borne in mind that when trying to overcome the line separating the warring parties, there is an extremely high likelihood of getting under fire; this is all the more true in the dark. In addition, despite all the efforts of the International Movement to Ban anti-personnel mines, they are used almost everywhere, and it is almost impossible to see such an explosive device at night.

Covert movement

Silent walking. You need to walk so that the efforts come from the hip, and not from the knee. The steps should be somewhat shorter than usual. The foot is placed on the ground lightly and carefully. When moving over short distances, it is better to place your foot on your toes, slowly transferring body weight to the entire foot. When traveling long distances, the front leg should first rest on the heel and the back leg should bend slightly. It is advisable to place your foot so that it can be immediately lifted if an object that can become a source of noise comes in the way. Usually the heel makes noise, especially where there are a lot of branches, stones, etc.

To walk silently through the forest steps should be made shorter than usual, put your foot on the ground with a soft, groping movement. If there are many branches under your feet, before you step, you need to push them apart with your toe, feel for solid ground and step on. Pulling aside the branches blocking the path, one must not abandon them, but silently return them to their previous position. At dusk or darkness, it is recommended to lower the visor of the headgear to eye level, bend your left hand slightly at the elbow and keep it in front of you at face height, checking the space in front of you with up and down movements.

Moving on sticky ground requires additional expenditure of energy to extend the legs and maintain balance. In this case, it is better to move in short steps, quickly rearranging the legs so that they do not have time to go deep into the soil. The foot should be placed on the entire foot, the movement should be facilitated by energetic work of the hands. It is advisable to choose harder soil areas, furrows, bumps, clay protrusions. Small jumps are allowed if necessary.

Moving on a slippery surface the leg should be placed on the entire foot. At least one hand must be free to maintain balance. During movement, the muscles of the legs must be constantly kept in tension.

When moving on tall grass it is recommended to raise your legs higher and put them on the ground from a toe.

To attenuate the sound of footsteps, you can sheathe the soles with fur patches or wrap them with soft rags. Regardless of the conditions in which you have to move, this should be done carefully, carefully choosing the route.

When traveling in shallow water, in order not to create noise, the leg must be gradually lowered from the toe, dragging it forward through the water in a sliding motion, as when skiing.

Moving around at night. With the onset of darkness, the sensitivity of the eyes gradually increases, reaching a maximum value after about 50-60 minutes.

A few words about disguise. A headgear with a clear outline should not be worn. To hide or distort the outline of a figure, cut branches of trees and shrubs are most often used. It is preferable to use large branches (0.7-1 m or more) - they wither more slowly; cut algae, reeds, sedge and moss retain their color for up to 15 days. Branches of maple, oak, birch, linden, ash and poplar in summer retain their green color for no more than two days, the leaves on the branches of aspen, acacia, hazel twist and turn black after a few hours. Pine and spruce branches last 10–12 days in summer, and up to 80 days in winter.

Burned bark of trees, charcoal, mud, juice of berries and plants can be used as pigments that are applied to camouflage open areas of the body; all these substances mask body odor to some extent.

Determination of the age and direction of tracks

Knowledge of several simple ways to determine the age of tracks and the direction of movement of the person or car that left them will allow you to feel more confident in an armed conflict zone.

For human footprints the following patterns apply:

When walking, a person consistently leaves traces of heels, soles and socks;

When running, prints of only an insignificant part of the foot, most often the sock, remain, while the distance between the prints is more than 90 cm;

Trained people (athletes, hikers, hunters, etc.) walk with even strides, with an energetic rear thrust;

The person carrying the load puts the feet parallel and slightly wider than usual, while the step size is reduced;

A very tired, sick or injured person can take unnecessary steps to the sides, which makes the line of movement twisty;

If a person is limping, then the steps of the healthy leg may be noticeably larger than the sick one; in addition, the trail of the sore leg is less distinct;

The absence of pronounced signs of a rear push and a short step indicate the leisurely and careful walking;

The imprint of the soles of a standing person is depressed deeper in the area of \u200b\u200bthe heels.

Direction of movement of people

The greatest depth of the track is in that part of it that is turned towards the movement;

Ground displacement occurs from the front of the track in the direction opposite to the direction of travel;

The sharp ends of the drops falling from the shoes are directed in the direction of movement;

In viscous soil, vertical grooves or scratches are formed on the walls of the track, bent by the upper ends in the direction of movement;

Traces of frost-bitten mud on the crust are surrounded by cracks, the sharp ends of which are directed in the direction of movement;

Separate small lumps of soil are thrown out when walking forward;

At footprints in the sand or snow, if the foot is immersed deeply, a small ridge of soil is formed on the side that is facing the opposite direction of travel;

The applied grass is directed in the direction of travel.

Direction of traffic determined by the following criteria:

The vertices of the corners in the tread track of an off-road vehicle are directed in the direction opposite to the direction of travel;

Drops of liquid or oil that have fallen in the direction of movement, with elongated thin ends, point in the direction of movement;

Particles of soil are thrown by wheels and tracks in the direction opposite to the direction of travel;

Grass and bushes are crushed in the direction of travel;

Water or liquid mud when moving through puddles, ditches, swamps is sprayed to the sides and forward, and a wet track remains in the direction of travel;

The end of the broken stick at the fracture site is usually directed in the opposite direction of movement;

The trail of the braking distance grows gradually and abruptly ends on the side where the car was going;

When leaving a dirt road onto a highway, especially in wet conditions, soil particles remain on the asphalt, indicating the direction of travel.

The age of the tracks. In winter, fresh tracks are clearly visible. On loose snow, small lumps of snow are clearly visible on the sides of the fresh track. In the cold, they quickly disappear, while the larger lumps become rounded and smaller. A fresh trail crumbles if you gently pry it with your hand, the old one retains its shape. A crust forms on old tracks at low air temperatures.

In dry, calm weather, traces left on the sand or soft ground are very clear, well noticeable, and therefore it is not difficult to determine their age, but at the slightest wind they quickly collapse and after 2-3 hours become almost invisible, and then disappear altogether. In strong winds, footprints can disappear within a few minutes. Traces of technology in such conditions can last up to 4 hours or even more, but the pattern of prints is erased just as quickly.

It is much easier to determine the age of a trace left on wet soil. Such a trace usually undergoes slow changes and retains its contours for a long time. In depressed tracks on wet ground, the soil looks slightly darker than the surrounding soil, since it retains moisture for longer. Lumps of soil that have fallen to the bottom of the track dry out after 3-4 hours, brighten and noticeably differ in color from the bottom of the track. If the soil is viscous, then after 2-3 hours (depending on temperature conditions) a crust forms on the bottom of the track, after 4-5 - cracks appear, after 1-2 days individual soil particles separate from the bottom of the track and swell, and after 2– For 3 days, the contours of the trail first crumble, and then completely disappear.

Dangerous weather phenomena

Dried feather grass can be used to predict the weather. He is sensitive to all changes in the atmosphere: in dry, clear weather, his panicle curls into a spiral, and with an increase in air humidity, it straightens.

Homemade barometer. To do this, you need to cut off a branch of a young spruce or juniper with a piece of trunk 10-15 cm long and peel it of the bark. The trunk is fixed motionless, the branch remains free. The branch will respond to weather changes by lowering the tip before rain and raising it before the onset of clear weather (Fig. 1.1).

Figure: 1.1. Homemade barometer

The amplitude depends on the length of the branch: for example, in a 30-40-centimeter branch it can reach 10-15 cm. After observing the vibrations of the branch for a while, you can make notes near its end as “clear”, “variable”, “cloudy” and use as an ordinary barometer.

If there is a danger of falling into the epicenter of a thunderstorm, it is necessary to take as dry or slightly damp place as possible, 1.5–2 m from rocks or freestanding trees rising by 10 m or more.

Most often, lightning strikes free-standing trees, in the forest - into higher trees, such as oaks, poplars, spruces and pines, a little less often - into willows, beeches, lindens, acacia and birches, almost does not touch maples, hazel, laurel trees.

During a thunderstorm, you cannot hide in rock niches, slope depressions, be at the entrance or at the far end of the cave. It is dangerous to be on the edges and large clearings. It is extremely dangerous to move or stop where water is flowing.

In open areas, choose sandy areas, scree and moraines; the most dangerous are soils saturated with water and clay soils. You cannot be located in the immediate vicinity of the fire.

In case of a thunderstorm it is necessary:

The group should disperse on the way, if necessary, continue moving - walk one at a time, slowly;

Take refuge in the forest among low trees with dense crowns;

In the mountains, keep at least 3–8 m from the vertical walls;

All metal objects, including watches and equipment, should be folded 10-15 m away from you;

In an open area, descend from the hills and hide in a dry pit, ditch, ravine;

Try to create a dielectric layer by placing branches, spruce branches, stones, logs or clothing under yourself;

It is best to sit in a grouped position, bending your back and lowering your head to your knees, bring your feet together;

In the shelter, change into dry clothes, in extreme cases, thoroughly squeeze out wet ones;

On the water - remove the mast or drive it through the keel or oar, and in a boat without a mast take the oars out of the water and sit motionless; swim slowly without waving your arms.

In a thunderstorm, it is prohibited:

Take refuge near the lonely or (in the forest) the tallest trees;

Leaning or touching rocks, sheer walls and trees;

Stop at the edges of the forest, large glades, hills;

Walk or stop near bodies of water or in places where water flows (crevices, watercourses, couloirs);

Hide under rocky awnings and in small structures;

Move in a dense group, run, fuss;

Wear wet clothes and shoes.

Actions in the event of a forest fire caused by thunderstorm activity:

Remove all synthetics;

Wet exposed areas of the body and natural clothing with water or mud;

In case of smoke, cover your face with a wet cloth;

Move quickly towards the scorched earth or burn out the area before the main fire approaches;

If it is necessary to cross the line of fire, select a location with the least amount of vegetation.

Hurricane, tornado, storm

In case of a hurricane, tornado, storm it is necessary:

Hide as quickly as possible in places protected from the wind - behind monolithic obstacles, in a dense forest;

Move away from detached trees that may be blown down by the wind;

Find any depression in the soil - a ravine, a ditch, a hole, etc., lie on the bottom, snuggle tightly to the ground, covering your head with your hands;

Fasten loose clothing with all buttons and tie it around the body in several places so that it does not create additional wind.

When a blizzard approaches, you need to build the most durable shelter as soon as possible.

With a sufficient thickness of the snow cover, it is advisable to build a low igloo (see p. 204, Fig. 5.19), the domed shape of which has minimal wind resistance. In front of the igloo, you can additionally erect a horseshoe-shaped windproof wall, open to the leeward side.

On an open, snowless area where there is no way to build a permanent snow shelter, you should find some stable object, for example, a fallen tree, take cover behind it and regularly discard and trample the arriving snow mass with your feet. Thus, you will gradually get a narrow refuge trench.

In critical situations, it is permissible to bury yourself in dry snow completely, for which you need to put on all warm clothes, sit with your back to the wind, cover yourself with plastic wrap or a sleeping bag, pick up a long stick and let the snow cover you. In this case, it is necessary to constantly clear the ventilation hole with a stick and expand the volume of the formed snow capsule in order to always be able to get out of the snow drift.

In case of a blizzard, you must:

Stop driving immediately;

Leave heights and funnel-shaped depressions;

Build a secure shelter in an avalanche-safe place;

Warm yourself as much as possible, button your clothes, put on a hood;

Leave the shelter only with a rope belay;

Have a tool in the hideout to dig the entrance.

During a blizzard, it is prohibited:

To wait it out without building a shelter;

Move;

Sleep with insufficient thermal insulation properties of clothing;

Leaving shelters without rope belay.

The basics of survival need to be known not only to a reasonable man, but to all people without exception, regardless of status. There are a lot of situations as a result of which a person can be left alone with nature. You can simply get lost in the forest picking mushrooms, you can lag behind a tourist group, you can survive after an air or car accident, and so on ...

Survival Fundamentals: Where to Start?

The conditions in which a casual tourist may find themselves can be very different. Therefore, the algorithm of actions and the method of survival in each case are unique. Much will depend on the air temperature, precipitation, the presence or absence of shelter and water sources, the landscape, the number of people. Plus many other factors that facilitate, or vice versa, aggravate the situation.

Based on all this, the survivors will have to build and, possibly, adjust their actions in each individual situation for the most reasonable survival. The fundamentals of this harsh science are vitally important to observe, regardless of influencing factors and threats.

Threats at a glance

• Thirst ... It must be remembered that a person without water will last no more than three days. Thus, water extraction always becomes one of the primary tasks.
• Temperature ... Whether it's cold or heat, in any case, they can lead to negative effects in the body. Heatstroke, hypothermia and the like.
• Mental problems (loneliness, despondency, fear)... They can be detrimental to the personality if they develop into a severe form (panic, apathy, hysteria).
• Hunger ... At first, the lack of food does not have a very negative impact. But according to survival basics, after a week or so, depletion can become a serious threat.
• Injury and pain ... Injuries or illnesses severely reduce the chances of survivors of a successful outcome.
• Aggressive environment ... Includes all sorts of nuances of the setting: wild animals, poisonous plants, swamps and other delights of the habitat.
• Overwork ... Excessive fatigue and physical exhaustion will sooner or later play a cruel joke with any person.

Based on these factors, the survivor needs to build for himself in his head survival plan... Whatever the reason that the victim remained cut off from civilization - in the first place, he must always try to determine his whereabouts. The ideal option would be to have a map and a compass, which is unlikely in a sudden emergency.

If there are natural shelters or broken vehicles nearby, a crashed plane, and so on, then the victim is advised to stay in this place. It is worth moving on only in 2 cases.:

1) the missing person will not be searched for in the near future;

2) the missing person knows exactly how to get to the village or camp.

If it is impossible to determine your location on the ground, you need to look around from the most convenient and highest point (hill, tree). Having found signs of civilization or a body of water, you should move towards the goal.

If the terrain is too homogeneous around, then it is better to stay in place and start other methods of survival. First you need to understand what is more profitable to do first. If sunset is coming, then it is worth starting to build a shelter. At low temperatures, it makes sense to start your actions by lighting a fire. If this is the case in the morning and in the summer, then you can start providing water (search, cleaning, disinfection). Each action must be logical and consistent.

Universal survival plan

It is necessary to understand that, by and large, in conditions of a threat to life, there can be nothing universal. However, there are some fundamental truths.

The elements of survival include the following concepts: food, shelter, fire, water, location, and medicine. To set their priorities, a certain abbreviation is used with a self-explanatory name: PLAN... It doesn't matter where the survivor is on the planet, the priority remains the same - be it the Gobi Desert, the Amazon jungle, the Pacific Ocean or the Arctic.

P - protection (protection)

It is in the interests of the person in distress to provide their own protection from the hostile environment. To do this, you need to use all available means, but without the need not to make "unnecessary movements". You should always remember about the expediency of efforts. Preference should be given to the organization of shelter and fire.

L - localization (location)

Positioning and equipment for distress signals will be next on the priority list. The survivor must by all means attract attention and indicate his presence.

A - adaptation (provisions)

While waiting for help, you should constantly search for new sources of food and water, emergency supplies should be consumed only when absolutely necessary. This way of survival can be characterized as follows: "preserve and increase."

H - navigation (route)

If hoping for someone for a long time and is pointless, you can try the last option. In order to move forward, you need to accumulate a sufficient amount of resources and supplies. A person who dared to take such a step needs to correctly assess their strengths and make an informed decision, otherwise this trip may be the last.

In addition to the above, you need to be extremely careful about your own health and constantly monitor your well-being. Wounds should be treated promptly to avoid infection and inflammation. Purified and boiled water is the key to success.

Additional materials

The main methods of survival that must be taken at the very beginning of "unity" with nature remain unchanged. Only their order changes depending on the accompanying factors. Each of the aspects of life in the wild has its own nuances and characteristics that deserve separate materials and articles.

A quite natural question arises: what topics should be mastered in the first place, starting to study the basics of survival?

You need to start with a clear understanding that any autonomous existence is made up of individual elements, skills, factors. Due to the vastness, at the initial stage, the following free materials are recommended for reading:

After studying these articles, it is advisable to proceed with more specific methods of survival, the necessary skills and abilities. In this regard, books are an irreplaceable source of knowledge.

An encounter with wild animals, especially with predatory (wolf, bear, lynx), large ungulates (elk, wild boar, deer) and reptiles (poisonous snakes), can pose a danger to humans during outdoor activities. The vast majority of wild animals avoid meeting humans. Animals smell a person before he can see them, and almost always try to get out of his way. However, the behavior of many animals changes significantly under certain conditions. Most animals are dangerous during the mating season, during the hunt, when they are injured, when they protect their young, when they are caught by the prey and in self-defense. In summer, the attack of wild animals on humans is very rare. It was found that a tiger rushes on a peka for no reason in 4% of all cases of meeting it. According to many experts, most of the sudden encounters between a man and a brown bear end with a swift flight of the animal. Although cases of bear attacks on humans, and the European part of the country are observed almost every year. A meeting with a wolf conceals a significant danger to humans. In recent years, it has been noted that people encounter wolves in the forest zone more often than before. Wild ungulates common for Russian forests - moose wild boars, deer, roe deer - are more cautious than predators. However, during the mating season, these animals are distinguished by increased excitability and aggressiveness, and meeting with them during this period is dangerous. The most serious danger to a person can be a sudden meeting with a wolf or fox, which are sick with rabies. In this case, the attack cannot be avoided, therefore it is necessary to bypass the places where, according to information, there are sick animals. In winter, a real danger to humans is a meeting with a wolf or a connecting rod bear (a connecting rod bear is a bear that has not hibernated in its den for the winter). According to experts, in order to reduce the possibility of meeting with wild dangerous animals in natural conditions, you need to know the following. Any species of wild animal prefers certain habitats that it is desirable to know. When planning to go out into nature, it is best to try to avoid such places. During the hike, you must be observant and careful, try to timely detect the presence of dangerous wild animals in the area. The presence of animals can be identified by their footprints in the soil, peeled tree bark, the presence of droppings, feeding grounds or the remains of prey. Having noticed such traces, it is necessary to increase vigilance. It must be remembered that animals try to avoid danger and move away from it. Therefore, moving through the forest, sometimes it is worth letting know about your presence, talking loudly, calling out to each other, as if warning the animals and giving them the opportunity to leave. In the forest, it is undesirable to meet a herd of wild boars that are feeding. You can identify such a place by the noise that wild boars make. In the forest, following the route, it is necessary to avoid animal trails, impassable, overgrown with bushes, a section of the forest. To ensure safety, the rule should be strictly observed: never destroy animal shelters, since in the face of the loss of their own "home" or the death of their offspring, the most peaceful animals become dangerous. Most often in nature, a person can meet a snake. On the territory of Russia, the common viper is the most common type of poisonous snake. This snake is found on the territory of Russia from the western borders to Sakhalin. Vipers live, as a rule, in swamps, in clearings, in forest glades and forest edges. The color of the viper is from light gray to almost black. A characteristic feature of this snake is a thin zigzag strip along the back. In summer, vipers prefer to hide under the roots of rotten stumps, in crevices of stones, in the holes of other animals. After wintering, in April, with the onset of warmth, the vipers crawl out to the surface. In the second half of May, their mating season begins. During this time, the vipers become more aggressive. Having met a person, the viper first of all tries to hide. A snake attack can occur if a person inadvertently stepped on it or approached it so close that he entered the zone of its attack. Usually snakes bite in the leg (if stepped on). Therefore, where snakes are found, you cannot walk barefoot, as well as in light open shoes. Rubber or leather boots reliably protect against snake bites. During summer outdoor recreation, ubiquitous blood-sucking insects deliver a lot of troubles to humans. These are mosquitoes, midges, biting midges and horseflies, which appear in early May and disappear only in autumn. Their bites are painful, and their continuous presence day and night tires a person, negatively affects his mood, and reduces the positive impression of communicating with wildlife. These insects can also be carriers of infectious diseases. Therefore, being in places where there are a lot of mosquitoes, midges, horseflies, you should cover all parts of the body with clothes. During the hike, parking should be set up in open, well-ventilated areas, and a fire should be made to scare away insects. Other insects also pose a certain danger to humans in natural conditions: bees, wasps, bumblebees, hornets, if their habitats are disturbed. Forest bees and wasps nest in trees, hornets in tree hollows, and bumblebees in underground burrows. It is better to bypass them and not disturb them. In the second half of summer, wasps and hornets can bring a lot of trouble. They have a sweet tooth and flock to the smell of fruits, jams, sweets. These insects are very aggressive and attack for no particular reason. Bumblebees are considered more peaceful than bees, and they attack very rarely, since they have less reason to worry about their home. After a bee, wasp, bumblebee or hornet sting, an itchy swelling forms on the human skin. For some people, the bite can be very dangerous: after 5 minutes, a painful blister appears, which increases within two days, and more serious consequences of the bite may appear urticaria, swelling, sore throat, vomiting. Keeping this in mind, it is advisable to bypass the habitats of these insects during the campaign, and even more so not to destroy the nests. If, while moving, you accidentally disturb a swarm of bees, you should freeze and do not move for several minutes until the insects calm down, and then carefully leave the dangerous place. When a swarm of bees is attacked, one can only escape by fleeing, covering his face with his hands. It is necessary to run to water or dense bushes to hide from insects. During the hike, in order not to be bitten by bees or hornets, it is recommended to lubricate the open areas of the body with cologne, to which mint oil is added, mint drops. In the natural environment, humans are still trapped by a formidable enemy - ticks. Ticks are carriers of encephalitis. The period of greatest activity of ticks comes in the spring and first half of summer. Terrain orientation is the determination of your position relative to the sides of the horizon and local objects. Depending on the nature of the terrain, the availability of technical means and visibility, the side of the horizon can be determined by the position of the Sun, the North Star, signs of local objects, etc. In the northern hemisphere, the direction is not north can be determined by becoming at the local noon with your back to the Sun. The shadow will indicate the direction to the north, west to the left, east to the right. Local noon is determined using a vertical pole 0.5 - 1.0 m long by the smallest value of the length of the shadow from it on the surface of the Earth. The moment when the shadow was the shortest in terms of marks on the Earth corresponds to the passage of the Sun through this meridian. Determination of the cardinal points with the help of a clock: the clock must be placed horizontally and turned so that the hour hand points to the Sun. Through the center of the dial, the bisector of the angle formed between this line and the hour hand is mentally drawn, showing the north-south direction, with south until 12 o'clock to the right of the Sun, and after 12 o'clock - to the left. At night in the Northern Hemisphere, the northward direction can be determined using the North Star, located approximately above the North Pole. To do this, you need to find the constellation Ursa Major with a characteristic arrangement of stars in the form of a bucket with a handle. An imaginary line is drawn through the outermost two stars of the bucket, and the distance between these stars is plotted on it 5 times. At the end of the fifth segment there will be a bright star - Polaris. The direction to it will correspond to the direction to the north. You can navigate by some natural signs. So, for example, on the north side, the trees have a coarser bark covered with lichen and moss at the foot, the bark of birch and pine on the north side is darker than on the south, and tree trunks, stones or rock ledges are thicker covered with moss and lichens. During thaws, snow lasts longer on the northern slopes of the hills. Anthills are usually protected by something from the north, their north side is steeper. Mushrooms usually grow on the north side of trees. On the surface of the trunk of conifers, facing south, more resin drops are released than on the north. These signs are especially clearly visible on trees standing alone. On the southern slopes, the grass grows faster in spring and many flowering shrubs have more flowers.

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Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Yakutsk 2014

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

FGAOU HPE North-Eastern Federal University named after M.K. Ammosov "

Mining Institute

Department of "Protection in Emergencies"

COURSE WORK

on the topic: "Fundamentals of survival of rescuers in extreme situations"

Completed by: student group PB-11

Dmitriev A.G.

Checked by: V.V. Tarsky

Introduction

1.4 Special signals

1.6 Organization of the bivouac

1.8 Procurement of food and water

lifeguard survival salvation disease

Introduction

Survival is active, purposeful actions aimed at preserving life, health and performance in an autonomous existence. It is for people whose lives are constantly fraught with dangers that preliminary preparation, both physical and psychological, is very important. Rescuers must go through, beforehand, a full adaptation process, as a result of which the body gradually acquires, previously absent, resistance to certain environmental factors. Thus, he gets the opportunity to "live in conditions previously incompatible with life", which means full adaptation to the conditions of polar cold, sultry deserts or lack of oxygen at mountain heights, fresh water in a salty sea. People who have undergone full adaptation have a chance not only to preserve life itself, but also to solve problems that were previously unsolvable.

An extreme situation is an event (or a sequence of events) in which a person, through his own preparedness, the use of equipment and equipment, as well as the involvement of additional, previously prepared resources, is able to prevent an emergency, and, if necessary, help himself and others after an emergency.

1. Actions of rescuers in extreme conditions

1.1 Aims and Objectives of Survival Rescuers

The goal of training rescuers in survival is to develop sustainable skills for acting in various conditions of the situation, foster high moral and business qualities, self-confidence, reliability of rescue equipment and equipment, and the effectiveness of search and rescue support.

Survival is based on sound knowledge in a wide variety of fields, from astronomy and medicine to recipes for cooking dishes from caterpillars and tree bark.

Survival techniques are different in each climatogeographic region. What can and should be done in the taiga is unacceptable in the desert and vice versa.

A person should know how to navigate without a compass, give a distress signal, go to the village, get food with the help of gathering, hunting, fishing (including without a gun and the necessary tackle), provide himself with water, be able to protect himself from natural disasters and much other.

Practical development of survival skills is essential. It is necessary not only to know how to behave in a given situation, but also to be able to do it. When the situation becomes threatening, it is too late to start learning. Prior to high-risk hikes, it is necessary to conduct several emergency field exercises, as close as possible to the real situation of future routes. You should calculate in advance theoretically and, if possible, check almost all possible emergencies.

The main tasks of training rescuers in survival are to give the necessary amount of theoretical knowledge and to teach the skills of practical actions on:

Terrain orientation in various physical and geographical conditions;

Providing self and mutual assistance;

Construction of temporary shelters and the use of available means of protection from the effects of adverse environmental factors;

Procurement of food and water;

Use of communication and signaling facilities to bring additional forces and equipment to the area of \u200b\u200bsearch and rescue operations;

Organization of crossings over water obstacles and swamps;

Use of rescue craft;

Preparation of helicopter landing sites;

Evacuation of victims from the disaster area.

1.2 Factors affecting survival

Learning how to survive is the main factor determining a favorable outcome of autonomous existence.

Risk factors:

1. Climate. Unfavorable weather conditions: cold, heat, strong wind, rain, snow can greatly reduce the limit of human survival.

2. Thirst. Lack of water entails physical and mental suffering, general overheating of the body, rapidly developing heat and sunstrokes, dehydration in the desert - inevitable death.

3. Hunger. Long-term lack of food depresses a person morally, weakens physically, increases the impact on the body of unfavorable environmental factors.

4. Fear. Reduces the body's resistance to thirst, hunger, climatic factors, leads to erroneous decisions, provokes panic, mental breakdowns.

5. Overwork. It appears as a result of strenuous physical activities, insufficient food supply, severe climatic and geographical conditions, due to the lack of adequate rest.

6. Natural disasters: hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, sandstorms, fires, avalanches, mudflows, floods, thunderstorms.

7. Diseases. The greatest threat is posed by injuries, diseases associated with the impact of climatic conditions, and poisoning. But we should not forget that in an emergency, any neglected callus or microtrauma can lead to a tragic outcome.

Survival factors

Will to live. With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a sensual level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation. Bounces off a falling tree, clings to stationary objects when falling. Long-term survival is another matter. Sooner or later, a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical, mental stress and the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference. He is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-considered overnight stays and risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without having exhausted his reserves of strength to the end.

Survival based only on biological laws of self-preservation is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical behavioral reactions. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful. You can call it the will to live. Any skill and knowledge become meaningless if a person resigns himself to fate. Long-term survival is ensured not by a spontaneous desire "I do not want to die", but by the goal set - "I must survive." The desire to survive is not an instinct, but a conscious need. Survival Tool - Various standard and homemade emergency kits and emergency supplies (like a survival knife).

If you are going on a dangerous journey, you need to complete emergency kits in advance, based on the specific conditions of the hike, terrain, season, number of participants. All items must be tested in practice, checked many times, duplicated if necessary. General physical preparation does not require comments. Psychological preparation consists of the sum of such concepts as the psychological balance of each member of the group, the psychological compatibility of the participants, the similarity of the group, a real representation of the conditions of the future route, training trips that are close in terms of loads and climatic and geographical conditions to the real ones (or better, they exceed them twice).

The correct organization of rescue operations in the group, a clear distribution of responsibilities in the stowed and emergency modes are of no small importance. Everyone should know what to do in the event of a threat of emergency.

Naturally, the above list does not exhaust all the factors that ensure long-term survival. Once in an emergency, the first step is to decide which tactics should be followed - active (independent access to people) or passive (waiting for help). In passive survival, when there is absolute certainty that the missing person or the group is being sought, that the rescuers know their whereabouts, and if there is an untransportable victim among you, you need to immediately start building a capital camp, installing emergency signals around the camp, and providing food on site.

1.3 Maintenance of life. Assessing the situation and making an informed decision

How to behave in extreme cases? Let's start with the basics and remember the key word for this situation "SURVIVAL":

S - assess the situation, recognize dangers, look for ways from a hopeless situation.

U - Too much haste hurts, but make decisions quickly.

R - remember where you are, find your location.

V - defeat fear and panic, constantly control yourself, be persistent, but obey if necessary.

I - improvise, be creative.

V - value your means of existence, recognize the limits of your capabilities.

A - behave like a local, be able to evaluate people.

L - learn to do everything yourself, be independent and independent.

A group of people. First of all, you need to choose an elder, a person who is knowledgeable and able to take all the necessary measures aimed at survival. If your group takes into account the tips below, the chances of being rescued and returning home will be greatly increased. Should:

• decisions to be made only by the senior of the group, regardless of the situation

· Execute orders of the senior group only;

· Develop a sense of mutual support in the group.

All of this will help organize the group's activities in the best way to ensure survival.

First of all, it is necessary to assess the current situation, which in turn consists of assessing the factors affecting survival.

1.the state of health of the members of the group, physical and mental state;

2. the impact of the external environment (air temperature and the state of atmospheric conditions in general, terrain, vegetation, the presence and proximity of water sources, etc.).

3. Availability of emergency supplies of food, water and emergency equipment.

Provide self and mutual assistance (if necessary) and draw up an action plan based on specific conditions, which should include:

1. Carrying out orientation on the ground and determining its location;

2. organization of a temporary camp. Choosing a suitable location for the construction of a shelter, taking into account the relief, vegetation, water sources, etc. Determination of the place for cooking, storing food, placing a latrine, the location of signal fires;

3. provision of communication and signaling, preparation of radio equipment, operation and maintenance of them;

4. distribution of responsibilities between group members;

5. establishment of duty, tasks of duty officers and determination of the sequence of duty;

6. preparation of visual signaling devices;

As a result, the optimal mode of behavior in the current situation should be developed.

1.4 Special signals

Rescuers need to know and be able to practice special signals. Rescuers can use campfire smoke during the day and bright light at night to indicate their location. If you throw rubber, pieces of insulation, oil rags into the fire, black smoke will be emitted, which is clearly visible in cloudy weather. To obtain white smoke, which is clearly visible in clear weather, green leaves, fresh grass, and damp moss should be thrown into the fire.

A special signal mirror can be used to send a signal from the ground to an air vehicle (aircraft) (Fig. 1). It is necessary to keep it at a distance of 25-30 cm from the face and look through the sighting hole at the plane; by turning the mirror, align the light spot with the sighting hole. In the absence of a signal mirror, objects with shiny surfaces can be used. For sighting, you need to make a hole in the center of the object. The light beam must be sent along the entire horizon line, even in cases where the noise of the aircraft engine is not heard.

Figure: 1 Special signal mirror

At night, the light of a hand-held electric torch, a torch, a fire can be used for signaling.

A bonfire made on a raft is one of the distress signals.

Good signaling means are brightly colored objects and a special dye powder (fluorescein, uranine), which are scattered on snow, ground, water, ice when an aircraft (helicopter) approaches.

In some cases, sound signals (shout, shot, knock), signal flares, smoke bombs can be used.

One of the most recent advances in target designation is a small nylon-sheathed rubber balloon covered in four glowing paints, under which a light bulb flashes at night; the light from it is clearly visible at a distance of 4-5 km. Before launch, the balloon is filled with helium from a small capsule and held at a height of 90 m by a nylon rope. The kit weighs 1.5 kg.

In order to facilitate the search, it is advisable to apply the International Code Table of Air Signals "Earth-Air" (Fig. 2). Its signs can be laid out with the help of improvised means (equipment, clothes, stones, trees), directly by people who must lie on the ground, snow, ice, trampled in the snow.

Figure: 2 International Air Signal Code Table "Ground-Air"

1 - Doctor needed - serious injuries;

2 - Medicines are needed;

3 - Unable to move;

4 - We need food and water;

5 - Requires weapons and ammunition,

6 - Map and compass required:

7 - We need a warning lamp with a battery and a radio station;

8 - Indicate the direction of travel;

9 - I am moving in this direction;

10 - Let's try to take off;

11 - The vessel is seriously damaged;

12 - It is safe to land here;

13 - Requires fuel and oil;

14 - Everything is in order;

15 - No or negative;

16 - Yes or positive;

17 - I do not understand;

18 - A mechanic is required;

19 - Operations completed;

20 - Nothing was found, we continue to search;

21 - Information received that the aircraft is in this direction;

22 - We found all the people;

23 - We found only a few people:

24 - We are unable to continue, we return to base;

25 - Divided into two groups, each going in the direction indicated.

1.5 Determination of weather conditions

Along with the ability to give signals, rescuers must be able to work and live in the field, taking into account meteorological (weather) factors. Special meteorological services are responsible for monitoring the state and forecasting the weather. Information about the weather is transmitted by means of communication, in special reports, and put on maps using conventional symbols.

In the absence of information about the weather, rescuers must be able to determine and predict on local grounds. To obtain reliable information, it is advisable to make a weather forecast simultaneously for several of them.

Signs of steady good weather :

1. It is quiet at night, the wind increases during the day, and dies down in the evening;

2. The direction of the wind near the ground coincides with the direction of movement of the clouds;

3. When the sun sets, the dawn is yellow, golden or pink with a greenish tint in a distant space;

4. Fog accumulates in the lowlands at night;

5. After sunset, dew appears on the grass, and it disappears with sunrise.

6. In the mountains, haze covers the peaks;

7. Cloudless at night, clouds appear in the morning, increase by noon and disappear by evening;

8. Ants do not close the passages in the nest;

9. Hot during the day, cool in the evening.

Signs of approaching bad weather :

1. The wind increases, becomes more even, blows with the same force both day and night, sharply changes direction;

2. Cloudiness is increasing. Cumulus clouds do not disappear in the evening, but increase;

3. Evening and morning dawns are red;

4. It seems warmer in the evening than during the day. Temperatures drop in the mountains in the morning;

5. At night there is no dew or it is very weak;

6. Near the earth, fog appears after sunset, and by sunrise it dissipates;

7. During the day, the sky becomes cloudy, becomes whitish;

8. The crowns around the moon are getting smaller;

9. Stars twinkle strongly;

10. Chickens and sparrows bathe in dust;

11. Smoke begins to travel along the ground.

Signs of persistent bad weather :

1. Light continuous rain ;

2. The ground has fog, dew;

3. Both at night and during the day are moderately warm;

4. Dampness in the air day and night, even in the absence of rain;

5. Small crowns closely adjacent to the Moon;

6. The stars, when twinkling, cast red or bluish light;

7. Ants close the passages;

8. Bees do not leave the hive;

9. Ravens scream heart-rendingly;

10. Small birds are killed in the middle of the tree crown.

Signs of a better weather

1. The rain stops or comes intermittently, in the evening a creeping fog appears, dew falls;

2. The difference between day and night temperatures increases;

3. It gets colder;

4. The air becomes drier;

5. The sky in the gaps is clear;

6. The crowns around the moon increase;

7. The twinkling of stars decreases;

8. Evening dawn is yellow;

9. Smoke from chimneys and from the fire rises vertically;

10. The bees in the hives are noisy. Swifts and swallows rise higher;

11. Mosquitoes hustle together;

12. The coals in the fire quickly become covered with ash;

Signs of stable, low-cloud weather

1. Prevailing north or north-east wind;

2. The wind speed is small;

3. Creeping fog at night;

4. Abundant frost on grassy land or tree branches;

5. Iridescent pillars on the sides of the sun or a reddish pillar across the sun disk.

6. Sunset with a yellowish tint;

Signs of a change to cloudy, snowy weather

1. Change in wind direction to the southeast, then to the southwest;

2. A change in the wind from south to north and its strengthening - to a blizzard;

3. Increased cloudiness;

4. Light snow begins;

5. The frost weakens;

6. Blue spots appear over the forest;

7. Dark forests are reflected in low dense clouds.

Signs of persistent cloudy, snowy weather without heavy frost

1. Light frost or, with a south-westerly wind, thaw;

2. Towards the thaw, the blue spots over the forest intensify;

3. Sustainable south-east or north-east wind;

5. Light continuous snow;

Signs of a change to frosty weather without precipitation

1. Wind from the south-west passes to the west or north-west, the frost intensifies;

2. Cloudiness decreases;

3. Frost appears on grassy land and trees;

4. The blue spots above the forest fade and soon disappear altogether.

1.6 Organization of the bivouac

The weather imposes certain requirements on the organization of a bivouac, temporary housing, life and recreation during multi-day search and rescue operations. With this in mind, rescuers organize a bivouac. It should be located in avalanche-safe and rock-safe areas, near a source of drinking water, and have a supply of dead wood or firewood. It is impossible to arrange a bivouac in the dry beds of mountain rivers, near the shallows, in dense bushes, coniferous thickets, near dry, hollow, rotten trees, in the thickets of flowering rhododendron. After removing stones, branches, debris from the site and leveling it, rescuers can start setting up the tent. (Fig. 3)

Tents differ in design features, capacity, material. Despite this, they are all designed to protect humans from cold, rain, wind, dampness, insects.

The procedure for setting up the tent is as follows:

1. unfold the tent;

2. stretch and secure the bottom;

3. install the racks and tighten the braces;

4. fasten the exit and tighten the roof braces;

5. eliminate the creases on the roof by pulling (loosening) the braces;

6. Dig a ditch around the tent 8-10 cm wide and deep to drain water in case of rain.

Dry leaves, grass, fern, reeds, moss can be placed under the bottom of the tent. When setting up a tent on snow (ice), empty backpacks, ropes, windbreakers, blankets, foam rubber should be placed on the floor.

The pegs are driven at an angle of 45 ° to the ground to a depth of 20-25 cm. Trees, stones, and ledges can be used to secure the tent. The back wall of the tent should be positioned towards the prevailing winds.

In the absence of a tent, you can spend the night under a piece of tarpaulin, polyethylene or equip a hut from scrap materials (branches, logs, spruce branches, leaves, reeds). It is installed on a flat and dry place, in a clearing or forest edge.

Figure: 3 Tent setup options

In a snowy winter, rescuers should be able to make shelters in the snow. The simplest of these is a hole dug around a tree, the size of which depends on the number of people. From above, the pit must be closed with branches, a dense cloth, covered with snow for better thermal insulation. You can build a snow cave, snow dugout, snow trench. When entering a snow shelter, you should clean your clothes of snow and dirt, take a shovel or knife with you, which can be used to make ventilation holes and pass in case of snow collapse.

1.7 Using a fire as a means of escape

For cooking, heating, drying clothes, signaling, rescuers use fires of the following types: "hut", "well" ("log house"), "taiga", "nodia", "fireplace", "Polynesian", "star", " pyramid".

"Shalash" is convenient for quick tea preparation and camp lighting. This fire is very "gluttonous", it burns hot.

"Well" ("log house") is kindled if you need to cook food in a large bowl, dry wet clothes.

In the "well" the fuel burns more slowly than in the "hut"; a lot of coals are formed, which create a high temperature.

At the "taiga" one can cook food simultaneously in several pots. On one thick log (about 20 cm thick), several thinner dry logs are placed, which approach the ends at an angle of 30 °. necessarily on the leeward side. The fuel burns for a long time. You can spend the night near such a fire.

"Nodya" is good for cooking food, heating during the night, drying clothes and shoes. Two dry logs up to 3 m long are placed close to each other, flammable fuel (thin dry twigs, birch bark) is lit in the gap between them, after which a third dry log of the same length and 20-25 cm thick is placed on top.To prevent the logs from rolling, with flies are driven into the ground on both sides. They will at the same time serve as supports for the stick on which the bowlers are hung. The "node" flares up slowly, but burns with an even flame, for several hours. Any fire must be made only after careful preparation of the site: collecting dry grass and dead wood, making a deepening in the ground, fencing the place where it will be built with stones. Dry forest stands, grass, reeds, and shrubs serve as fuel for the fire. It is noticed that many sparks are given by burning spruce, pine, cedar, chestnut, larch. Oak, maple, elm, beech are burning quietly.

To quickly kindle a fire, you need kindling (birch bark, small dry branches and firewood, a piece of rubber, paper, dry fuel). It fits tightly with a "hut" or "well". To make the kindling light better, put a piece of a candle in it or put dry alcohol. Thicker dry branches are laid around the kindling, then thick firewood.

In damp weather or during rain, the fire must be covered with a tarpaulin, a backpack, or a thick cloth. You can light a fire with matches, a lighter, sunlight and a magnifying glass, rubbing, flint, or a shot. In the latter case, it is necessary:

1.open the cartridge and leave only gunpowder in it;

2. Put dry cotton wool on top of the powder;

3. shoot at the ground, while observing safety measures;

4. Smoldering cotton wool will keep the fire going.

To set up a fire in winter, it is necessary to clear the snow to the ground or build a flooring of thick logs on the snow, otherwise the melted snow will extinguish the fire.

To prevent a fire from causing a fire, it should not be built under low tree branches, near flammable objects, on the leeward side, relative to the bivouac, on peat bogs, near reed and reed thickets, dry grass, moss, in spruce and pine woodlands. In these places, the fire spreads at high speed and is difficult to extinguish.

In order to prevent the spread of fire, the fire must be surrounded by a ditch or stones. The safe distance from the fire to the tent is 10m. To dry clothes, shoes, equipment near a fire, they should be hung on poles or ropes located on the leeward side at a sufficient distance from the fire. The obligatory rule is to put out the fire (with water, earth, snow) when leaving the bivouac.

1.8 Procurement of food and water

A person who finds himself in conditions of autonomous existence must take the most energetic measures to provide himself with food by collecting edible wild plants, fishing, hunting, i.e. use everything that nature gives.

More than 2000 plants grow on the territory of our country, partially or completely suitable for food.

Care must be taken when collecting plant gifts. About 2% of plants can cause severe and even fatal poisoning. To prevent poisoning, it is necessary to distinguish between such poisonous plants as raven's eye, wolf's bast, poisonous milestones (cicuta), bitter henbane, etc. ...

It is better to refrain from eating unfamiliar plants, berries, mushrooms. If you are forced to use them for food, it is recommended to eat at a time no more than 1 - 2 g of food mass, if possible drinking plenty of water (the vegetable poison contained in such a proportion will not cause serious harm to the body). Wait 1-2 hours. If there are no signs of poisoning (nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dizziness, intestinal disorders), you can eat an additional 10 - 15 g. After a day you can eat without restrictions.

An indirect sign of edibility of the plant can be: fruits, pecked by birds; many seeds, scraps of peel at the foot of fruit trees; bird droppings on branches, trunks; plants eaten by animals; fruits found in nests and burrows. Unfamiliar fruits, bulbs, tubers, etc. it is desirable to boil. Cooking destroys many organic poisons.

In an autonomous existence, fishing is perhaps the most affordable way to provide yourself with food. Fish has a higher energy value than vegetable fruits and is less labor intensive than hunting.

Fishing tackle can be made from scrap materials: fishing line - from loose laces of shoes, thread pulled from clothes, unbraided rope, hooks - from pins, earrings, pins from badges, "invisible", and spinners - from metal and mother-of-pearl buttons, coins, etc. etc.

It is permissible to eat fish meat raw, but it is better to cut it into narrow strips, dry them in the sun, so it will become tastier and last longer. To avoid fish poisoning, certain rules must be followed. Do not eat fish covered with thorns, thorns, sharp growths, skin ulcers, fish that are not covered with scales, lacking lateral fins, having an unusual appearance and bright color, hemorrhages and tumors of internal organs. You cannot eat stale fish - with gills covered with mucus, with sunken eyes, flabby skin, with an unpleasant odor, with dirty and easily detached scales, with meat that easily lags behind the bones and especially from the spine. It is better not to eat unfamiliar and dubious fish. You should also not use fish caviar, milk, liver, because they are often poisonous.

Hunting is the most preferred, in winter the only way to provide yourself with food. But unlike fishing, hunting requires a person to have sufficient skill, skills, and large labor costs.

It is relatively easy to catch small animals and poultry. For this you can use traps, snares, loops and other devices.

The mined meat of the animal, the birds are fried on a primitive spit. Small animals and birds are fried on a spit without peeling or plucking. After cooking, the charred skin is removed and the inside of the carcass is cleaned. After gutting and cleaning, the meat of larger game should be burned over high heat, and then roasted over coals.

Rivers, lakes, streams, swamps, accumulation of water in certain areas of the soil provide people with the necessary amount of liquid for drinking and cooking.

Water from springs and springs, mountain and forest rivers and streams can be drunk raw. But before you quench your thirst with water from stagnant or weak-flowing reservoirs, it should be cleaned of impurities and disinfected. For cleaning, it is easy to make the simplest filters from several layers of cloth or from an empty can, punching 3 - 4 small holes in the bottom, and then filling it with sand. You can dig a shallow hole half a meter from the edge of the reservoir, and after a while it will be filled with clean, transparent water.

The most reliable way to disinfect water is boiling. If there is no boiling pot, a primitive box made of a piece of birch bark will do, provided that the flame touches only the part filled with water. You can boil water by dipping heated stones into a birch bark box with wooden tongs.

1.9 Prevention and treatment of diseases

In conditions of autonomous existence, when a wide variety of injuries, bruises, burns, poisoning, diseases, etc. are possible, knowledge of self-help techniques is especially necessary, because you have to rely on your own strength.

To protect against mosquitoes, midges need to lubricate open areas of the body with a thin layer of clay. Smoky fires are widely used to scare away insects. To drive out insects from the hut before going to bed, burning coals are placed on a thick piece of bark, and covered with moist moss on top. The smokehouse is brought into the shelter, held there until it is filled with smoke, and then well ventilated and the entrance is tightly closed. At night, the smokehouse is left at the entrance on the leeward side so that the smoke, scaring away insects, does not penetrate into the shelter.

During the treks, care must be taken not to step on the snake. In case of an unexpected meeting with a snake, it is necessary to stop, let it crawl away and not pursue it. If the snake is aggressive, immediately deliver a strong blow to the head, and then finish it off. When a poisonous snake bites, you must carefully suck the poison (if there are no cracks in the mouth and lips) and spit it out. Rinse the wound and apply a bandage.

Certain plants should be widely used in the treatment of diseases.

Ash bark has anti-inflammatory effects. To do this, remove the bark from a not very young, but not very old branch and attach the juicy side to the wound. Fresh crushed nettle leaves help well. They promote blood clotting and stimulate tissue healing. For the same purposes, the wound can be sprinkled with greenish-brown pollen of a mature raincoat mushroom, tightly clamping the cut with the velvety skin of the same mushroom turned inside out.

Fireweed fluff, reeds, linseed and hemp tow can be used as cotton wool.

The burning reddish juice of lungwort can replace iodine. And white moss is used as a disinfectant dressing. Fresh juice of plantain and wormwood stops bleeding and disinfects wounds, has an analgesic and healing effect. This remedy is indispensable for severe bruises, sprains, as well as bites of wasps and bumblebees. Plantain and wormwood leaves are crushed and applied to the wound.

Bibliography

1. Accidents and disasters. M., Publishing House of the Association of Building Universities, 1998.

2. Military topography. M., Military Publishing, 1980.

3. Survival. Mn., "Lazurak", 1996.

4. Disasters and people. M., "Publishing house AST-LTD", 1997.

5. First aid for injuries and other life-threatening situations. SPb., DNA Publishing House, 2001.

6. Search and rescue operations. M., EMERCOM of Russia, 2000.

7. Self-rescue without equipment. M., "Russian Journal", 2000.

8. Textbook "Fundamentals of military topography" Svetlaya Roscha, IPPK Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Republic of Belarus, 2001.

9.http: //www.geoenv.ru/science/osipov_paper/osipov_paper-rus.htm.

10.http: //www.ecosafe.nw.ru/Danger/mainDang.htm.

11.www.bgd-ru.ru.

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5.1. The concept of human habitat. Normal and extreme conditions

livelihood. Survival

5.1.1. The concept of human habitat

During his life, a person is surrounded by objects of the material world that make up the environment surrounding a person, or the human environment (living environment). It consists of inanimate (earth, water, plants, buildings, tools, etc.) and animate (people, animals, etc.) other) objects.

The content of the human habitat depends on the place, time and conditions. The human habitat in the southern regions of the country differs from that in the northern regions due to the difference in climatic conditions. At the same time, the climate itself changes over time, the temperature of the ambient air - throughout the year and day. Differences in the environment in everyday life and at work are especially significant.

The living environment of a person is determined by the conditions of a person's stay in his home, in the bosom of nature (rest, work on a personal plot, etc.), in public places, on the street, in transport, if this is not related to the performance of a person's official duties.

The production environment of a person is determined by the working conditions of a person in production, in an organization, an institution. In most cases, the conditions of the working environment are less favorable for humans than those of the home. However, in some cases, the impact on a person of some factors of these environments can be close. For example, the exposure to solar radiation on a person resting in the sun is close to that of a worker doing outdoor work at the same latitudes and under the same weather conditions.

In the process of human life, the environment has a certain effect on him. For example, atmospheric air can heat or cool the human body, and a falling object can cause injury. Long-term environmental influences of the same nature ultimately cause certain changes in the human body, and under their influence a person adapts to the environment, changing physiologically and psychologically.

From the point of view of impact on humans, the environment can be represented as consisting of factors that are divided into natural (natural) and anthropogenic, or artificial, generated by human activity. In the historical aspect, only natural factors initially existed. Later, anthropogenic factors began to join them.

A number of human habitat factors can have an adverse effect on him.

Natural adverse factors are essential in the domestic environment. For everyday life, for example, the climatic factor is of great importance, which largely determines the living conditions indoors and outdoors. The aquatic environment is of great importance, supplying people with drinking water, irrigating gardens, but at the same time it can bring with it great destruction and casualties (floods, storms at sea, etc.). Equally important in everyday life are the effects of harmful natural substances (dust, poisonous gases, etc.), the temperature factor (burns, frostbite), etc.

With the development of human society, the role of anthropogenic adverse factors increases. Nowadays, they are as important as natural factors. Suffice it to recall the electric shock, the fall of people with their own erected structures, gas poisoning, including carbon monoxide, and many other examples. In the mining industry, for example, the main danger is posed by rock caving in workings as a result of human activities in the depths of the earth, as well as vehicles in mines: they account for about half of the fatal accidents that occur in coal mines.

What environmental factors are unfavorable for the human body? When answering this question, one must proceed from the following.

The development of the human body has adapted (adapted) it to some average values \u200b\u200bof environmental factors and to a certain range of their change relative to average values. But in the process of life of an organism, it is possible that the values \u200b\u200bof environmental factors go beyond their usual limits. The body is not used to such values. The greater the deviation of the values \u200b\u200bof the factor from the usual limits, the more unfavorable it is. We come to the conclusion: the factor of the environment is unfavorable, the values \u200b\u200bof which periodically, but not often, go beyond the range of its values \u200b\u200bhabitual for a given organism. For example, for the inhabitants of the middle latitudes of Russia, the ambient temperature is from + 20 ° C to –20 ° C. Their body has adapted to this diagnosis of temperatures and in such temperature conditions it functions normally, the person feels comfort (convenience). The temperature of + 30 ° C or - 25 ° C is already perceived uncomfortably, and with large deviations from the usual temperature range, a person may experience adverse consequences. Therefore, in this example, unfavorable values \u200b\u200bfor the temperatures of the factor can be considered a temperature above + 25 ° C and below -20 ° C. If the deviations in the range from + 25 ° С to -20 ° С are regular, but small (for example, a deviation from the upper limit of the usual temperatures by + 5 ° С and from the lower one by -5 ° С), a person gets used to them and they will expand the range of comfortable temperatures. Hence the conclusion: in principle, any environmental factor can be unfavorable. For example, oxygen in the air is essential for human life. Its content in the air is about 21%, and the human body is adapted to this content. With a significant decrease (increase) in the oxygen content in the air in a person, changes begin in the functions of a number of organs, which can lead to serious disorders and even death. Thus, oxygen is a favorable factor for human life if its content is within 21%, with a significant deficiency or excess it becomes an unfavorable factor. A similar example can be given with atmospheric pressure: normal atmospheric pressure is favorable for a person, its values, which differ significantly from normal, make atmospheric pressure an unfavorable factor.

Therefore, one should speak not about favorable environmental factors, but about unfavorable values \u200b\u200bof factors. The nature and degree of influence on a living organism of this or that environmental factor depends on the quantitative value of this factor. The further the value of the factor under consideration is from the zone of its comfortable values, the more unfavorable the effect of the factor on the living organism.

5.1.2. Normal and extreme living conditions. Survival

Comfortable or close to them values \u200b\u200bof the factors of the human environment take place, as a rule, in the normal life of a person, in peacetime. They are often referred to as normal living conditions.

Normal living conditions provide for the life support of the population for a normal life, life in peacetime. Almost every Russian lives in these conditions.

In case of emergency, people in the emergency zone may find themselves without shelter, water, food and medical assistance. It is extremely difficult to solve the most important issues of life support of the affected population in these extreme conditions promptly and in the required volumes in most cases, because the support system will be destroyed or its capacity to fully meet all the needs of the victims will be insufficient.

In such cases, it turns out to be important to establish the priority life support of people, which initially provides for the satisfaction of only the physiological needs of a person, primarily in food.

In addition, in some emergency situations in the initial period of their occurrence, even the physiological needs of a person for energy cannot be satisfied. Difficulties arise with housing, water, food preparation, medical care, etc. Similar difficulties can occur under other circumstances, when a person, regardless of the planned actions and route of movement, geographical location, is cut off from the outside world and must rely only on himself. These are the extreme conditions of human life. For a person in extreme conditions, it is natural to desire to survive, i.e. save your life.

The behavior of a person left to himself in extreme conditions, the purpose of which is to preserve his life, is survival.

Extreme conditions in which a person is fighting for survival are characterized by: lack or lack of food (food); lack or lack of drinking water; exposure to low or high temperatures on the human body.

Foodprovides the body's energy needs and the functioning of all human organs and systems.

The composition of food should include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins.

Proteins form the basis of every living cell, every tissue in the body. Therefore, a continuous supply of protein is essential for tissue growth and repair, as well as the formation of new cells. The most valuable proteins are meat, milk, eggs and vegetables, primarily potatoes and cabbage and some cereals - oatmeal, rice, buckwheat.

Fats and carbohydrates are the main sources of energy and determine mainly the calorie content of food. Animal fats are considered more complete than vegetable fats. The most useful fats are milk, cream, sour cream. Cereals, vegetables, fruits are especially rich in carbohydrates; a certain amount of carbohydrates is found in milk.

Vitamins are necessary for proper growth and development of the body, for the normal functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, neuromuscular system, vision, etc. The most important for the body are vitamin C, vitamins of group B, vitamins A, D, E.

In addition, the composition of food should include minerals (calcium, magnesium, phosphorus), which are necessary for the skeletal system, as well as the heart and skeletal muscles. The need for them is fully covered if the food consists of a variety of products of animal and plant origin.

In the human body, the processes of oxidation (combining with oxygen) of physical nutrients (proteins, fats, carbohydrates) are continuously occurring, accompanied by the formation and release of heat. This heat is necessary for all life processes, it is spent on heating the released air, to maintain body temperature, thermal energy ensures the activity of the muscular system. The more muscle movements a person makes, the more he consumes oxygen, and, consequently, the more costs he incurs, and more food is needed to cover them.

Requirements for a certain amount of food are usually expressed in thermal units - calories. The minimum amount of food that is necessary to maintain the human body in a normal state is determined by its needs at rest. These are the physiological needs of a person.

The World Health Organization has estimated that a person's physiological energy requirements are about 1600 kcal per day. The real needs for energy are much higher, they, depending on the intensity of labor, exceed the specified rate by 1.4-2.5 times.

Fasting is a state of the body in the absence or inadequacy of nutrient intake.

Distinguish between absolute, complete and incomplete starvation.

Absolute starvation is characterized by a complete lack of intake of nutrients into the body - food and water.

Complete fasting is fasting when a person is deprived of all food, but not limited in water intake.

Partial starvation occurs when, with sufficient quantitative nutrition, a person does not receive certain nutrients from food - vitamins, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, etc.

With complete starvation, the body is forced to switch to internal self-sufficiency, spending reserves of fatty tissue, muscle protein, etc. It is estimated that a person of average weight has energy reserves of about 160 thousand kcal, 40-45% of which he can spend on internal self-sufficiency without a direct threat to his existence. This amounts to 65-70 thousand kcal. Thus, spending 1600 kcal per day, a person is able to live in conditions of complete immobility and lack of food for about 40 days, and taking into account the implementation of motor functions - about 30 days. Although there are cases when people did not eat for 40.50 or even 60 days and survived.

In the initial period of fasting, which usually lasts 2-4 days, there is a strong feeling of hunger, a person constantly thinks about food. Appetite rises sharply, sometimes there is a burning sensation, pain in the pancreas, nausea. Dizziness, headaches, stomach cramps are possible. When drinking water, salivation increases. In the first four days, a person's weight decreases on average by one kilogram daily, and in areas with a hot climate - up to 1.5 kg. Then the daily losses decrease.

In the future, the feeling of hunger weakens. Appetite disappears, sometimes a person even experiences some vigor. The tongue is often covered with a whitish coating, and the smell of acetone can be felt in the mouth. Salivation does not increase, even with food. There is poor sleep, prolonged headaches, irritability increases. A person falls into apathy, lethargy, drowsiness, weakens.

Hunger eats away at a person's strength from the inside and reduces the body's resistance to external factors. A hungry person freezes several times faster than a full one. He gets sick more often and is more difficult to bear the course of the disease. His mental activity weakens, his working capacity drops sharply.

Water... Lack of water leads to a decrease in body weight, a significant loss of strength, thickening of the blood and, as a result, overstraining of the heart, which spends additional efforts to push the thickened blood through the vessels. At the same time, the concentration of salts in the blood rises, which serves as a formidable signal of the onset of dehydration. Dehydration of the body by 15% or more can lead to irreversible consequences, to death. If a person deprived of food can lose almost the entire supply of tissue, almost 50% of proteins and only after that approach a dangerous line, then the loss of 15% of fluid is fatal. Fasting can last for several weeks, and a person deprived of water dies in a matter of days, and in hot climates, even hours.

The human body's need for water in favorable climatic conditions does not exceed 2.5-3 liters per day.

It is important to distinguish between true water hunger and apparent hunger. Very often the feeling of thirst arises not because of the objective lack of water, but because of improperly organized water consumption. Therefore, it is not recommended to drink a lot of water in one gulp - this will not quench your thirst, but it can lead to swelling and weakness. Sometimes rinsing your mouth with cold water is enough.

With intense sweating, leading to the washing out of salts from the body, it is advisable to drink slightly salted water - 0.5-1.0 g of salt per 1 liter of water.

Cold. According to statistics, from 10 to 15% of people who died in various extreme conditions became victims of hypothermia.

Wind is critical to human survival in low temperatures. At an actual air temperature of - 3 0 С and a wind speed of 10 m / s, the total cooling caused by the combined effect of the actual air temperature and the wind is equivalent to the effect of a temperature of -20 0 С. And a wind of 18 m / s turns frost from 45 0 С into frost 90 0 С in the absence of wind.

In areas devoid of natural shelter (forest, relief folds), low temperatures combined with strong winds can shorten human survival to several hours.

Long-term survival at subzero temperatures also depends largely on the condition of clothing and shoes, the quality of the shelter built, the supply of fuel and food, and the moral and physical condition of a person.

Clothes are capable of protecting a person from the cold in extreme conditions only for a short period of time, yet sufficient for the construction of a shelter (even a snow one). Heat-shielding properties of clothing depend primarily on the type of fabric. Fine-pored tissue retains heat best of all - the more microscopic air bubbles are trapped between the fibers of the tissue, the closer they are to each other, the less such tissue passes heat from the inside and cold from the outside. There are a lot of air pores in woolen fabrics - the total pore volume in them reaches 92%; and in smooth, linen - about 50%.

By the way, the heat-shielding properties of fur clothing are explained by the same effect of air pores. Each fur villi is a small hollow cylinder with an air bubble "sealed" inside it. Hundreds of thousands of such elastic micro-cones make up a fur coat.

Recently, clothes made of synthetic materials and fillers such as synthetic winterizer, nitron, etc. have found widespread use. Here, air capsules are enclosed in the thinnest shell of artificial fibers. Synthetic clothing is slightly inferior to fur in terms of warmth, but it is very lightweight, does not impede movement, and is almost not felt on the body. It is not blown by the wind, snow does not stick to it, it gets a little wet.

The most optimal clothing option is multilayer clothing made from different fabrics - best of all 4-5 layers.

Shoes play a very important role in winter emergencies, because 90% of all frostbite occurs on the lower extremities.

By all available means, one should strive to keep shoes, socks, footcloths dry. To do this, you can make shoe covers from the material at hand, wrap your legs with a piece of loose fabric, etc.

Asylum. Clothes, no matter how warm they are, can protect a person from the cold only for hours, rarely for days. No clothing will protect a person from death if a warm shelter is not built in time.

Cloth tents, shelters from the wreckage of vehicles, wood, metal in the absence of a stove will not save you from the cold. Indeed, when erecting shelters from traditional materials, it is almost impossible to achieve hermetic sealing of seams and joints. The shelters are "blown through" by the wind. Warm air escapes through numerous cracks, therefore, in the absence of stoves, stoves and other highly efficient heating devices, the air temperature inside the shelter is almost always equal to the outside temperature.

An excellent shelter in winter can be built out of snow, and very quickly - in 1.5-2 hours. In a properly built snow shelter, the air temperature only due to the heat emitted by a person rises to minus 5-10 0 С with 30-40 degrees of frost outside. With the help of a candle, the temperature in the shelter can be raised from 0 to 4-5 0 С and higher. Many polar explorers, having installed a couple of primus stoves inside, heated the air to +30 0 С!

The main advantage of snow shelters is the simplicity of construction - they can be built by anyone who has never held a tool in his hands.

5.2. Main human factors contributing to survival

Will to live.With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a subconscious level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation. In extreme conditions, with long-term survival, the instinct of self-preservation is gradually lost, sooner or later a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical and mental stress, the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference, he is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-considered overnight stays, risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore dies without exhausting his reserves of strength to the end, without using food reserves. 90% of people who find themselves after a shipwreck on life-saving equipment die within three days from moral factors. On more than one occasion, rescuers removed dead people from boats or rafts found in the ocean in the presence of food and flasks of water.

Survival based only on the biological laws of self-survival is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical reactions - a psychogenic damaging factor acts. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful. This is the will to live, when the desire to survive should be dictated not by instinct, but by a conscious need. The will to live primarily implies action. Lack of will is inaction. One cannot passively expect help from outside, one must take actions to protect oneself from adverse factors, to help others.

General physical training, hardening.The usefulness of general physical training for a person in an extreme situation does not need to be proven. In an extreme situation, you need strength, endurance, and hardening. These physical properties cannot be acquired under extreme conditions. This takes months. Servicemen-rescuers acquire them in the course of physical exercises, tactical and special training, as well as during individual lessons in certain sports in their free time.

Knowledge of self-rescue techniques. The basis for long-term survival is solid knowledge in the very knowledge - recipes for cooking dishes from caterpillars and tree bark.

A box of matches will not save a person from freezing if he does not know how to properly light a fire in winter or in the rain. Improperly provided first aid only aggravates the victim's condition. It is tempting to have comprehensive knowledge of self-rescue in any climatic zone of the country, in any extreme situations. But this is associated with the assimilation of a large amount of information. Therefore, in practice, it is enough to limit ourselves to the study of a specific climatic zone and possible extreme situations in it. However, it is important to study in advance those self-rescue techniques that are suitable for any climatic zone, typical extreme situations: orientation on the terrain, timing, making fire using primitive methods, organizing a camp, preserving food, "extracting" water, first aid, overcoming water obstacles etc. We must remember the motto: "To know is to be able, to be able is to survive!"

Survival skills.Knowledge of survival techniques must be supported by survival skills. Survival skills are acquired through practice. Having, for example, weapons, but not possessing the skills of hunting, you can die of hunger with an abundance of game. When mastering survival skills, one should not "scatter", trying to immediately master the entire volume of information on a particular issue of interest. It is better to be able to do less, but better. It is not necessary to practically master the construction of all types of snow shelters (there are about 20 of them), it is quite enough to be able to build three or four shelters of various designs.

Correct organization of rescue operations. The survival of a group in an extreme situation largely depends on the organization of rescue operations. It is unacceptable that each member of the group does only what he considers necessary for himself at a given moment in time. Collective survival allows each member of the group to survive, individual survival leads to the death of everyone.

Work within the camp should be distributed by the leader of the group in accordance with the strength and capabilities of each. The physically strong, first of all men, are entrusted with the most labor-intensive work - collecting firewood, building shelters, etc. Weakened women and children should be given jobs that are time-consuming, but do not require much physical effort - maintaining a fire, drying and repairing clothes, collecting food, etc. At the same time, the importance of each work should be emphasized, regardless of the labor input into it.

Any work should, as far as possible, be carried out at a calm pace with an even expenditure of energy. Sharp overloads followed by long rest, irregularity of work lead to a rapid depletion of strength, to the irrational expenditure of energy reserves of the body.

With the correct organization of work, the expenditure of forces of each member of the group will be approximately the same, which is extremely important with a ration, that is, equal for everyone, a diet.

5.3. Survival in the natural environment

5.3.1. Basics and tactics of survival in the natural environment

The basics of survival in the natural environment are solid knowledge in a wide variety of fields, from the basics of astronomy and medicine, and ending with recipes for cooking from unconventional "products" that may be in the place of survival - tree bark, plant roots, frogs, insects, etc. etc. You need to be able to navigate without a compass, give distress signals, be able to build a shelter from bad weather, light a fire, provide yourself with water, protect yourself from wild animals and insects, etc.

The choice of survival tactics in the natural environment is of great importance.

In conditions of survival, three types of human behavior are possible, three tactics of survival - passive survival, active survival, a combination of passive and active survival.

Passive survival tactics - this is waiting for the help of rescuers at the scene of the accident or in the immediate vicinity of it, the construction of structures for housing, the equipment of landing sites, the extraction of food, etc.

The tactic of passive waiting is justified in cases of accidents, forced landings of vehicles, the disappearance of which presupposes the organization of rescue operations to find and rescue victims. It is used in situations where there is absolute certainty that the missing will be searched for and when it is known for certain that the rescue units know the approximate location of the victims.

The tactics of passive survival are also chosen when among the victims there is a non-transportable patient or several seriously ill patients; when the group of victims is dominated by women, children and unprepared for action, poorly equipped people; under especially difficult climatic conditions, excluding the possibility of active movement.

Active survival tactics - This is an independent exit of the victims of an accident or rescuers to the nearest settlement, to people. It can be used in cases where the hope of an ambulance is excluded; when it is possible to establish its location and there is confidence in reaching the nearest settlements. Active survival is also used in cases where there is a need to urgently leave the original place due to severe weather and other factors and to search for an area convenient for passive survival. Active survival is also used in the event of the evacuation of victims from the disaster area.

In some cases, a combined survival tactic is possible, that is, it includes an active and passive form. In this case, by the joint efforts of the victims, a long-term camp (bivouac) is organized, after which a route group is created from among the most prepared. The purpose of the route group is to reach the nearest settlement as soon as possible and, with the help of local search and rescue services, organize the evacuation of the remnants of the group.

5.3.2. Orientation on the ground. Orientation by the sun and stars

A. Determining the sides of the horizon during the day

If you don't have a compass, you can use the sun to determine the approximate direction to the north (and knowing where north is for all other sides of the horizon). Below is a method by which you can, at any time when the sun is bright enough, determine the sides of the horizon by the shadow of a pole (Fig. 5.1).

Find a straight pole one meter long and do the following:

1. Drive the pole into the ground on a level, vegetation-free area with a clear shadow. The pole does not have to be vertical. Tilting it to get the best shadow (in size and direction) does not affect the accuracy of this method.

2. Mark the end of the shadow with a small peg, stick, rock, branch, your own finger, a depression in the snow, or any other method. Wait until the end of the shadow has moved a few centimeters. With a pole length of one meter, you need to wait 10-15 minutes.

3. Mark the end of the shadow again.

4. Draw a straight line from the first mark to the second and extend it approximately 30 cm beyond the second mark.

5. Stand with the toe of your left foot at the first mark and the toe of your right foot at the end of the drawn line.

6. You are now facing north. Identify other sides of the horizon. To mark directions on the ground (to guide others), draw a cross (+) line across the first and mark the sides of the horizon. The basic rule for determining the sides of the horizon If you are not yet sure whether to put your left foot or right foot on the first mark (see paragraph 5), remember the basic rule distinguishing east from west.

The sun always rises on the east side and sets on the west (but rarely exactly in the east and precisely in the west). The shadow moves in the opposite direction. Therefore, anywhere in the world, the first shadow mark will always be in the West direction, and the second in the East.

For an approximate determination of the north, you can use an ordinary clock (Fig.5.2).

In the northern temperate zone, the clock is set so that the hour hand points to the sun. The north-south line lies between the hour hand and the number 12. This refers to standard time. If the hour hand is moved one hour forward, then the line from north to south runs between the hour hand and the number 1. In summer, when the clock hands move one hour forward, instead of the number 1, figure 2. If you are in doubt which side line is north, remember that the sun in the Northern Hemisphere is in the eastern part of the sky before noon, and in the western part of the afternoon. The watch can also be used to determine the sides of the horizon in the southern temperate zone, but somewhat differently than in the northern zone. Here, the number 12 should be directed towards the sun, and then the N-S line will pass in the middle between the number 12 and the hour hand. When the hour hand is moved one hour ahead, the N-S line lies between the hour hand and the number 1 or 2. In both hemispheres, the temperate zones are between 23 and 66 ° north or south latitude. In cloudy weather, place a stick to the center of the clock and hold it so that its shadow falls clockwise. Midway between the shadow and the number 12 is the north direction.

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Figure: 5.1. Determines the north direction from the shadow of the pole.

Figure: 5.2. Determining the north direction with a watch.

You can also navigate by the constellation Cassiopeia. This constellation of five bright stars is shaped like a tilted M (or W when low). Polaris is located directly in the center, almost in a straight line from the central star of this constellation, about the same distance from it. as well as from the Big Dipper. Cassiopeia also slowly revolves around the North Star and is always almost opposite the Big Dipper. This position of this constellation is of great help for orientation in the event that the Big Dipper is located low and may not be visible due to vegetation or tall local objects.

In the Southern Hemisphere, determine the direction to the south, and from here all other directions can be found in the constellation Southern Cross. This group of four bright stars is shaped like a cross tilted to one side. The two stars forming the long axis or rod of the cross are called “pointers.” From the base of the cross, mentally extend the distance five times the length of the cross itself and find an imaginary point; it will serve as a direction to the south (Fig. 5.4.). From this point look directly at the horizon and choose a landmark.

Plants can also help in determining the cardinal points. The bark of trees, individual stones, rocks, walls of old wooden buildings are usually thicker covered with moss and lichen on the north side (Figure 5.5). The bark of trees on the north side is coarser and darker than on the south. In wet weather, a wet dark stripe forms on trees (this is especially noticeable in pine). On the northern side of the trunk, it lasts longer and rises higher. In birches on the southern side of the trunk, the bark is usually lighter and more elastic. In pine, the secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the northern side rises higher along the trunk.

In spring, the grass cover is more developed and dense on the northern outskirts of meadows, warmed by the sun, in the hot period of summer, on the contrary, on the southern, shaded ones. At the anthill, the flatter side faces south.

In spring, on the southern slopes, the snow seems to “bristle”, forming projections (spikes) directed to the south, separated by depressions. The forest border rises higher along the southern slopes than along the northern ones.

Figure: 5.5. Determination of the direction to the north by anthill, annual rings and moss on stones.

The most accurate astronomical methods for determining the cardinal points. Therefore, they should be used first. Use all others only as a last resort - in conditions of poor visibility, inclement weather.

5.3.3. Timing

The method of determining the north direction from the shadow (Figure 5.6) can be used to determine the approximate time of day. This is done as follows:

1. Move the pole to the intersection of the east-west and north-south lines and place it vertically on the ground. Anywhere in the world, the western part of the line corresponds to 6.00 hours, and the eastern part -18.00.

2. The N-S line now becomes the noon line. The shadow of the pole is like an hour hand on a sundial, and with it you can tell the time. Depending on your location and the time of year, the shadow can move either clockwise or counterclockwise, but this does not interfere with the timing.

3. Sundial is not a clock in the usual sense. The duration of the "hour" throughout the year is not the same for them, but it is usually assumed that 6:00 always corresponds to sunrise and 6:00 pm to sunset. However, the sundial is quite suitable for determining the time in the absence of a real clock, or for setting the clock correctly.

Determining the time of day is very important for scheduling an appointment, carrying out a planned concerted action by individuals or groups, determining the remaining length of the day before dark, etc. 12:00 am on the sundial will always be true noon, but the hour hand readings differ slightly from normal time depending on location and date.

4. The way the clock determines the sides of the horizon can give erroneous readings, especially at low latitudes, which can lead to "whirling." To avoid this, place your watch in the sun, and then determine the sides of the horizon by it. This method eliminates 10- the one minute wait necessary to determine the sides of the horizon by the movement of the shadow, and during this time you can get as many indicators as is necessary in order to avoid "whirling".

Figure: 5.6. Determining the time of day by shade.

Determining the sides of the horizon in this modified manner would correspond to determining the direction north from the shadow of the pole. The accuracy of both methods is the same.