In the middle of the 15th century, when the Golden Horde, weakened by civil strife, began to disintegrate, the Crimean yurt turned into an independent khanate. It was formed after a long struggle with the Golden Horde by Hadji Giray, the first Crimean Khan, founder of the famous Giray dynasty, which ruled Crimea for more than three hundred years. The Crimean Khanate, in addition to the Crimean Peninsula, included the Dnieper and Azov regions.

Under the second Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey (1466-1515), the city of Bakhchisarai, the capital of the Crimean Khanate, was founded. Khan Adil-Sahib-Girey in the middle of the 16th century finally moved the khan’s residence to Bakhchisarai, where the khan’s palace was built. The name of the city Bakhchisarai translates as “palace in the garden”. In total, in the entire history of the Crimean Khanate there were 44 khans.

Having freed itself from the Golden Horde, the Khanate already in 1478 fell into vassal dependence on Ottoman Turkey.

Taking advantage of the internecine struggle for power between the sons of Hadji Giray, the Turkish Sultan invaded Crimea in 1475. The Turks captured Kafa, Sogdaya (Sudak), all Genoese settlements and fortifications of the southeastern and southern coasts.

The peninsula was surrounded by a chain of Turkish fortresses: Inkerman (formerly Kalamita), Gezlev (Evpatoria), Perekop, Arabat, Yeni-Kale. The cafe, renamed Keffe, became the residence of the Sultan's governor in Crimea.

Since 1478, the Crimean Khanate officially became a vassal of the Ottoman Porte and remained in this capacity until the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774. Turkish sultans confirmed or appointed and removed Crimean khans.

And yet the Khanate did not lose its statehood, and the khans sometimes pursued a policy independent of the Porte and actively participated in the events taking place in Eastern Europe.

After the Turks captured Constantinople and the Genoese possessions in the Crimea, the peninsula lost its former importance in the trade of Western Europe with the countries of the East. The position of a vassal of Turkey aggravated the economic and political backwardness of the Crimean Khanate.

The Crimean feudal lords preferred to look for a way out of the difficult economic situation in beshbash - predatory raids on neighboring countries to seize booty and wealth. The slave trade in the Khanate, which began with Mengli Giray, turned into a trade, and Crimea became the largest international slave market. True, starting from the fifteenth century, the Zaporozhye Sich became a serious obstacle to raids not only on Ukrainian, but also on Moscow and Polish lands.

The heyday of the Crimean Khanate occurred at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. At this time, culture and art noticeably developed in the Khanate. Architecture has reached a high level. Beautiful mosques, fountains, and water pipelines were built, for which many European, especially Italian, architects were involved.

The main fortress at the entrance to the peninsula was Perekopskaya, which was the gateway to Crimea. The functions of protecting Crimea were performed by the fortress cities of Arabat and Kerch. The trading ports were Gezlev and Kafa. Military garrisons (mostly Turkish, partly local Greeks) were also maintained in Balaklava, Sudak, Kerch, and Cafe.

The state religion on the territory of Crimea was Islam, and shamanism dominated among the Nogai tribes. According to Sharia, every Muslim must participate in wars with infidels. Military activity was mandatory for both large and small feudal lords.

The entire period of the 15th - 18th centuries was a time of almost continuous border conflicts and wars. Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania and other countries were constantly in a state of great tension, since not only the border lands, but also the deep territories of the states were threatened by the possibility of a Tatar invasion. The Turkish government often sent janissary troops and artillery to strengthen the military power of the Tatar army.

The devastating Tatar-Turkish attacks increased from year to year. So, for example, if from 1450 to 1586 there were 84 Tatar attacks on Ukrainian lands, then from 1600 to 1647 - over 70. The objects of Turkish-Tatar attacks were, first of all, cities and towns on the territory of Ukraine.

In the summer of 1571, all Crimean forces led by Khan Davlet-Girey marched on Moscow. Tsar Ivan the Terrible and his corps of guardsmen barely escaped capture. Khan positioned himself near the walls of Moscow and set fire to the settlements. Within a few hours, a huge fire destroyed the city. Losses among residents were enormous. On the way back, the Tatars plundered 30 cities and districts, and more than 60 thousand Russian captives were taken into slavery.

Relations with Crimea were extremely difficult for European countries, since in addition to military methods - raids, wars, the rulers of Crimea often resorted to the Golden Horde practice of collecting tribute from nearby territories. (In the first half of the 17th century, the Russian state alone spent up to 1 million rubles for these purposes. (With this money, four cities could be built annually.)

After the annexation of Crimea to Russia (1783), the entire Muslim population of the peninsula began to be called “Tatars”. By the 80s of the 18th century, there were about 500 thousand Crimean Tatars.

By the 13th century, Crimea, thanks to developed agriculture and the rapid growth of its cities, became an economically highly developed region. It is no coincidence that it was here that the Mongol-Tatars sent one of their first attacks (on the territory of our country).

Sudak was the first to be attacked. This happened in 1223. The first raid was followed by others (in 1238, 1248, 1249); Since then, the Tatars subjugated Sudak, imposed tribute on it and installed a governor there. And in Solkhat (Old Crimea) in the second half of the 13th century, the Tatar administration settled, the city received a new name - Crimea, which apparently later spread to the entire peninsula.

Tatar aggression in Crimea was initially limited to the eastern Crimea, and dependence on the Tatars did not go beyond the payment of tribute, because the nomadic Tatars were not yet able to economically dominate the entire territory of the region. At the end of the same 13th century, the Tatars attacked western Crimea. In 1299, Nogai’s hordes defeated Kherson and Kyrk-Or, marching with fire and sword through the flowering valleys of the southwestern highlands. Many towns and villages were burned and destroyed.

Gradually, the Tatars begin to settle in Crimea. In the 14th century, the first feudal estates of the semi-sedentary Tatar nobility (beys and murzas) appeared in the eastern (near Sudak) and southwestern regions of Crimea. Only later, in the 16th and especially in the 17th-18th centuries, did the Tatars themselves begin to switch to settled agriculture en masse. This process took place everywhere, both in the eastern regions of Crimea and in the western ones. In the Bakhchisarai region, at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, the Tatar beylik (patrimonial land tenure) of the bey from the Yashlavsky family, which was, in essence, a semi-independent feudal principality centered in Kyrk-Ora, present-day Chufut-Kale, began to develop.

At the same time, in the 14th century, beyliks began to form from other strong Tatar families - Shirinov, Barynov, Argynov. The formation of these beyliks was one of the manifestations of general trends in the desire of the Mongol emirs to isolate themselves due to the weakening of the Golden Horde. The continuous internecine struggle within the Mongol Empire led to the fact that Crimea in the second half of the 14th century became the lot of various temporary workers who quickly replaced each other.

The troubles in the Golden Horde were becoming more and more chaotic, when it was difficult even to establish which of the rival khans should be recognized as the truly leading figure. In essence, the Golden Horde ceased to be the only state with a central part to which all Tatar uluses would be subordinate. To a certain extent, it could be said that the Golden Horde in the previous sense no longer existed, only Tatar uluses remained, led by khans from the Genghisid dynasty.

During these years of unrest, discord, and political anarchy, the Golden Horde increasingly lost its position in settled, agricultural areas. Khorezm was the first to fall under Ulugbek, in 1414. Then Bulgar and Crimea fell away.

The date of formation of the Crimean Khanate is controversial. The largest number of researchers date the formation of the Crimean Khanate to 1443. In one of the latest works, which concerns the history of the Crimean Khanate, published in 1984 by the Nauka publishing house, “The Ottoman Empire and the countries of Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe in the XV-XVI centuries.” also called 1443.

One way or another, already in the first half of the 15th century we see the separation from the Golden Horde of the two richest and most cultural regions in the recent past - the Crimea and the Bulgars.

The founding of the Crimean and Kazan Khanates meant that the Golden Horde turned almost entirely into a nomadic state, into a clear obstacle to the development of not only Rus', Lithuania, Poland, but also the other three breakaway regions - Khorezm, the Kazan and Crimean Khanates.

Unrest and strife led to the decline of urban life and agriculture in culturally settled areas. All this could not but strengthen the nomadic sector of the Golden Horde state. It was in this situation that the leaders of individual small Tatar uluses raised their heads. The centrifugal forces of the steppe were carried out primarily through the princes of the Chingizid family who headed them. The steppe itself provided less income to the khan's treasury than the subject cities and villages of landowners.

Agricultural areas passed from hand to hand. The internecine struggle destroyed the productive forces, the population became poorer, the labor productivity of peasants and artisans decreased, and the demands of successive rulers grew. Meanwhile, the economy was in crisis. Trade declined sharply, crafts were in complete decline and were fed only by local markets. The struggle for the independence of the emerging state in Crimea was long and persistent. Even before the death of Edigei (in 1419), power in the Golden Horde was seized by the fourth son of Tokhtamysh, Jabbar-Berdy. After this, we see that the rivalry between the khans in the Golden Horde sharply intensifies, several contenders appear at once.

Among them, first of all, it should be noted Ulug-Muhammad and Devlet-Berdy, whose name is often found in sources of the 20s of the 15th century. However, Ulug-Muhammad's prosperity did not last long. In 1443, according to Abu al-Rezzak of Samarkand, he received news that Borok Khan defeated the troops of Ulug-Muhammad and seized power in the Horde, then defeated the forces of Devlet-Berda. Ulug-Mukhammed fled to Lithuania, Devlet-Berdy - to Crimea. It is characteristic that the events of these years reached Egypt, where, according to the old tradition, they continued to be interested in Golden Horde affairs. The Arab traveler Al-Aini says that in the spring of 1427 a letter arrived from Devlet-Berda, who had captured the Crimea. The person sent with the letter reported that unrest continued in Dasht-i-Kipchak, that three rulers there were challenging each other’s power: “One of them, named Devlet-Berdy, took possession of the Crimea and the adjacent region.”

A letter from Devlet-Berda to the Mamluk Sultan in Egypt indicates that Crimea was in relations with him at that time.

One governor replaces another: in 1443, Hadji Giray (“who retired” ten years ago to the Polish king after another defeat) reappears in Crimea and, with the help of the Lithuanian king, takes possession of the throne. This time Hadji-Girey's position in Crimea was stronger, he was supported by the largest murzas and beys, but the external position of the new state was extremely difficult.

In the 30s of the 15th century, between the Dnieper and Don, after the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Great Horde of Seyd-Ahmed was formed. Claiming leadership among the Tatar uluses, the Seyd-Ahmed Horde waged an intense struggle both against the Volga Horde of Ulug-Muhammad and against the Crimea.

In this situation, Seyd-Ahmed is either trying to oust Hadji-Girey from Crimea, or weaken the khan of the Volga Horde - Ulug-Muhammad, while being in alliance with the ruler of another Volga ulus, Kuchuk-Muhammad. In 1455, Seyd-Ahmed suffered a crushing defeat from the troops of Hadji Giray.

At the turn of the 50-60s of the 15th century, rivalry among the khans led to a new decisive clash, which took place in 1465. Just at this moment, the ruler of the Great Horde, Khan Akhmat, gathered a large army to strike at the Moscow state. This clash ended with the complete triumph of the Crimean Khan Hadji Giray and, undoubtedly, had an impact on the balance of power in Eastern Europe, on the creation of a new political situation in this region. In these actions of Hadji-Girey one can see an attempt to develop a new course of Crimean foreign policy. It is no coincidence that already in these years Hadji Giray Khan was seeking rapprochement with Moscow, thereby anticipating the policy of Mengli Giray Khan in the 70s-90s of the 15th century, which was largely pro-Moscow and at the same time anti-Lithuanian in nature.

The establishment of close trade and political relations with Genoese Caffa by King Casimir in the first half of the 60s of the 15th century indicated the emergence of contradictions between the Crimean Khanate and Lithuania. However, the main danger for Crimea at that moment was approaching not from Lithuania, but from Turkey, where a plan for the conquest of Crimea was already being developed. Not only the Sultan himself participated in the development of the plan for the campaign against Crimea, but also his vizier Gedik Ahmed Pasha, who was then appointed commander-in-chief of the Ottoman armed forces. The first political action of this plan was the removal of Mengli Giray Khan from power shortly before the start of military operations to capture Kaffa.

Unsure of Mengli-Girey’s readiness to actively participate in the campaign on the side of the Sultan, since his close contacts with Kaffa were known (for example, in 1469 he defended it from the encroachments of the Sultan himself, and in 1474 from the attack of the Shirin Murzas, led by Emenek), Gedik Ahmed Pasha chose to deal not with a representative of the Girey dynasty, but with the head of the Shirin family, Emenek.

As a result, Mengli Girey Khan was imprisoned in the Mangup fortress at the beginning of 1475, and Emenek was sent to Old Crimea. And when the Ottoman fleet of about 500 ships appeared in the spring of 1475 on the Kaffa roadstead, Gedik Ahmed Pasha could count on the Crimean Tatars going against Kaffa under the command of Emenek. The operation to capture the Genoese fortress, conceived in this way, lasted only three to four days. Following this, the entire system of Italian colonies was virtually abolished in the Northern Black Sea region.

Taman, Azov, Anapa fell under the power of the Porte; in Crimea - Kerch, Kaffa, Sudak, Chembalo (Balaklava). Having captured the main strategic points of the coastal strip of Crimea, as well as the Taman Peninsula, the commander-in-chief of the Turkish troops in Crimea and the Supreme Vizier Gedik Ahmed Pasha began to politically formalize the victory. This required an influential figure from the Girey dynasty, in particular Mengli-Girey. In July 1475, he was released from Mangup captivity and at the same time concluded an agreement with Gedik Ahmed Pasha of great historical importance for the fate of the Crimean Khanate and the entire region as a whole. In a message (letter) in 1475 to Sultan Muhammad II, Mengli-Girey Khan reported: “We entered into an agreement and conditions with Ahmed Pasha: to be a friend of the padishah to a friend, and an enemy to his enemy.”

Having thus achieved the implementation of his plans regarding the Crimea during 1475, Ahmed Pasha did not at all consider his program completed. Seeking to expand and strengthen his influence in Eastern Europe, he was not content with subjugating Crimea; Now the task was to establish control over other uluses of the former Golden Horde. In order to turn the Volga ulus into his vassal, the Sultan in 1476 authorized the political merging of the Volga yurt with the Crimean one. This was accomplished by removing Mengli-Girey from power and transferring it to Janibek.

However, after a year or two, the Sultan apparently began to understand the disadvantage and even the danger of maintaining close political contacts between Crimea and the Great Horde. The fact is that the ruler of the Great Horde, Khan Akhmat, only declared allegiance to the Porte, but in fact sought to revive the power of the Golden Horde. Of course, the further strengthening of the political power of Akhmat, and therefore his son Janibek, increasingly worried the Sultan, and with him the influential circles of the Crimean feudal lords.

In 1478, Janibek was expelled from Crimea. Mengli-Girey was again freed from Turkish captivity and placed on the Crimean throne for the third time.

BORDERS OF THE CRIMEA KHANATE

Determining the boundaries of the Crimean Khanate is a rather complex issue. Most likely it did not have definite boundaries with its neighbors. The Russian historian V.D. Smirnov speaks about this, emphasizing that the question of the territorial borders of the Crimean Khanate was further complicated by the fact that the emergence of the Khanate itself as a separate state entity is fraught with many ambiguities in the historical sense. Its history becomes completely reliable only from the moment when it came into close contact with the Ottoman Empire, being included in the latter under Sultan Muhammad II. Everything that belongs to a previous time is of great ambiguity. Only the coastal strip, which had long been in the hands of European colonists, constitutes some exception, and even then there are sometimes doubts about it, namely on the question of the relationship of European settlers to the Tatars.

But approximate boundaries can still be determined. The Crimean Khanate is, first of all, Crimea itself, but its southern coast initially belonged to the Genoese, and from 1475 it went to the Turkish Sultan; The Mangup principality was also independent before the Turkish invasion of the peninsula. Thus, the khan owned only the foothills and steppe parts of Crimea. Perekop was not a border, but through it the khan had an exit from the Crimea to the “field”, where the borders of the Crimean Khanate were lost in the vast steppe. Some of the Tatars constantly wandered beyond Perekop, but in the spring the Crimean uluses themselves went out to pasture. In the 15th century, those tracts in the steppe were known where there were military forces guarding nomadic camps, which we can take as the approximate borders of the Crimean Khanate. Thus, the Molochnaya River (or Mius) begins as the border of the Crimean Khanate from Astrakhan and the Nogais. The Konskie Vody River was such a border of the Crimean possessions in the north. In 1560, all Crimean uluses were “driven” beyond the Dnieper, to the Lithuanian side.

Thus, the boundaries of the Crimean yurt of the first Crimean khans outside the peninsula are determined on the eastern side by the Molochnaya River, perhaps going further. In the north, on the left bank of the Dnieper, the borders of the Crimean Khanate extended beyond Islam-Kermen and extended to the Konskie Vody River. In the west, the Crimean nomads went through the steppe beyond Ochakov to Belgorod to Blue Water.

Almost the same borders of the Crimean Khanate are indicated by a number of researchers, but the historian Thunmann stands out among them, who even accompanied his work with a fairly detailed and accurate map.

In determining the more precise boundaries of the Crimean Khanate, the “Map of the Crimean Khanate after the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774-1783”, compiled and drawn by N. D. Ernst, is of great importance. Analysis of these data allows us to quite accurately determine the boundaries of the Crimean Khanate. Yurt Geraev was heterogeneous in terms of natural conditions. The northern slopes of the Crimean mountains, the valleys of Salgir, Alma with their gardens and vineyards, and finally, the steppes in Crimea itself and beyond its borders created special, unique conditions for the development of the economy. In addition to these geographical conditions, it is important that Crimea was a country of old agricultural culture. The Tatars met here with a number of nationalities, whose economic structure was determined by the centuries-old past.

Part of the nationalities of Crimea - Greeks, Karaites, Genoese and others became part of the population of the yurt; on the other hand, many Tatars settled in Greek villages in the vicinity of Kaffa, Sudak, Balaklava and in these cities themselves.

The parallel existence of various ethnic groups and the beginning of the process of assimilation with the previous population should have affected the economy of the Tatars - nomadic pastoralists who found themselves in a region with an ancient agricultural culture.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about the conquest of Crimea by the Mongol-Tatars.

2. How did the process of the Tatars settle to the ground?

3. What was the reason for the collapse of the Golden Ode and the creation of new states?

4. Tell us about the formation of the Crimean Khanate.

5. What consequences did Turkish aggression have for Crimea and the Crimean Khanate?

6. Show on the map the borders of the Crimean Khanate.

7. What influence did local peoples have on the development of the Tatar economy?

SOCIO-POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CRIMEA KHANATE

A characteristic feature of nomadic, in particular Tatar feudalism, was that relations between feudal lords and the peoples dependent on them existed for a long time under the outer shell of tribal relations.

Back in the 17th and even in the 18th centuries, the Tatars, both Crimean and Nogai, were divided into tribes divided into childbirth. At the head of the clan were bey- the former Tatar nobility, who concentrated in their hands huge masses of livestock and pastures captured or granted to them hanami. Large yurts - destinies(beyliks) of these clans, which became their patrimonial possessions, turned into small feudal principalities, almost independent of the khan, with their own administration and court, with their own militia.

A step lower on the social ladder were the vassals of the beys and khans - Murza(Tatar nobility). A special group was the Muslim clergy. Among the dependent part of the population, one can distinguish the ulus Tatars, the dependent local population, and at the lowest level stood slave slaves.

SOCIAL LADDER OF THE CRIMEA KHANATE

KARACH BAY

MUFTI(clergy)

MURZY

DEPENDENT TATARS

DEPENDENT NETATARS

SLAVES

Thus, the clan organization of the Tatars was only a shell of relations typical of nomadic feudalism. Nominally, the Tatar clans with their beys and murzas were in vassal dependence on the khans; they were obliged to field troops during military campaigns, but in fact the highest Tatar nobility was the master in the Crimean Khanate. The dominance of the beys and murzas was a characteristic feature of the political system of the Crimean Khanate.

The main princes and murzas of Crimea belonged to a few specific families. The oldest of them settled in Crimea long ago; they were already known in the 13th century. There is no clear answer to which of them occupied first place in the 14th century. The oldest include, first of all, the family of the Yashlavskys (Suleshevs), Shirins, Baryns, Argyns, and Kipchaks.

In 1515, the Grand Duke of All Rus' Vasily III insisted that Shirin, Baryn, Argyn, Kipchak, i.e., the princes of the main clans, be singled out by name to present funeral ceremonies (gifts). The princes of these four clans, as is known, were called “Karachi”. The institution of Karachi was a general phenomenon of Tatar life. In Kazan, in Kasimov, in Siberia, among the Nogai, the main princes were called Karachi. At the same time - as a rule, which, however, allows for exceptions - there were four Karachis everywhere.

But not all Karachis were equal in status and importance. The most important was the title of the first prince of the Horde. The concept and title of the first prince or second person in the state after the sovereign is very ancient among the peoples of the East. We also find this concept among the Tatars.

The first prince in the Crimean Khanate was close in position to the king, that is, to the khan.

The first prince also received the right to certain incomes; commemorations had to be sent in the following way: two parts to the khan (king), and one part to the first prince.

The Grand Duke, in his position as a courtier, became close to the chosen, court princes.

As you know, the first among the princes of the Crimean Khanate were the Shirinsky princes. Moreover, princes from this family occupied a leading position not only in Crimea, but also in other Tatar uluses. At the same time, despite the scattering across individual Tatar kingdoms, a certain connection, a certain unity, remained between the entire Shirinsky family. But the main nest from where the family of these princes spread was Crimea.

The Shirins' possessions in Crimea extended from Perekop to Kerch. Solkhat - Old Crimea - was the center of the Shirins' possessions.

As a military force, the Shirinskys represented something unified and acted under a common banner. The independent Shirin princes, both under Mengli-Girey and under his successors, often took a hostile position towards the khan. “But from Shirina, sir, the tsar does not live smoothly,” wrote the Moscow ambassador in 1491.

“And from Shirina there was great strife between him,” added the Moscow ambassadors a century later. Such enmity with the Shirinskys, apparently, was one of the reasons that forced the Crimean khans to move their capital from Solkhat to Kyrk-Or.

The Mansurovs' possessions covered the Evpatoria steppes. The beylik of the Argyn beys was located in the region of Caffa and Sudak. The Yashlavsky Beylik occupied the space between Kyrk-Or (Chufut-Kale) and the Alma River.

In their yurt-beyliks, the Tatar feudal lords, judging by the khan's labels (letters of grant), had certain privileges, carried out trials and reprisals against their fellow tribesmen.

Nominally, the Tatar clans and tribes with their beys and murzas were in vassal dependence on the khan, but in fact the Tatar nobility had independence and were the real masters of the country. The beys and murzas greatly limited the power of the khan: the heads of the most powerful clans, the Karachi, constituted the Divan (Council) of the khan, which was the highest state body of the Crimean Khanate, where issues of domestic and foreign policy were decided. The Divan was also the highest court. The congress of the khan's vassals could be complete or incomplete, and this did not matter for its competence. But the absence of important princes and, above all, the patrimonial aristocracy (Karach Beys) could paralyze the implementation of the Divan’s decisions.

Thus, without the Council (Divan), the khans could not undertake anything; Russian ambassadors also reported this: “... the khan cannot carry out any great business without a yurt, which is necessary between states.” The princes not only influenced the decisions of the khan, but also the elections of khans, and even overthrew them several times. The Shirinsky beys were especially distinguished, who more than once decided the fate of the khan's throne. In favor of the beys and murzas, tithes were given from all the livestock that was the personal property of the Tatars, and from all the booty captured during the predatory raids, which were organized and led by the feudal aristocracy, which also received proceeds from the sale of captives.

The main type of service of the serving nobility was military service, in the khan's guard. The Horde can also be considered as a well-known military unit, headed by the Horde princes. Numerous lancers commanded the khan's cavalry detachments (the ancient Mongol term was also applied to them - Ulan right and uhlan left hands).

The same service khan princes were the khan governors of the cities: Prince of Kyrk-Or, Ferrik-Kermen, Prince Islam of Kermen and Ordabazar governor. The position of governor of a particular city, like the title of prince, was often transferred to members of the same family. Among the feudal lords close to the Khan's court were the highest clergy of the Crimea, who to one degree or another influenced the internal and foreign policy of the Crimean Khanate.

The Crimean khans have always been representatives of the Girey family. They assigned themselves extremely pompous titles such as: “Ulug Yortning, veTehti Kyryining, ve Deshti Kipchak, ulugh Khani,” which means: “Great Khan of the Great Horde and Throne [state] of Crimea and the Kipchak steppes.” Before the Ottoman invasion, the Crimean khans were either appointed by their predecessors or elected by representatives of the highest aristocracy, primarily the Karach Beys. But since the Turkish conquest of Crimea, elections of the khan were carried out extremely rarely, this was an exception. The Sublime Porte appointed and removed khans depending on its interests. It was usually enough for the padishah, through a noble courtier, to send one of the Gireys, destined to be the new khan, an honorary fur coat, a saber and a sable cap studded with precious stones, with a hatti sherif, that is, a personally signed order, which was read by the kyrysh-beg gathered in the Divan; then the former khan abdicated the throne without grumbling or opposition. If he decided to resist, then for the most part, without much effort, he was brought to obedience by the garrison stationed in Kafa and sent to the Crimea by the fleet. Deposed khans were usually sent to Rhodes. It was something extraordinary if a khan retained his rank for more than five years. During the existence of the Crimean Khanate, according to V.D. Smirnov, 44 khans were on the throne, but they ruled 56 times. This means that the same khan was either removed from the throne for some offense or put back on the throne. Thus, Men-gli-Girey I and Kaplan-Girey I were enthroned three times, and Selim-Girey turned out to be a “record holder”: he was enthroned four times.

The khan's prerogatives, which they enjoyed even while under Ottoman rule, included: public prayer (khutbah), i.e. offering him “for health” in all mosques during Friday services, issuing laws, commanding troops, minting coins, the value of which he raised or lowered, at will, the right to establish duties and tax his subjects at will. But, as stated above, the power of the khan was extremely limited by the Turkish Sultan, on the one hand, and the Karach Beys, on the other.

In addition to the khan, there were six highest ranks of state rank: Kalga, Nuraddin, Orbey and three seraskira or Nogai general.

Kalga Sultan- the first person after the khan, the governor of the state. In the event of the death of the khan, the reins of power rightfully passed to him until the arrival of a successor. If the khan did not want or could not take part in the campaign, then the kalga took command of the troops. The residence of the Kalgi Sultan was in a city not far from Bakhchisarai, it was called Ak-Mosque. He had his own vizier, his own divan-effendi, his own qadi, his court consisted of three officials, like the khan’s. Kalgi Sultan met every day in his Divan. The Divan had jurisdiction over all decisions about crimes in his district, even if the matter involved a death sentence. But the kalga did not have the right to give a final verdict; he only examined the trial, and the khan could already approve the verdict. Kalgu Khan could only be appointed with the consent of Turkey; most often, when appointing a new khan, the Istanbul court also appointed Kalgu Sultan.

Nuraddin Sultan- second person. In relation to the kalga, he was the same as the kalga was in relation to the khan. During the absence of the khan and kalga, he took command of the army. Nuraddin had his own vizier, his divan-effendi and his own qadi. But he did not sit in the Divan. He lived in Bakhchisarai and moved away from the court only if he was given any assignment. On campaigns he commanded small corps. Usually he was the prince of the blood.

They occupied a more modest position orbey And seraskirs. These officials, unlike the Kalgi Sultan, were appointed by the khan himself. One of the most important persons in the hierarchy of the Crimean Khanate was mufti Crimea, or kadiesker. He lived in Bakhchisarai, was the head of the clergy and interpreter of the law in all controversial or important cases. He could remove the qadis if they judged incorrectly.

The hierarchy of the Crimean Khanate can be schematically represented as follows.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about the clan organization of the Crimean Tatars.

2. What role did the institution of “Karach Beys” play in the Crimean Khanate?

3. What were the meaning and functions of the Divan?

4. Describe the powers of the Crimean khans.

5. Name the highest government positions. Describe their role in the political structure of the Crimean Khanate (Kalga Sultan, Nuraddin Sultan, Orbey and Seraskirs, Mufti of Crimea-cadiesker).

SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION OF THE CRIMEA KHANATE

The Tatars, both Crimean and Nogai (who roamed the Black Sea and Kuban steppes), were divided into tribes(for the Crimean Tatars - aimaks, for the Nogais - hordes and tribes), divided into childbirth. At the head of the clans, as noted above, were the beys - the highest Tatar nobility, who owned huge herds of livestock and pastures captured by them in the Crimea or granted to them. They directed the movement of their subjects (their ulus) and actually controlled all the land, i.e. pastures for nomads (yurts), which determined the power of the beys over the direct producers - Tatar cattle breeders. The influence of the beys therefore extended to the entire structure of the Tatar clans. A step lower on the social ladder were the vassals of the beys - Murza(Tatar nobility), who received land grants and various feudal privileges from the beys.

Thus, the clan organization of the Tatars was only a shell of relations typical of nomadic feudalism in the form in which it developed in the Mongol empire of Genghis Khan in the 12th-13th centuries. These were relations between the Tatar feudal elite of the Crimean Khanate, on the one hand, and the mass of simple Tatar cattle breeders, on the other.

As already noted, by the 16th century the Crimean Khanate actually covered not only the steppe and foothill Crimea, but also the endless steppe expanses between the lower reaches of the Dnieper and Don, as well as the steppes between the Don and Kuban.

Actually in Crimea lived the so-called Perekop Tatars, and the steppes outside the peninsula in those days were occupied by a horde Nogai Tatars(in the eastern Azov region the so-called Nogai), subordinate to the Crimean Khanate.

CASTLE BREEDING

Since the 13th century, the Tatars, steppe herders, have roamed such a vast space. According to Sigismund Herberstein, the Austrian ambassador to Moscow (in 1517 and 1526), ​​who visited the Crimea, the Tatars “do not stay long in one place... They have grazed pastures in one place, they move to another with herds, wives and children, which they carry with them on carts.”

The Tatars roamed in separate small villages (ails), which sometimes, for the sake of safety, united and roamed in large camps.

Martin Bronevsky (ambassador of the Polish king Stefan Batory to the Tatars in 1578) reports that “the Tatars eat horse meat and lamb, of which they have a lot. The common people do not have bread; instead they use crushed millet diluted with water and milk.”

In the steppe part of Crimea and among the Nogai, whose economy was especially primitive, this continued in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Murzas also preferred cattle breeding to agriculture.

In Crimea, the steppe nomads preserved their way of life, and, of course, they also preserved the most ancient branch of their economy - horse breeding. The horse was of great importance for the Tatars - it was transport, an assistant in the household, and at the same time food. The Tatars knew how to make sharp and tasty cheeses from mare’s milk, fermenting it with barley, preparing kumiss, and cooking millet soup with milk. They prepared various dishes from horse meat, the meat of foals was especially valued. Crimean horses, not particularly distinguished (not tall), were fast, hardy and surprisingly strong. The Crimean khans valued the breed of their horses so highly that they even prohibited the sale of them for breeding. The herds of horses were significant, as evidenced by the fact that the Tatars took with them up to 300 thousand horses on individual campaigns.

There were also quite numerous herds of sheep, valued for meat, milk and especially for their skin - winter clothing was usually made from sheepskin. The famous Crimean fat tail breed was also bred - fat tail fat was highly valued, it was believed that it even had healing properties. Sheep farming was carried out mainly in the steppe regions, where flocks numbered several thousand heads. They were also engaged in sheep breeding in the mountainous Crimea, here sheep were grazed on yayls from early spring until late autumn. Significantly fewer cows were bred. Their milk was used widely - added to kumys, sharp cheeses were made from it. One of the most common food products was katyk - a sour drink made from cow's or sheep's milk.

They also bred goats, camels, and oxen. Later, the donkey became a favorite riding and pack animal. There were many chickens in the household.

AGRICULTURE

Cattle breeding was supplemented by agriculture: the Tatars plowed certain plots of land in the steppe, usually associated with wintering places, sowed grain there, then went nomadic and returned to harvest the crops. The fact that the harvest was important for the Crimean Tatars is evidenced by the message of the Russian ambassador Romodanovsky to Ivan III in 1491. In response to the order of the Great Prince of Moscow to hurry Meng-li-Girey with sending troops against the common enemy, Romodanovsky writes: “Only Meng-li-Girey will take his bread, but there will be no army against him.” As we see, the “harvesting campaign” is placed on a par with the army, as a matter that can preoccupy and distract the khan’s attention so much that he will have no time for other matters. The harvest and its timely collection have already become an important vital issue in Crimea. This was the case in both the 16th and 18th centuries. Contemporaries repeatedly report this. In this way, the nomadic Tatars developed a connection with the land, which led to the emergence of not only communal, but also feudal ownership of the land.

In the second half of the 16th - first half of the 17th century, significant changes occurred in the economic life of the Crimean Khanate, due to the transition of most of the population of Crimea to a sedentary lifestyle and the development of agriculture (tribes living outside the peninsula continued their usual nomadic lifestyle). This process was quite complicated. There are cases when the Crimean khans tried to use administrative measures to stop the nomadic movement of the Tatars and turn them into sedentary residents. In particular, Khan Sahib-Girey (1532-1553) allocated lands in the Crimea to nomads who wanted to transition to a settled life. He forcibly restrained the Tatars from constant movement, ordering the carts of the nomads to be cut down. To prevent them from leaving the peninsula, he ordered to restore and deepen the ditch across the isthmus connecting Crimea to the mainland.

Gradually, this process led to the fact that, along with cattle breeding, which remained the leading branch of the economy, agriculture began to occupy an increasing place in the economy of the Crimean Khanate. Even with a nomadic lifestyle, the Tatar population gradually developed the lands adjacent to the winter huts for hayfields and arable land. In the summer, when the bulk of the nomads grazed livestock on summer pastures, most often outside the Crimea, some of them remained in winter huts, where they carried out field work - cutting hay, sowing and harvesting grain. Gradually, the former nomadic pastoral-tribal communities settled in winter huts for permanent residence, thus creating entire settlements. The tribal structure of society that existed in the Crimean Khanate with the predominance of cattle breeding began to give way to sedentary life.

By the beginning of the 17th century in Crimea, the rural territorial community was finally established as an independent socio-economic unit - jeamat- with collective land use, public hayfields and wells. Land cultivation has improved and productivity has increased.

The transition to settled agriculture occurred relatively quickly in the valleys and along the rivers, starting from Kaffa to the Old Crimea and the upper reaches of the Karasu River, as well as in the areas of the Bakhchisarai valleys. Here rivers were used for irrigation, and water was diverted from them to their plots through small canals. The development of agriculture among the Tatars was also influenced by the peoples who had long inhabited the Crimea, especially the Greeks. Under their influence, the Tatars developed gardening and viticulture. The Crimean Tatars treated water sources with reverence, protected them in every possible way and showed care, cleared water springs of pollution, lined them with stone or wood, and built all kinds of fountains or reservoirs.

The process of settling the Tatars on the earth was facilitated by the availability of land - according to Crimean Muslim law, the former wastelands on which the new owners “sat” became their property - according to the definition of Islam, “he who cultivated the land owns it.”

They grew barley, wheat, and millet. The predominant crops were barley and millet. They took roasted barley or millet flour, as well as oatmeal, with them on hikes; A popular low-alcohol drink, buza, was made from millet. Rice, oats, tari and lentils were also sown. The Tatars stored grain according to the ancient method - in oruz pits lined with dry straw or coated with clay. Clay was often fired.

In the foothills and mountainous areas they practiced gardening and viticulture. Pears, apple trees, plums, cherries, peaches were grown, and nuts were widespread. By the 18th century, local fruit varieties were bred in Crimea - 37 pears, 17 apples, 18 plums and 10 cherries. The Tatars treated grapes with special warmth, which also came in a wide variety of varieties. They grew a large amount of tobacco, which not only met local needs, but was even exported outside the region.

Using flax and silk threads, the Tatars wove linen and multi-colored silk fabrics.

The honey of Crimean gray bees was of high quality. Beekeeping was widespread in all areas of the peninsula. Honey was even exported, primarily to Turkey. The wax was supplied to candle factories.

Questions and tasks

1. Describe the relationship between the nobility and the population under its control.

2. Tell us about the development of cattle breeding and its role in the state’s economy (horse breeding, sheep breeding, and other industries).

3. Describe the level of development of agriculture (field cultivation, horticulture, viticulture, etc.).

DEVELOPMENT OF CRAFTS AND TRADE

Crafts and trade were common among the Tatars during the period of their nomadic life. Craftsmen accompanied both the tribes during seasonal movements and the nomadic headquarters of the khan, and traders were also present. With the settlement of the Tatars on the land, crafts and trade began to develop at a faster pace.

The development of crafts leads to the creation of a guild organization, which was borrowed from the Greeks, who brought it from their old homeland - Byzantium.

Crimean artisans achieved high quality products from metal and leather, wool and wood, so that many of them were real works of art. Crimean knives - “pichaks”, famous throughout the East, were also purchased by Moscow; batches of this product reached 400 thousand pieces.

Crimean knives and daggers were valued primarily for their excellent hardening and elegant blade shape. But the decoration was no less attractive to fans - the handle was decorated with inlay from walrus bone and horn, the blades were decorated with gold and silver notches. Such products were also sold in Europe, especially in France. In Istanbul, the production of counterfeits was even established, on which Bakhchisarai and Karasubazar stamps were placed, after which their price rose sharply.

Various types of firearms were also manufactured in Bakhchisarai. Carbines were especially famous: one Bakhchisarai carbine cost from 15 to 200 piastres - for comparison, we note that a good horse cost 30 piastres. Up to 2 thousand guns per year were produced for export alone; Naturally, there was great demand for them within the Khanate. Crimean artisans met the need for ammunition - in the 18th century, 10 gunpowder workshops operated in Kaffa alone. Saltpeter was produced in Karasubazar.

A significant amount of carpets, fabrics, tanned hides, and leather were exported. Most leather was produced in Gezlev and Karasubazar. There were leather workshops not only in cities, but also in villages, since raw materials were abundant and therefore cheap. Various types of goods were produced - morocco, yuft and shagreen. A lot of leather went into further processing - excellent shoes, “oriental” shoes, etc. were made from them. But the most famous leather goods were, of course, Crimean saddles. They were distinguished by their lightness, convenience and beautiful finish; they were exported in large quantities. The workshop of master builders of various specialties was also very numerous.

The development of crafts and the high level of manufactured products, the demand for wool, leather, etc., as well as the high demand for “live” goods (full) stimulated the development of trade in the Crimea, but it was no longer of the magnitude that it was before the 13th century. reached.

FISHERS

Trades, in which most of the population took part, occupied a significant place in the economy of the region. During this period, the region was still rich in flora and fauna. Even in the steppe there was a lot of game - hares, foxes, bustards. The mountain and foothill regions were even richer in this regard. This allowed the local population to replenish their food supplies.

In coastal areas, on lakes and rivers, people engaged in fishing. They exported salted and dried fish, as well as caviar. Far beyond the peninsula, Crimean salt was known, the main place of extraction of which was the Perekop lakes.

Questions and tasks

1. What contributed to the development of crafts?

2. What does this fact indicate that the artisans of Crimea were united into workshops?

3. Prove that a number of metal products reached a high level.

4. Show with examples the high level of leather production.

5. Tell us about the crafts.

6. What goods were exported from Crimea?

FOREIGN POLICY OF THE CRIMEA KHANATE

FOREIGN POLICY OF THE CRIMEA KHANATE UNDER HAJI-GIREY

With the separation of the Crimean ulus from the Golden Horde and the formation of the Crimean Khanate, quite lively diplomatic relations immediately began between Crimea and neighboring countries, which continued until the annexation of Crimea to Russia.

The resulting Crimean Khanate, led by the Girey dynasty, had a strong influence on the political life of Muscovite Rus', the Polish-Lithuanian state, the Great Horde, and, since 1475, Turkey and a number of other states.

In the early days of its existence, the Crimean Khanate itself, led by its first khan Hadji Giray, had to solve a number of extremely difficult problems. At the same time, the main problem was to consolidate its position as an independent state, fighting off, first of all, the claims of the Great Horde to once again unite all the Tatar khanates under its leadership.

Based on the current circumstances, Hadji Giray built his foreign policy. In the first years of his reign, he primarily relied on the alliance and support of the Polish-Lithuanian state, thanks to whose help he was able to seize the throne in Crimea. But soon the smart and far-sighted Hadji Giray realized that only Muscovite Rus' could be the most reliable ally in the implementation of his plans, since for both Moscow and Crimea the weakening and destruction of the Great Horde was a necessary condition for the further development and existence of these states.

Close relations are beginning to develop between Moscow and Crimea. V.D. Smirnov, who studied the history of the Crimean Khanate well, argued: “It was more profitable for Hadji Giray to spare the Russians, just to prevent the Golden Horde from recovering.”

Moscow also benefited from an alliance with the Crimean Khanate, since by this time, thanks to the prudent actions of Hadji Giray, it had a fairly significant army. The author of a brief history of the Crimean Khanate wrote: “Since Hadji Giray knew how to attract hearts, during his reign he gathered a significant number of people from the Volga in Crimea. Because of this he had a lot of troops...” Thus, in the fight against the Great Horde, Moscow received an ally ready to provide assistance, and above all with its large army.

And when in 1445, the Khan of the Great Horde, Seyd-Akhmet, began offensive operations against the Moscow Grand Duke Vasily II, Hadji Giray came to the aid of the latter and inflicted a crushing defeat on Seyd-Akhmet’s troops.

As the positions of the Crimean Khanate strengthened, its relationship with the Great Horde worsened and the alliance with Moscow became stronger. In 1465, just at this moment, when the ruler of the Great Horde, Khan Akhmat, gathered a large army to strike at the Moscow state, Khan Hadji Giray again disrupted the plans of the Great Horde, striking from the rear. All this indicated that the Crimean Khan sought to prevent the further strengthening of the Great Horde, develop a new course of Crimean foreign policy, achieve rapprochement with Moscow and at the same time weaken contacts with the Jagiellons.

The contradictions between the Polish-Lithuanian state and the Crimean Khanate are intensifying due to changes in the latter’s foreign policy course (refusal of an alliance with Poland and a transition to an alliance with Moscow). This is evidenced by the establishment in the first half of the 60s of the 15th century by King Casimir of close trade and political relations with Genoese Caffa, which was clearly disadvantageous to Hadji Giray. In addition, the Polish-Lithuanian state begins to ally with the Khan of the Great Horde. There is evidence that at the end of the 60s there already existed hostile relations between King Casimir and Crimea, and at the same time, allied relations between the Polish-Lithuanian state and the ruler of the Volga Horde, Khan Akhmat, the enemy of Crimea and Moscow. This is confirmed by direct diplomatic negotiations between Casimir and Akhmat in the late 60s regarding the joint struggle against Moscow and the military actions that were then unfolding - the campaign of Khan Akhmat against the Moscow state.

At the same time, this led to the strengthening of alliance relations between Moscow and Crimea. In response to the campaign of Khan Akhmat, Hadji-Girey made a number of campaigns to the southern outskirts of the Polish-Lithuanian state. Thus, it can be argued that by the end of the reign of Hadji Giray, the foreign policy of the Crimean Khanate was pro-Moscow and at the same time anti-Polish and anti-Horde in nature.

CHANGES IN FOREIGN POLICY UNDER MENGLI-GIREY

Hadji-Girey's successor, his son Mengli-Girey, inherited not only the Crimean throne, but also continued the foreign policy course developed by his father, especially in the first years of his reign. As the Russian author noted, “Mengli-Girey was a very energetic and enterprising khan... He entered into active relations with our Ivan Vasilyevich III for the allied opposition to the Polish king and the prince of Lithuania.”

Having ascended the throne after the death of Hadji-Girey and the bloody struggle with his brothers, Mengli-Girey restored allied ties with Moscow. Thus, in the shert (oath) letter given in 1475 to Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich through the Russian ambassador, boyar Nikita Beklemishev, he writes: “... so that Tsar Mengli-Girey, his lancers and his princes, be in friendship with the Russian state and love, against enemies to stand for one thing: the lands of the Moscow state and the principalities belonging to it do not fight; those who committed this without His knowledge should be executed, the people captured in this case should be given back without ransom and the stolen goods should be returned in full, ambassadors should be sent to Moscow without duties... and the Russian ambassador will have direct and duty-free access to Crimea.”

Mengli-Girey backs up his words with decisive actions. Thus, in response to the campaign of the Khan of the Great Horde against Moscow in 1468, Mengli-Girey responded with ruinous campaigns against the ally of the Khan of the Great Horde - the Polish state in 1469-1471.

But soon Mengli-Girey could no longer conduct independent not only foreign, but even domestic policy due to the fact that Crimea was captured by Turkey in 1475 and the Crimean Khanate lost its independence. And in order to retain the throne, Mengli-Girey was forced to accept Turkish conditions and in July 1475, as mentioned above, in a letter sent to the Sultan he said: “We entered into an agreement and conditions with Ahmed Pasha: to be a friend of the padishah , and his enemy - an enemy,” and also expressed gratitude for the fact that the Crimeans “entered into the mercy of the padishah, into the composition of his state.” The Crimean Khanate was now a vassal of the Ottoman Porte.

The conditions of this dependence were quite clearly defined. The Ottoman Empire insisted that the closest relatives of the Crimean khans be constantly in Istanbul, who, as a representative of the Girey dynasty, could replace him on the Crimean throne at any time convenient for the Porte. In addition, the coastal strip of Crimea, from Balaklava to Kerch, with its center in Caffa, passed into the possession of the Turkish Sultan. Large Turkish garrisons were located here, which could be used against the disobedient Khan.

Having thus ensured real control over the activities of the Crimean rulers, the Porte made some concessions to them, keeping in mind the possibility of a more flexible use of Crimea as an instrument of its policy. She promised to appoint khans to the Crimean throne only from the Girey clan, giving the khanate internal political autonomy and the right to communicate with foreign powers.

Thus, the foundations of Crimean-Turkish relations were laid, which later changed in some issues, but remained stable in the main thing: Crimea was a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, an obedient conductor of its policies. The establishment of this kind of dependence of Crimea on the Porte became one of the key moments not only in the history of their relationship, but also in the policy of Ottoman-Crimean diplomacy in this region for three centuries. The Porte in some cases threw the warlike Crimea into battle, offering it to equalize the forces of the Eastern European states by military means, in other cases it resorted to means of peaceful diplomacy.

But despite the dramatic changes in the Crimean Khanate, its foreign policy under Mengli-Girey basically remained the same, almost until the very end of his reign. Realizing that Mengli-Girey is in a rather difficult situation and at any moment the clouds over his head could thicken, Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich sent him a letter in April 1480, in which he assures “... about the Tsar’s safe arrival in Russia, if due to some misfortune he will lose his possession, about non-oppression of both him and those who will follow him, and about finding in this case possible ways to return to him the throne of his father’s lost in the Crimea.” In response to this letter, Mengli-Girey sends a shert letter to Ivan Vasilyevich, in which he confirms his obligations with the sovereign and concludes “... a new alliance of mutual assistance against the common enemies of their Polish king Casimir and the Horde king Akhmat.” Such assurances from the Crimean Khan were most welcome for Moscow.

At this time, intensive negotiations took place between the Polish king Casimir and the khan of the Great Horde, Akhmat, regarding the organization of a joint armed action against the Russian state, which had noticeably strengthened after the annexation of Veliky Novgorod and essentially ceased to reckon with the Great Horde. The planned joint Horde-Polish offensive against the Russian state was conceived as an operation of large military-strategic and political scale. If successful, the Great Horde counted on the restoration of its white power, and Casimir counted on the weakening of Moscow, as well as the weakening of the Crimean Khanate, which increasingly opposed Poland.

In the summer of 1480, Khan Akhmat with a large army marched to the southern borders of the Russian state and took up positions on the southern bank of the Oka River. The Russian armies opposing him were positioned along the northern bank of the river. Meanwhile, Khan Akhmat did not begin a decisive battle. One of the reasons for this was that he was waiting for the arrival of the army of the Polish king Casimir, not daring to fight the Russian army only with his own forces.

But Casimir did not send troops to the Oka, showing, as many historians believe, mysterious slowness and a difficult to explain reluctance to fulfill his allied obligations. The fact is that the Polish king could not send his troops to help Khan Akhmat, since the Crimean troops led by Mengli-Girey at that time carried out devastating raids on the lands of Podolia, Volyn, and Kiev region, which were part of the possessions of the Polish king.

Mengli-Girey, fulfilling allied obligations with the Moscow state, made a number of similar raids on the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

Close, mutually beneficial alliance relations between Moscow and Crimea survived until the beginning of the 16th century. Thus, in the winter of 1501/1502, Mengli-Girey undertook the development of a plan for a military campaign for 1502, which planned to carry out joint military operations with the Moscow state against the Great Horde. And already in the spring of 1502, Mengli-Girey began to take active action. He brought his rather numerous troops to the location of the Horde forces of Shikh-Akhmat and at the beginning of June 1502, somewhere in the area of ​​the Sula River, inflicted a crushing defeat on them.

After this battle, the Great Horde virtually ceased to exist.

COURSE ON “PARALLEL SUPPORT”

After this, the foreign policy course of the Crimean Khanate changed. This process began, perhaps, a little earlier, at the end of the 15th century, when, according to K. Marx, “amazed Europe, at the beginning of the reign of Ivan III, hardly even suspected the existence of Muscovy, sandwiched between Lithuania and the Tatars, was stunned by the sudden appearance a huge empire on its eastern outskirts." Turkey, as well as the Crimean Khanate, was clearly not interested in the emergence of a “huge empire” in a region where Turkey had its own interests. And if at first Turkey was not against the union of Crimea with Moscow, directed against the Great Horde and Poland, now it began to demand that the Crimean Khanate radically change its foreign policy course in relation to Moscow and Poland.

A number of facts indicate a change in the foreign policy course of the Crimean Khanate.

For example, the successes of Moscow troops in 1500 and the defeat of the Lithuanian army at the Vedrosha River made an unfavorable impression on the Crimean Khan. Despite the fact that Ivan III abandoned the campaign against Smolensk in the winter of 1500/1501 (Mengli-Girey clearly did not like the campaign), the Crimean Khan still stopped armed support for the Moscow army and, in addition, began to speed up diplomatic negotiations with Krakow and Vilna. The latter, in turn, sought to break the union of Crimea with the Moscow state as soon as possible. “Very significant were the attempts of the Lithuanian regiment - the Kyiv governor, Prince Dmitry Putyatich, to frighten Mengli-Girey with the military successes of Moscow, the prospect of bringing the borders of the Moscow state closer to Crimea itself and at the same time offer the khan an anti-Moscow alliance, regular payment of tribute... These demarches, apparently, were designed for a complete reorientation of the Crimean policy, but they did not have an even greater impact on Mengli-Girey; he knew their real price well,” the source says.

However, new issues began to emerge in Poland’s relations with Crimea. Mengli-Girey was now more willing than before to receive Polish diplomats, at the same time he showed some “slowness” in organizing raids on the southeastern territories of the Polish-Lithuanian state. Thus, in the spring of 1501, Mengli-Girey seemed to be ready to move against Lithuania (Moscow ambassadors reported this to Ivan III), however, he still did not carry out this operation.

Ivan III became convinced of Mengli-Girey’s reluctance to continue active cooperation with the Moscow state when information was received about persistent attempts by Polish diplomacy to conclude peace and alliance with Crimea. This moment came in the spring of 1503. On the one hand, Mengli-Girey had already embarked on the path of negotiations with the Polish-Lithuanian government, received Polish ambassadors in 1502-1504, at the same time he organized campaigns in the Chernigov region, which was already under the control of the Russian state, and showed a certain interest in changing the khans to Kazan throne; on the other hand, he was afraid of the political “resurrection” of Shikh-Akhmat, his connections with the Nogais, and he was also afraid of the restoration of the Horde-Polish military alliance. Therefore, Mengli-Girey’s position was very cautious.

For example, he deliberately delayed the Moscow negotiations in 1503-1504 and forced the Russian ambassador to wait almost a whole year in Putivl for a “pass” to enter Crimea. But at the same time, Mengli-Girey vigilantly ensured that the Moscow state did not ultimately abandon the union with Crimea. Mengli-Girey was especially afraid that Moscow, having severed relations with Bakhchisarai, would enter into an alliance with another state in the region. Therefore, he alternates raids either on the possessions of the Polish king, or on the possessions of the Grand Duke of Moscow.

The reluctance to sever relations with Moscow is evidenced by the fact that Mengli-Girey, knowing about the replacement of his stepson Abdul Latif on the Kazan throne by Muhammad-Emin, a khan of pro-Moscow orientation, initially treated this very calmly, even sending a letter to the Moscow state in which he indicates: “For the former king of Kazan, King Mengli-Girey, the stepson of Nurzatan Queen, the son of Abdul Letif, be to the Russian sovereign in all obedience, being zealous both to his sovereign and to his children, not to pester the Polish king and other sovereign enemies, and not to contact him in any way.” refer; live in the place that has been given to him in possession, and not leave Russia anywhere without the permission of the state.” Abdul Latif was granted the city of Yuryev by the Moscow sovereign.

But there are fewer and fewer traces of the former active cooperation; on the contrary, the position of the Crimean Khanate and its diplomats in relation to the Moscow state is becoming increasingly tough. He shows more and more attention to the Kazan Khanate and begins to resolutely demand the return of Abdul Latif to Crimea by the Russian government. Approves the preparation of a rebellion in Kazan against the Russian state, which broke out in the summer of 1505. Using the support, and maybe even the help of the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, the Kazan Khan Muhammad-Emin first opposed the “abuses” of the Moscow governors, but, as the Crimean Khan more and more actively incited against Moscow, Muhammad-Emin even made an attempt attacks on Nizhny Novgorod and Murom. After Vasily III came to power, the Kazan Khan openly proclaimed the severance of relations with the Moscow state.

Crimea’s policy towards the Moscow state and in the Eastern European region is becoming increasingly harsh, especially in the last decade of the reign of Mengli-Girey and the Turkish Sultan Bayezid standing behind him. The Crimean Khan makes fewer and fewer raids into the territory of the Polish king, and at the same time Mengli-Girey begins to carry out increasingly regular devastating raids on the southern outskirts of the Moscow state. Mengli-Girey’s tactics towards Moscow (and, indeed, towards other states) are becoming more and more treacherous. With one hand he writes a letter to the Moscow Tsar with the assurance “of friendship and harmony, against the Polish king ... the Grand Duke of the lands and the Russian princes subject to him,” with the other hand he saddles a horse and makes a predatory raid on Russian lands (often ahead of the ambassador sent with a letter of “friendly assurances”).

The important, drastic changes in the foreign policy course of Crimea and the Ottoman Porte that occurred during these years have repeatedly attracted the attention of researchers. At the same time, many of them, trying to find out the reasons that caused such a sharp change in the relationship between Moscow and Crimea, often reduce the whole matter to the problem of the approach of the state territories of Muscovite Rus' to the borders of the Crimean Khanate at the beginning of the 16th century and to the issue of the allegedly increased belligerence of Moscow itself in relation to Crimean Khanate. But such statements are not supported by historical facts. Thus, researchers I. B. Grekov, L. V. Zaborovsky, G. G. Litavrin and others, considering the relationship between Turkey and European countries, where, in particular, they pay attention to the issue of relations between Turkey and Crimea, on the one hand, and Poland, Lithuania and the Moscow State, on the other hand, emphasize: “Such an interpretation of the then international life of the region cannot be entirely accepted. In our opinion, bilateral Crimean-Moscow relations should be included in the system of international relations of the region as a whole.” This point of view allows, perhaps, the most correct understanding of the changes that occurred in the relationship between Moscow and the Crimean Khanate at the beginning of the 16th century.

While the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Porte saw for themselves the main danger in the existence of an alliance between the Polish-Lithuanian state and the Great Horde, as well as in the close cooperation of Poland, Hungary and the Czech state, they actively collaborated with Muscovite Russia, rightly believing that it was she who was able to resist further strengthening of Poland and the Great Horde. But as soon as the Great Horde essentially ceased to exist and, as a result, the dangerous Polish-Horde alliance disintegrated, the Crimea and the Porte faced the need to stop attacks on the Polish-Lithuanian state and force offensive operations against Muscovite Rus'. And this despite the fact that the Polish-Lithuanian “Ukraines” were still closer and more accessible to the troops of the Crimean Khan than the “Ukraines” of the Moscow State. The change in the foreign policy course of the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Porte did not happen immediately, since a complete break with Moscow was fraught with a number of unfavorable consequences for them. According to the sources, “... this policy became a fact in the second decade of the 16th century, and during the years 1505-1510 there was only a slow “sliding” towards such a foreign policy course, since Crimean-Ottoman diplomacy was forced to reckon with some of the complexities of specific historical life region, in particular with the prospect of the political “resurrection” of both Khan Shikh-Akhmat and the Great Horde itself, and, in addition, with the prospect of the strengthening of Poland in the West, in connection with the symptoms of a new rapprochement of the Jagiellons, due to the attempts of Sigismund and Vladislav to continue the fight against the Habsburgs with the support of France."

After the Moscow state, having united its lands, strengthened its international importance, and the Great Horde, on the contrary, lost its former power, the main task of Crimean-Ottoman diplomacy was to inflame Polish-Moscow rivalry. Taking this into account, it becomes clear that it is no coincidence that the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate, while continuing to maintain diplomatic ties and assure both Moscow and Krakow of “love and friendship,” at the same time used all means to weaken their two Eastern European neighbors - Muscovite Rus' and the Polish-Lithuanian state.

Most often, such a means was the devastating raids of the troops of the Crimean Khan either on the territory of Muscovite Rus' or on the territory of the Polish state. Ottoman-Crimean diplomacy used and even prepared a direct clash between Moscow and Krakow. This was achieved by simultaneously supporting and presenting parallel “guarantees” of military assistance to both Poland and Moscow in the event of an armed conflict between them.

Thus, by the end of the reign of Mengli-Girey, the foreign policy course of the Crimean Khanate in relation to Moscow changed dramatically in comparison with the policies pursued by his father and Mengli-Girey himself at the beginning of his khanate. From an active alliance with Moscow, the Crimean Khanate moves to “parallel support” of Moscow and Krakow.

The Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Porte essentially followed this foreign policy course without any special changes until the very last days of the existence of the Crimean Khanate.

Questions and tasks

1. What was the main direction of foreign policy under Hadji Gipee?

2. Why was there a close alliance between Moscow and Bakhchisarai under the first Crimean khans?

3. What influence did Türkiye have on the foreign policy of the Crimean Khanate after its capture of the peninsula?

4. What was the dependence of the Crimean Khanate on Turkey?

5. What was the reason for the change in the foreign policy course of the Crimean Khanate at the end of the reign of Mengli-Girey? Describe him.

6. What influence did the Crimean Khanate have on the political life of the region?

ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY. MILITARY CAMPAIGNS

As already indicated, the Crimean Khanate in the 16th century was quite strong militarily. In addition to the Crimean Peninsula, vast territories of the steppes were under the rule of the khan. In the east, the possessions of the “Crimean Yurt” reached the Molochnaya River, in the west they included Ochakov and Belgorod, and in the north they reached Islam-Kermen and the Konskie Vody River. During large campaigns, the khan led almost the entire adult population into the field (only those under 15 years old remained at home), i.e., tens of thousands of mounted warriors.

The question of the total number of troops of the Crimean Khan is quite complex. V. E. Syroechnikovsky, the author of a study on the history of the Crimean Khanate during the time of Muhammad-Girey (1515-1523), wrote vaguely: “We meet 15, and 25 thousand, and 40 thousand “detailed army”, and 60, and 90 , and 100 thousand." The Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey himself, in a letter to Vasily III dated September 12, 1509, reported that he had collected “two hundred thousand and fifty thousand troops” for the campaign. But this figure is, of course, greatly exaggerated. Apparently, the testimony of contemporaries - Western Europeans - is closer to the truth. Some of these messages date back to a later time, but, given the unchanged territory of the Crimean Khanate and the generally stable population, they can also be attributed to the period under review.

Mikhail Litvin, who was one of the Lithuanian diplomatic representatives in Crimea, collected information about the Tatar army, noted that the Crimean Tatars are able to “send up to 30 thousand troops to war if everyone at all, even those unaccustomed to military service, rises up by order, if only could sit on a horse."

E. Lasota, a Moravian nobleman, diplomatic representative of Archduke Maximilian in Poland, wrote in his diary that the Crimean Khan “set out on a campaign with two princes and 80,000 people, of which, however, no more than 20,000 were armed and capable of war, and there are more than 15,000 people left in Crimea.”

The Englishman Fletcher cited somewhat larger numbers: “When the Great or Crimean Khan himself goes to war, he leads with him a huge army of 100,000 or 200,000 people, and individual Murzas have hordes consisting of 10, 20 or 40 thousand people.”

The Frenchman G. Levasseur de Beauplan, who built fortresses in the Polish possessions bordering the steppe, noted that in the army of the Crimean Khan “there are 80,000 people, if he himself participates in the campaign, otherwise their army reaches no more than 40 or 50 thousand, and then some Murza is in charge over them.”

Thus, the reports of European contemporaries are also quite contradictory. However, here we must take into account that some contemporaries had in mind the khan’s own troops and named smaller numbers, while others took into account “replenishment” from other hordes that joined the khan during large campaigns. These reports are confirmed by Russian sources, which contain information about the number of Crimean troops during individual campaigns.

Thus, it can be stated with sufficient certainty that the number of Tatar troops during campaigns against neighboring states ranged from 40 to 50 thousand soldiers in the case of a large campaign led by the Crimean Khan himself, but if he also attracted hordes roaming the steppes, then the number troops increased to 100 thousand people.

The campaigns, led by the “princes” and the Murzas, were carried out with smaller forces. Apparently, the combined army of several Murzas, without the participation of the khan himself, numbered 15-20 thousand horsemen.

There were separate raids by the Crimean Tatars of several hundred and less often of several thousand people.

The main force of the Crimean army was the cavalry - fast, maneuverable, with centuries of experience. In the steppe, every man was a warrior, an excellent horseman and archer. Military campaigns differed little from ordinary nomads and were a common way of life for the Tatars. The conditions of nomadic life from childhood accustomed steppe dwellers to difficulties, hardships, unpretentiousness in food, and developed endurance, dexterity, and courage. The Tatars were united by clan ties that had not yet disappeared, the authority of the feudal lords - the “princes” and the Murzas - remained quite high. The weakness of the Crimean army was the lack of firearms, primarily guns. Therefore, attempts by the Crimeans to storm fortified cities, as a rule, ended in failure. Occasional parcels from Turkey from Janissaries with cannons and arquebuses did not change the general situation.

Interesting information about the army of the Crimean Khan, its weapons and tactics was reported by Guillaume de Beauplan, who lived on the southern border of Poland for 17 years. His description conveys an atmosphere of constant military anxiety on the steppe border. Boplan paints with bright colors a dangerous enemy - the Crimean horseman. With good reason we can say that the situation described by Boplan also existed for many centuries, and the organization of the Crimean army, and its weapons, and raid tactics were surprisingly conservative, almost unchanged over the centuries.

“This is how the Tatars dress,” wrote Boplan. - The clothing of this people consists of a short shirt made of paper fabric, long johns and trousers made of striped cloth or, most often, of paper material quilted on top. The more noble ones wear a quilted caftan made of paper fabric, and on top - a cloth robe lined with high-grade fox or marten fur, a hat made of the same fur and red morocco boots, without spurs. Simple Tatars put a sheepskin coat on their shoulders with the wool outward during intense heat or rain, but in winter, during cold weather, they turn their sheepskin coats with the wool inward and do the same with a hat made of the same material.

They are armed with a saber, a bow, a quiver equipped with 19 or 20 arrows, a knife in their belt; They always have flint for making fire and 5 or 6 fathoms of belt ropes to tie up prisoners whom they can capture during the campaign. Only the richest wear chain mail; the rest, with the exception of those, go to war without special protection of the body. They are very dexterous and brave in riding... and so dexterous that during the largest trot they jump from one exhausted horse to another, which they keep on the reins in order to better run away when they are being pursued. The horse, not feeling the rider under it, immediately moves to the right side of its master and walks next to him in order to be ready when he has to quickly jump on it. This is how horses are trained to serve their masters. However, this is a special breed of horse, poorly built and ugly, but unusually hardy, because it is possible to travel 20 to 30 miles at a time only on these fluffy ones - that’s the name of this breed of horse. They have a very thick mane that falls to the ground, and an equally long tail.”

Next, Boplan talks in detail about how the Crimeans act when they enter the enemy zone. For winter and summer campaigns, the Crimean Tatars used various tactics: “In winter, the transition of troops from Crimea to the steppes presented considerable difficulties. A snowy winter was usually chosen for the campaign, since the Tatar horses were not shod and the hardened earth during the frost spoiled their hooves. The army leaders paid great attention to the surprise of the attack. The Crimean horsemen moved, choosing their path along the valleys that stretch one after another. This was done in order to be covered in the field and not be noticed. In the evening, when the Tatars stopped camp, for the same reason they did not lay out fires. They sent scouts ahead to “extract language” from their opponents.”

The sight of a Tatar horde of many thousands advancing on the steppes was impressive: “...The Tatars march in front of one hundred horsemen in a row, which will amount to 300 horses, since each Tatar brings with him two horses, which serve as his relief... Their front extends from 800 to 1000 paces, and in depth contains from 800 to 1000 horses, thus covering more than three or four large miles, if their ranks are kept closely together, otherwise they stretch for more than 10 miles. This is an amazing sight for those who see it for the first time, since 80,000 Tatar horsemen have more than 200 thousand horses, the trees are not as dense in the forest as horses in the field, and from a distance it seems as if some cloud is rising on the horizon, which grows more and more as they approach, terrifying the bravest.”

When the Crimean Tatars approached within 5 or 6 kilometers, they stopped for two or three days in a fairly hidden area. After this, the leaders of the campaign give rest to their army, which was usually located as follows: “They divide it into three detachments, two thirds should form one corps, the third is divided into two detachments, of which each forms a wing, i.e. right and left. flanks."

It was in this order that the Tatar army usually entered a foreign country. The main corps moved in a dense mass together with its flanking detachments slowly but non-stop, both day and night, giving the horses no more than one hour to feed and not causing any devastation in the country, until they penetrated several dozen, and sometimes even hundreds of kilometers. After this, they begin to turn back at the same pace, while the wings, by order of the commander, separate and can each run in their own direction from 8 to 12 miles from the main body, but in such a way that half goes forward, half to the side. Each wing, containing from 8 to 10,000 people, is in turn divided into 10 or 12 detachments, each of which can contain from 500 to 600 Tatars.

Such detachments rushed in different directions, attacked villages, surrounding them and establishing observation posts on all sides. The duty of such posts was to build and maintain large fires for “lighting” so that any of the victims would not be able to escape.

Finally, having traveled and robbed the country and finished their raids, they return to the desert steppes, and, feeling safe here, rest for a long time, restore strength, and put themselves in order.

The Crimean Tatars made winter campaigns mainly to Polish possessions; As a rule, raids on Russian “Ukrains” were undertaken in the summer.

Such attacks on the “Ukrainians” were carried out so quickly and unexpectedly that the troops defending the border usually did not have time to meet the enemy and tried to overtake the Tatars during their retreat in order to recapture the booty and prisoners.

However, this was not easy to do. Having entered the steppes, the Tatars are divided into many small detachments, which disperse in all directions: some go to the north, others to the south, the rest to the east and west. As they advance, the Tatar detachments become more and more fragmented, decreasing to 10-11 horsemen. Moreover, these smaller detachments in the steppe advance in such a way as not to meet each other until a certain moment. This suggests that the Tatars knew the steppe very well. This is confirmed by Boplan: “The Tatars know the steppe as well as pilots know sea harbors.”

The first campaigns of the Crimean feudal lords on the lands of the Russian state began already during the reign of the second Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey. But initially, Moscow Grand Duke Ivan III, figuratively speaking, managed to defend his “Ukraines” from Tatar raids with the sabers of the Tatars themselves. This was due to the protracted struggle of the Crimean Khanate with the remnants of the Great Horde.

But there was no complete calm on the southern border of the Russian state even in those years. The Crimean Murzas, despite the friendly relations between the Moscow state and Crimea, begin to raid Russian lands. True, these raids are still sporadic. Such conflicts at that time could be resolved fairly quickly. Thus, in 1481, Moscow ambassadors in Crimea conveyed to Men-gli-Girey the complaint of the Grand Duke: “Your people came to my Ukraine, but they took their heads. And you would have granted, in your truth, ordered those heads that were taken in my Ukraine, having found everything, to give them to my boyar.”

The matter ended with the Khan’s disgrace against the Murzas, who allowed the Self-Will, and the assurance to the Moscow Grand Duke: “... Tsar Mengli-Girey, his Ulans and his princes be with the Russian sovereign in friendship and love, stand together against enemies: the lands of the Moscow state and the principalities to those who belong to Him should not fight, but those who committed this without His knowledge should be executed, and the people captured should be given back without ransom, and the stolen goods should be returned in full.” And although the “looted” was not returned “in full”, and the prisoners were not returned either, the relationship in general for the Russian state with the Crimean Khan was quite favorable. The change in relations with the Crimean Khanate for the worse began with an event that, it seemed, should have pleased the Russian government. In 1502, the irreconcilable enemy of Rus', the Great Horde, also ceased to exist.

The defeat of the Great Horde was a turning point in relations between Moscow and Crimea. The allies began to gradually turn into irreconcilable enemies. The explanation for these changes is, perhaps, quite correctly determined by K. V. Bazilevich: “Mengli-Girey’s friendly relations with the Moscow Grand Duke largely depended on the danger that threatened the Crimean Khan from his worst enemies - the “Akhmatov children.” The final collapse of the Great Horde and the flight of Shikh-Akhmat to Lithuania eliminated this danger and freed Mengli-Girey’s hands for freedom of action.”

Since 1503, when a significant territory of the Dnieper Left Bank went to the Moscow side and such southern cities located on the border with the steppe as Putivl and Rylsk came under Moscow rule, the Russian state became a close neighbor of the Crimean Khanate. But this was not yet the main reason for the change in the direction of the Crimean campaigns. Now border wars with the Crimean Khanate were waged by the Russian state almost continuously throughout the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries. In chronicles, discharge books, and diplomatic documents of that time, only in the first half of the 16th century, 43 Crimean campaigns against Russian “Ukraines” are mentioned.

Between the Russian state and the Crimean Khanate there was constantly a heavy, exhausting war, only occasionally interrupted by periods of unstable peace.

The first major campaign of the Crimean Khan against Russia actually coincided with the beginning of the Livonian War. On January 17, 1558, Russian regiments crossed the border of Livonia, and already on January 21, news was received in Moscow that the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey, “intending evil to Christianity, sent his son Magmet-Girey with the princes and Murzas of the Crimea and with legs” to Russian border. According to the chronicler, there were 100 thousand Tatars. The campaign was repelled by the timely advance of Russian regiments to “Crimean Ukraine.” In 1559, at the height of hostilities in Livonia, the Russian state had to allocate 5 regiments to guard the southern border, but a 3,000-strong Tatar detachment still managed to break into the Tula “places,” while other detachments fought near Pronsk.

But perhaps the most terrible disasters were brought to Russia in 1571. The Crimean Khan managed to break through the fortified lines along the Oka River and invade the central districts of the Russian state. The Tatars burned the outskirts of the capital and Zemlyanoy Gorodok. During this invasion, 36 Russian cities were devastated, and many people were taken captive.

The Crimean ambassador subsequently boasted in Lithuania that the Horde killed 6 thousand people in Rus' and took the same number into captivity.

In July 1572, a huge Crimean-Turkish army broke through the Oka and again moved towards Moscow. However, this time the Moscow government managed to prepare for a rebuff. In the stubborn battle of Molodi, 645 versts from the capital, the troops of Devlet-Girey were defeated.

After the end of the Livonian War, the situation on the steppe border changed. Russia was preparing to launch a decisive offensive against its eternal enemies - the Crimean feudal lords. Only the Polish-Swedish intervention of the early 17th century, which seriously weakened the Russian state, delayed this offensive.

In turn, the Crimean Khanate immediately took advantage of the extremely difficult situation of the Russian state in connection with the Polish-Swedish intervention and the peasant war of the early 17th century under the leadership of Ivan Bolotnikov. The Crimean feudal lords attacked the defenseless Russian “Ukraine”, they were actively supported by the Nogais...

The Moscow government drew far-reaching conclusions from these events. It was clear that no peace treaties with the Crimean Khan, no “wake” for the Murzas and “princes” could secure the border areas from predatory raids. And in 1635, defensive work on the “notch line” began, grandiose in scale.

When organizing a new line of defense, the Moscow government took into account the main directions of the Crimean campaigns. The Crimeans mainly invaded along the Izyum and Kalmius highways, which ran between the Don and the Northern Donets, and the Nogais - to the east, along the Nogai highway. It was in these directions that new fortresses were built.

These measures, as well as the stabilization of the situation in the Russian state itself and the strengthening of its power, were not slow to affect the situation in Russian “Ukraine”. Since 1648, there is no information about any major Tatar incursions into Russian lands.

Huge sums went annually to Crimea as a “wake” for the Khan and the Murzas, expenses for the maintenance of Crimean ambassadors, etc. The Russian state was forced to pay “wake” even after defensive structures were built. Feeling that the position of the Russian state was not yet strong enough, the Crimean khans demanded a “commemoration” as a matter of course. Thus, the Crimean Khan Dzhanibek-Girey in June 1615 demanded from the Russian Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich: “... our command, like the previous Crimean kings ... ten thousand rubles of money and many funerals and requests, and now for that reason I and the princes send to ours and karaches and agas also.”

According to V.V. Kargalov, about a million rubles were spent from the Moscow treasury for “funerals” in the Crimean Khanate in the first half of the 17th century alone, i.e., an average of 26 thousand rubles per year - at that time this was it was an extremely large sum. It was possible to build 4 new cities with it.

But the enormous material costs that Russia spent on the construction of defensive fortifications, on the constant “wake” for the Crimean khans and his entourage, are incomparable with the losses that the Russian state suffered as a result of the predatory raids of the Crimean horde and their withdrawal of a huge “full”. The main prey of the Crimean Tatars were captives, the number of whom during successful raids on “Ukraine” reached tens of thousands of people. In just a decade - from 1607 to 1617 - they drove away from Russia, as A.L. Yakobson claims, 100 thousand people, and in just the first half of the 17th century, according to the most conservative estimates, no less than 150-200 thousand people.

Not only the largest Crimean Tatar feudal lords, but also the Turkish sultans personally were interested in Tatar raids for slaves. The Crimean Tatars annually sent some of their captives and captives to the Turkish Sultan in the form of tribute or gifts. Sometimes the sultans ordered the khans to carry out special raids for slaves that were needed by the Turkish sultan.

Russian historian. M. Solovyov reported that in 1646, Sultan Ibrahim, in connection with the construction of the camp penal servitude (a type of ship), ordered the Crimean Khan to “immediately raid for the slaves who were needed to staff the new penal servitude.”

The Venetian envoy Giovanni Carraro reported in 1578 that “the need for slaves is satisfied mainly by the Tatars, who go hunting for people in the Moscow and Podolsk regions, and in the land of the Circassians.”

Thus, the largest feudal lords of both Crimea and Turkey were primarily interested in the predatory raids of the Crimean horde on the lands of the Russian state and other states. And the poor Tatars paid off their debts by being captured in full and, apparently, benefited less from the campaigns than others. Therefore, the facts indicating the forced mobilization of the simple Tatar population of the Crimean Khanate are not surprising. For example, in 1587, the poorest Tatars refused to march at all because of the upcoming harvest.

The Russian state was forced to ransom people driven into captivity by the Crimean Tatar horde. “Buyout operations” were quite widespread. On the border between the Moscow state and the Crimean Khanate, special “change points” were established. They were located on the Don, in Belgorod and in a number of other border places. In the Crimean Khanate there was even a special position - “change bey”. The ransom of captives from the Tatars was carried out in various forms: sometimes the captive himself entered into negotiations with his owner, agreed on the redemption price and, after receiving money from his homeland, through the mediation of merchants, was released, sometimes relatives made trips to Crimea or gave instructions to merchants who were looking for the prisoner and ransomed him. Ransoms of slaves were also carried out in an organized way, as a large state event. In the middle of the 16th century, the Russian government adopted a special law “On the Redemption of Prisoners.” When discussing the question of the ransom of prisoners at the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551, it was noted that prisoners in Constantinople and the Crimea should be ransomed by the tsar's ambassadors at the expense of the "tsar's treasury." A special so-called “poshny levy” was introduced, i.e. a certain tax on each plow, which was intended for the ransom of Russian slaves from Crimean captivity. All money went to the Ambassadorial Prikaz.

According to clerk Kotoshikhin, “the total amount of money intended for the ransom of the captives reached 150 thousand rubles annually.”

The Russian government adopted a special law, which established the amounts issued by the treasury for the ransom of captives depending on their social status. “For a captured nobleman, 20 rubles were given. from every hundred quarters of his local land, for a Moscow archer - 40 rubles, for a Ukrainian archer and Cossack - 25 rubles, for a captured peasant and a boyar - 15 rubles. Especially the Crimean Tatar feudal lords profited from noble and wealthy captives, receiving huge sums for their ransom. For example, “in 1577, Tsar Ivan the Terrible paid 200 rubles for Vasily Gryaznov, who was captured.”

Thus, the enormous damage that was caused by the theft of a huge “polon” ​​by the Crimean Tatar hordes, which is essentially impossible to calculate, was supplemented by the “polonyanka tax.” All this was shifted onto the shoulders of the ordinary population of the Russian state through unaffordable taxes.

Not only the Russian state suffered from the military invasions of the Turkish-Tatar feudal lords. Such “visits” were also made to other states in this region, most often these were the lands of Ukraine, Poland and Lithuania. So, in 1552-1560. such lands of Ukraine as Bratslavshchina, Podolia, Kiev region, Volyn and Chernigovo-Severshchina were subjected to devastating devastation; in 1561 - Lutsk, Bratslav and Vinnitsa lands, etc.

The troops of the Crimean Khanate participated in the constant wars of the Sultan's Turkey, in particular in 1593-1606. against Hungary.

Questions and tasks

1. Describe the military forces of the Crimean Khanate (numbers, equipment, weapons).

2. Tell us about the tactics of military campaigns.

3. To which countries did the Crimeans make campaigns and their purpose?

4. Tell us about the struggle between Russia and the Crimean Khanate.

5. What is « wake » ?

6. Who was primarily interested in hiking « full » ?

ACCESSION OF CRIMEA TO RUSSIA

MILITARY CAMPAIGNS IN THE CRIMEA OF RUSSIAN TROOPS AND COSSACK DEPARTMENTS

Trying to prevent the invasion of Crimean-Turkish troops into their lands, the Russian government organized military campaigns against the Crimean Khanate. Over time, the goal of these campaigns became the conquest of access to the Black Sea.

In 1556-1559. under Ivan the Terrible, several fairly successful military campaigns were undertaken against the Crimean Khanate. Thus, we can note the campaign of the clerk Rzhevsky, who defeated the army of the Crimean Khan in the area of ​​​​the lower reaches of the Dnieper. On the Dnieper, a detachment of Ukrainian Cossacks joined Rzhevsky. The combined detachments recaptured herds of horses from the Tatars near Islam-Kermen, headed to Ochakov and took it by storm.

At the beginning of 1559, an 8,000-strong army was sent to Crimea under the command of the okolnichy Danila Adashev. Suddenly appearing at the mouth of the Dnieper, he captured two Turkish ships, then, together with the Ukrainian Cossacks, landed in the Crimea and, having caused great damage to the Tatars, freed many slaves. The Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey was even forced to turn to Turkey for help. The troops of Ivan the Terrible were already close to the Crimean Peninsula from the direction of Perekop and the Kerch Strait. But events on the western borders of the Russian state (the war with Livonia) prevented Ivan IV from completing the struggle he had begun for the Crimea, for access to the Black Sea. A war on two fronts was beyond the power of the Moscow state. It was forced to temporarily abandon the fight for Crimea and move from offensive to defensive in the south.

The Ukrainian Cossacks waged a fairly active fight against the Crimean Khanate, and they became especially active with the formation of the Zaporozhye Sich. The lands of the Cossacks were located next to the possessions of the Crimean Khanate, hence the strained relations between the “neighbors.”

The Cossacks organized long and close campaigns against the “Crimeans”. The goals of these campaigns were also very different - from liberating the “full” to capturing booty. In 1490, the “Cherkasy Kyiv people” launched a campaign against Ochakov, and in 1502-1503, they, having gone down the Dnieper in boats, attacked the Tatar detachment and defeated it. The leaders of the Cossack detachments gradually emerged. One of them was the Cherkassy and Kanev elder Evstafiy Dashkevich. A number of campaigns in the 20-30s of the 16th century are associated with his name.

The Cossacks made quite a lot of campaigns in the 50-60s of the 16th century under the leadership of Dmitry Vishnevetsky, both in alliance with Russian troops and independently. With his troops, he came close to Perekop and repeatedly attacked Azov.

The campaigns of the Cossacks continued in subsequent centuries and acquired even greater scope. There were times when the Cossacks undertook campaigns both in the Crimea and in the possessions of Turkey several times during the year. The capture of Varna, the largest Turkish fortress, by the Cossacks in 1606 made a great impression on contemporaries. In 1608, the Cossacks, with “amazing cunning,” took and burned Perekop; in 1609, they attacked the Danube Turkish fortresses of Izmail and Kiliya. Perhaps the largest expedition was the sea voyage to Kaffa in 1616, when the Cossack fleet under the leadership of Hetman Peter Sagaidachny captured and burned this fortress.

CAMPAIGNS OF V.V. GOLITSYN AND PETER I

For a long time, the Russian state could not pursue an active policy. This was due to internal upheavals in the last years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and after his death, wars with Lithuania and Poland. But as the situation stabilizes, the actions of the Russian government become more and more decisive. At the end of the 17th century, the Moscow state, during the reign of Sophia, organized new campaigns in Crimea. The 150,000-strong Russian army, joined by a 50,000-strong detachment of Cossacks under the command of Prince V.V. Golitsyn, headed to the Crimean Khanate. But the campaign ended unsuccessfully, the huge army advanced extremely slowly, there was not enough forage and food, and there was a lack of water. In addition, the Tatars set fire to the dry steppe, and it burned out over a large area. Golitsyn decided to return.

In 1689 a new campaign was organized. The Russian command took into account the lesson of the previous campaign and decided to act in the spring so that the cavalry in the steppe would be provided with pasture. The Russian 112,000-strong army under the command of V.V. Golitsyn managed to force the 150,000-strong army of the Crimean Khan to retreat and reach Perekop. But Golitsyn did not dare to invade Crimea and was forced to return again.

These campaigns did not bring success to Russia, but at the same time they forced the Crimean Khanate to engage only in the defense of its borders and it was unable to provide assistance to the Turkish troops, who were defeated by the Austrians and Venetians.

Peter I, who replaced Sophia on the royal throne, continues to fight Turkey and the Crimean Khanate. He decides to carry out a campaign against the Turks and Crimeans in 1695, while, unlike the Crimean campaigns of V.V. Golitsyn, it was decided to deliver the main blow not to the Crimea, but to capture the Turkish fortress of Azov. The siege of Azov dragged on for three months and ended unsuccessfully. The following year, 1696, Peter I made a well-prepared campaign. For these purposes, he even built a fleet. After stubborn resistance on June 19, the Turks were forced to surrender Azov.

In 1711, a fleeting war occurred between Russia and Turkey. The 44,000-strong Russian army led by Peter I was surrounded on the banks of the Prut by Turkish-Tatar troops totaling 127,000 people. Peter I was forced to sign the Prut Peace Treaty, one of the points of which was the return of Azov to Turkey .

CRIMINAL CAMPAIGNS 1736-1738

The campaigns of the 1930s were successful for Russia. The Russian 40,000-strong corps under the command of Lieutenant General Leontyev approached Perekop in the fall of 1735 and inflicted significant losses on the Crimean troops. In 1736, hostilities began between Russia and Turkey, which lasted for three years. The 50,000-strong army under the command of Field Marshal Minich acted decisively, which, having won a number of victories, approached Perekop and, as a result of the assault on June 1, captured this fortress. Russian troops rushed deep into the peninsula. On June 16, Gezlev (Evpatoria) was occupied; on June 27, the capital of the Crimean Khanate was Bakhchisarai. As a result of the fighting, the Khan's palace was severely damaged. On July 3, Russian troops occupied the residence of the Kalgi Sultan - Ak-Mosque. The troops of the Crimean Khan retreated to Kaffa. But B. Minich’s army was unable to gain a foothold in Crimea and was forced to retreat.

In 1737-1738 The campaigns of Russian troops in Crimea were led by General Lassi. Under his command, the Russians entered Crimea unexpectedly for the enemy along the Arabat Spit. Having won a victory near Karasubazar (Belogorsk) on July 25, 1737, the Russians were unable to advance further and were forced to retreat. Epidemic diseases began in the army. The next year, Lassi repeated his campaign, captured Perekop on July 10 and even penetrated the Crimea, but by the end of summer he was forced to leave the peninsula.

During these three years, the Russian army lost a significant number of soldiers (about 100 thousand), but failed to achieve its goal.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about Russian military campaigns in the lands of the Crimean Khanate.

2. Tell us about the struggle of the Ukrainian Cossacks with the Crimean Khanate.

3. What is the reason for Russia’s activation in the southern direction?

4. Tell us about Russia’s military campaigns in Crimea during the reign of Sophia and Peter I. How were they different?

RUSSIAN-TURKISH WARS (1769-1774, 1787-1791)

INCLUSION OF CRIMEA INTO RUSSIA

Russia continued the struggle for access to the Black Sea and the acquisition of new lands in the south during the reign of Catherine II.

In the war with Turkey 1769-1774. The Russian government decided to act offensively, and the Danube principalities - Moldavia and Wallachia - were chosen as the main direction of military action. In 1769, the Russians took Azov and Taganrog. A fleet began to be created on the Sea of ​​Azov for operations against the Turks in the Black Sea.

The year 1770 brought great success to the Russian troops. Led by the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev, the Russian army defeated the Turkish-Tatar army in a number of battles. Particularly large were the victories on the Larga rivers on July 7 (18) and Cahul on July 21 (August 1). Successes on land were supported by naval victories.

The success of P. A. Rumyantsev’s army in the Danube theater of military operations allowed V. M. Dolgorukov’s 2nd Army to go on the offensive, which blocked Crimea. Dolgorukov defeated the 70,000-strong army of Khan Selim-Girey and took the Perekop fortress on June 15, 1771. At the same time, part of the troops of the 2nd Army, advancing along the Arabat Spit, overcame enemy resistance and broke through to the peninsula. Russian troops, building on their success, managed to capture Gezlev on June 22, then the 38,000-strong Russian army turned east and approached Ak-Mosque on the same day. Here Dolgorukov stopped the army, hoping that after this the Crimean Khan would capitulate. But without waiting for the Khan’s ambassadors, Dolgorukov five days later launched a new offensive in the direction of Kaffa. The Russian army managed to defeat the Khan's troops and captured the city on June 29. After this, Arabat, Kerch, Yenikale, Balaklava were conquered. Turkish troops and part of the Crimean Tatars left Crimea on ships.

The numerous victories won by the Russian army forced Turkey to sign a peace treaty with Russia on July 10 (21), 1774. Under the terms of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, Russia acquired access to the Black Sea. Azov, Kerch, Yenikale, Kinburn passed to her. From now on she could build her fleet on the Black Sea. Russian merchant ships received the right of passage through the straits. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey and thereby predetermined its subsequent transition to Russian rule.

The conclusion of a peace treaty in the Bulgarian village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi did not mean a lasting settlement of relations between Russia and Turkey. The half-hearted nature of resolving the issue of Crimea inevitably led to a struggle between Russia and Turkey for influence in Crimea, for the final decision on the fate of the territories that were part of the Khanate. An extremely difficult situation developed in Crimea: both Turkey and Russia tried to nominate their protege to the khan’s throne. This led to the fact that there were two khans in Crimea at once: Shagin-Girey, a Russian protege, and Devlet-Girey, a Turkish protege. Trying to support their supporters, both sides are sending troops to Crimea.

In 1776, Turkish troops landed on the peninsula; in November of the same year, Russian troops occupied Perekop, and in the spring of 1777 they entered Crimea. A.V. Suvorov, who commanded the Russian troops sent to Crimea, managed to avoid a collision with the Turkish troops located there. The Turks, together with Devlet-Girey, leave Crimea. Shagin-Girey was proclaimed Crimean Khan.

Taking advantage of the favorable environment, Russia is seeking to finally resolve the issue of Crimea. She carries out a number of activities in order to make Shagin-Girey completely dependent. One of these acts was the resettlement of more than 30 thousand Christian population from Crimea in 1778. Shagin-Girey soon abdicated the throne, and by decree of April 8, 1783, Catherine II included Crimea into Russia. In the summer of 1783, in a camp located on the steep cliff of Ak-Kaya (not far from Karasubazar (Belogorsk), the governor of New Russia, Grigory Potemkin, took the oath of allegiance to Russia from the beys, murzas and the entire Tatar nobility.

But the struggle for Crimea did not stop: both Russia and Türkiye were preparing for a new war. Fortresses and a fleet were built in Crimea. A demonstration of Russia's readiness for war and success in developing the southern lands was the journey of Catherine II to Crimea in 1787, accompanied by a number of foreign ambassadors and the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. A new war between Russia and Turkey took place in 1787-1791. The war, which was bloody and protracted, ended in complete victory for Russia. Türkiye was forced to ask for peace. The peace treaty was concluded in Iasi on December 29, 1791. Türkiye confirmed recognition of the annexation of Crimea to Russia.

Questions and tasks

1. What are the reasons for the Russian-Turkish war of 1769-1774?

2. Tell us about the course of military operations.

3. When was the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace treaty signed? State the main terms of this agreement.

4. Describe the situation in Crimea after the war.

CULTURE AND LIFE

URBAN DEVELOPMENT

As the Crimean Khanate developed, so did its cities. Kaffa was a major trade and economic center; the city's seaport played a major role in this. Thanks to this, the city had extensive trade connections. “Merchants from Constantinople, Asia and Persia come here,” the prefect of the city, Dortelli, wrote about Caffa in 1634. He portrays Kaffa as a huge city (5 miles in circumference), with a population of 180 thousand people, consisting of Turks, Greeks, Armenians and Jews. Its contemporaries called it Kuchuk-Istanbul, i.e. little Constantinople. Merchants here were attracted primarily by slaves, then by bread and fish. The export of food from Caffa was very significant in those days. In the middle of the 17th century, according to the French traveler Chardin, during the 40 days of his stay in the city, more than 400 ships arrived there. Metals (lead, copper, tin, iron bars, steel and metal products), oriental fabrics, earthenware, tobacco, coffee, etc. were brought to Crimea. 500-600, sometimes up to 900 and even 1000 loaded carts arrived in the city daily , and by evening there was no product left on any of them.

By the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century, the cities of Crimea became trade and craft centers in which artisans were concentrated. Bazaars played an important role in this. Craftsmen primarily satisfied the household economic needs of the local population. The development of crafts contributed to the growth of cities that arose on the border of the foothill and steppe regions of Crimea back in the 16th century. The most significant of them were Bakhchisarai - the capital of the Crimean Khanate - and Karasubazar (present-day Belogorsk) - the center of the beylik of the Shirinsky beys. Gradually Gezlev (Evpatoria) began to acquire more and more importance.

Bakhchisaray did not immediately become the capital of the state. The first center was Solkhat. But for a number of reasons, he did not satisfy the Crimean khans. First of all, because Solkhat was the city of the Shirinsky princes, who sought to weaken the power of the Girays. Already under Hadji Giray, the Khan's headquarters was moved to a safer place - to Kyrk-Or. But with the strengthening of the Crimean Khanate, Kyrk-Or also loses its importance. And the heirs of Mengli-Girey in the first decades of the 16th century chose a very convenient ravine next to Kyrk-Or for their residence and future capital. There was enough drinking water in this ravine; it was protected from the winds by rocks.

ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF BAKCHISARAI

(Legend)

One day the son of Khan Mengli-Girey went hunting. He descended from the fortress into the valley. Immediately behind the fortress walls, dense forests full of game began. It turned out to be a good day for hunting; many foxes, hares and even three wild goats were hunted down by hounds and greyhounds.

The khan's son wanted to be alone. He sent his servants with the loot to the fortress, climbed into the thicket, jumped off his horse and sat down on a stump near the Churuk-su river. The treetops, gilded by the setting sun, were reflected in the streams of water. Only the sound of the river running over the stones broke the silence.

Suddenly a rustling was heard on the other side of Churuk-su. A snake quickly crawled out of the coastal bushes. She was being pursued by another. A deadly fight ensued. Having entwined one another, the snakes tore pieces of each other's body with sharp teeth. The fight lasted a long time.

One snake, all bitten and exhausted, stopped resisting and lowered its head lifelessly. And from the thicket through the thick grass a third snake hurried towards the battlefield. She attacked the winner - and a new bloody battle began. Rings of snake bodies flashed in the grass, illuminated by the sun; it was impossible to keep track of where one snake was and where the other was. In the excitement of the fight, the snakes crawled away from the shore and disappeared behind a wall of bushes. An angry hissing and cracking of branches could be heard from there.

The Khan's son did not take his eyes off the defeated snake. He thought about his father, about his family. They are now like this half-dead snake. The same bitten ones fled to the fortress and sit in it, trembling for their lives. Somewhere there is a battle going on, and who will defeat whom in it: the Golden Horde - the Turks or the Turks - the Golden Horde? But he and his father, Mengli-Girey, will no longer rise like this snake...

Some time has passed. The young khan noticed that the snake began to move and was trying to raise its head. She succeeded with difficulty. Slowly she crawled towards the water. Using the rest of her strength, she approached the river and plunged into it. Wriggling faster and faster, the half-dead snake acquired flexibility in its movements. When she crawled ashore, there weren’t even any traces of her wounds left on her. Then the snake plunged into the water again, quickly swam across the river and, not far from the astonished man, disappeared into the bushes.

The son of Mengli-Girey rejoiced. This is a lucky sign! They are destined to rise! They will still come to life, like this snake...

He jumped on his horse and rushed to the fortress. I told my father what I saw by the river. They began to wait for news from the battlefield. And the long-awaited news came: the Ottoman Porte defeated the Horde Khan Ahmed, who once exterminated all the warriors of Giray, and drove him into a fortress on a steep cliff.

On the spot where two snakes fought in a mortal battle, the old khan ordered a palace to be built. His entourage settled near the palace. This is how Bakhchisaray arose. The khan ordered the two intertwined snakes to be carved on the palace coat of arms. It would be necessary to have three: two in the fight, and the third half-dead. But they did not carve the third: Khan Mengli-Girey was wise.

The Khan's palace was built among gardens and vineyards, hence the name of the capital Bakhchisarai - “City of Gardens”. Gradually the city is growing, becoming a trade and craft center for the entire western Crimea, and the cultural center of the state. By the scale of medieval Crimea, this is a large city with craft districts and lively bazaars - grain, vegetable, salt markets, and quarters of trading shops. At the end of the 17th century, it had about 6 thousand inhabitants: it was the second largest city in Crimea after Kaffa (the population of the entire peninsula did not then exceed 250-300 thousand people). The city was divided into more than 30 quarters-parishes with a mosque in the center. Of great importance for the growth of the city was the fact that the Khan's headquarters was moved to the Bakhchisarai ravine. The city's importance is increasing. The market, merchants and artisans move here.

The traveler I. Barbaro wrote: “As soon as the khan chooses a place for his residence, they immediately begin setting up a bazaar, making sure that the streets are as wide as possible,” and further: “With the horde at all times, fullers, blacksmiths, gunsmiths and all kinds of artisans."

Thanks to this, the city grew quickly and turned not only into the capital of the Crimean Khanate, but also into a cultural trade and craft center. By the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century, Bakhchisarai became an extremely picturesque and colorful city. Judge P. Sumarokov, traveling around Crimea, wrote: “Anyone who would attempt to give an accurate image of this city would not please either himself or justice.” The narrow streets of the city snake away in different directions with blank walls facing them. Many streets were so narrow that it was difficult for a cart to pass through them.

The longest and widest street was located along Churuk-Su (“Rotten Water”). An eyewitness writes: “In Bakhchisaray, the main street runs from one end of the city to the other and leads to the former home of the khans. This street looks like a huge bazaar. On both sides of the street there are all kinds of shops and even workshops, and all this represents a varied mixture: here they trade, work, do everything that is required in a big city, and all this is done in front of everyone, with open doors and shutters. Under the canopy of coffee houses you can always see many Tatars who have gathered here to drink coffee and talk about various news.”

This crowded and noisy street was contrasted with other streets, on which “... there is no traffic, there are no shops, and only from time to time a female figure flashes.”

Bakhchisaray was famous for its leather production - numerous leather workshops stretched along Churuk-Su. A whole block was occupied by felt makers, several blocks by metal craftsmen: gunsmiths, metalworkers, coppersmiths, tinkers.

The high degree of development of crafts achieved in the 18th century led to the creation of craft workshops. Craftsmen were united in 32 guild corporations headed by a senior master (usta-bashi) and two assistants: they regulated production and prices, supervised the admission of apprentices and the initiation of apprentices into masters (this was a large city festival with religious ceremonies).

CRAFTS

Handicrafts were in great demand and were very diverse. They made: copper utensils, shoes, clothing, jewelry, embroidery, carpets, felt, etc.

There has long been a weaving workshop in Crimea. “Pir” Abdullah Tayyar was considered the legendary patron and founder of the workshop. They produced fabrics from cotton, linen, silk, and wool on ancient machines, and production traditions were observed. Woven towels with patterned ends were made - “kbryz” (Turkish name for the island of Cyprus. The name of the fabrics comes from the dyes exported from this island for dyeing fabrics), “yuz-bez”, “marama” - towels, bedspreads.

Embroidery, which was done by women, became widespread in Crimea. Both from the artistic and technical side, it had deep traditions: every seam, every ornamental motif had its own simple, but figurative names. Samples of these embroideries were exhibited at a number of international exhibitions and received very high praise.

Jewelry and filigree crafts were also developed, and beautiful jewelry and dishes were made.

Since ancient times, among the Crimean Tatars there were excellent woodworking artisans. Subsequently, workshops (“beshichki-ve-sandyk-chy”) of turners and chest makers were formed. Some masters of such workshops were both carvers and inlay makers, and performed artistic and technical work on finishing homes.

In addition to decorating houses, these craftsmen made a number of household items: “beshik” - baby rocking cradles, “samdyk” - chests made of walnut wood inlaid with bone, mother-of-pearl and light-colored wood; multifaceted tables, also decorated with inlays, and other various small household items.

The special pride of the Crimean Tatar craftsmen were “kilims” - woolen, lint-free, double-sided carpets. Both in terms of their technical and artistic and decorative merits, they are of great value. When comparing them with Caucasian, Central Asian and even Asia Minor carpets, it is difficult to trace the analogy. In the construction of the overall composition and color scheme, kilims have an original character. The predominant range of colors: intense dark blue velvet, yellow, brown. Halftones: turquoise, pink, green, cream with the lightest tone of the whitest coat. Coloring was done with vegetable, mineral and animal paints. The technical performance of kilims is excellent: the threads are of uniform thickness, without thickening or knots, which always affects the quality. At the same time, kilims were divided into various types: by size, by design, by technique, by their purpose, etc.

Handicraft production in the Crimean Khanate developed quite successfully; the products of artisans were distinguished by high quality and artistic skill. Some of the products are unique and have high artistic value.

HOUSING BUILDINGS

During the construction of dwellings, the natural environment, the material available to the builder, and the forms of farming were undoubtedly important; In addition, there are a number of historical reasons: the interaction of other cultures, the traditions of the local population.

The layout of Tatar houses and the courtyards surrounding them is more or less monotonous. B. Kuftin writes: “Despite the external strict isolation of one from the other, the houses are connected inside by gates, through which you can cross the entire Bakhchisarai, almost without walking along the street, but only running across it, then again diving into the gate and so on through the garden to the yard; this is the way women go to the market and to each other. On the street side, the house and the yard are separated by a high wall of stone held together with clay.” Near the house there is a small courtyard adjacent to the facade - an “azbar”, usually consisting of two parts located at different levels: the lower and upper courtyard. The upper courtyard, “ust-azbar”, was often a garden with several fruit trees and grapes, forming living gazebos. There were no outbuildings or premises for livestock in the yard, since the livestock was in the herd all year round under the supervision of a shepherd; when he came home, he usually stayed in the open air in the yard. If a Tatar is an artisan or merchant, then his workshop or shop is located in a certain place on the main street of the city, but not near the house. The house is exclusively a place of domesticity, where nothing outside should penetrate to disturb the peaceful life of the family.

Based on construction characteristics and the materials used, houses can be divided into several types.

One of the simplest to manufacture and in terms of the material from which it is built is a wicker house - “chit”. The frame consists of wooden pillars with braces - “paywand”, between which a wall is woven in the form of a basket of young hazelnut branches; inside and outside such walls are coated with a mixture of clay and straw - “adobe”. The top consists of a main beam - “arkalyk”, which lies on the gables along the entire house; it was often made of poplar. On top of the arkalyk they laid a row of beams across two slopes, at some distance from each other. Their ends protruded from the outside along the facades and gave a roof projection typical of Tatar houses - “sachak”. Such a “net” was important; it protected the outer walls of the house from precipitation. The material for the roof of such a house was also adobe. After rains and other precipitation, such a roof was constantly corrected. The floor was also made from adobe.

Just as simple in construction and materials is the one-story house “ber kat”, which is a rectangle, most often made of wild stone on clay cement with horizontal laying of wooden beams or wood. The length of the house is about 10 meters, width 3-5, height about 3 meters. Only three walls are made of stone, but the front wall, in which the door and windows are made, is made of wicker, according to the same principle as the walls of the wicker house “chit”. A low porch on columns adjoins the walls - “ayat”. The floor both in the hallway and in the rooms is earthen, smoothly smeared and “killed” with clay, “which neat and hardworking housewives will diligently restore as soon as they notice any flaw in it.” The walls of the room inside are smoothly smeared with clay and whitewashed. In the first room, a hearth is added, usually in the form of a fireplace. The hearth was often combined with a bread oven. Great care was always taken about the hearth; in more prosperous houses it was decorated and painted. It should be noted that there was extremely little furniture, especially in poor houses: “Wooden cabinets are placed on both sides of the hearth: one, “dolaf,” is used for storing dishes, and the other for washing, “sudo-laf.” At the wall opposite the hearth there is a low wooden platform, the length of the entire wall and a width of about a meter, used for folding blankets.” A characteristic feature of the Tatar home were low sofas - “sets”, which stretched along the walls. Cushions were laid out on the “sets”. Embroidered towels were hung on the walls. In the room where guests were invited, there was a kind of wooden shelf along the wall, on which the owners displayed the best dishes, thus decorating the room and, most importantly, showing the wealth of the family.

The windows in such houses were small, square, with iron or wooden bars; double-leaf shutters were attached to them from the outside. Windows were made in the wall facing the courtyard. The doors opened into the house and rooms.

Two-story houses differed little in plan from one-story ones. The lower floor was made of wild stone. The second floor was usually made of adobe bricks. Often the upper floor of the house did not correspond in size to the lower one and protruded above it with a wide canopy or protruding corners. The protruding part of the upper floor gives a large living area above, necessary for crowded buildings along narrow streets. The protruding part of the upper floor - "terie" - is supported by curved wooden supports, whose lower ends rest against the wall of the first floor.

The roof of the upper gallery, which runs along the entire house, is a continuation of the roof of the house. Part of the gallery was covered with boards. Most often it was intended for women. If there was a stranger in the house, the women went out to such a gallery and could stay there until the guest left.

Both the upper and lower floors had 1-2 rooms with a small hallway and storage room below. The lower floor, more cramped, served for housing. The upper floor, reached by stairs through a gallery, was clean and served for relaxation and receiving guests.

All these types of houses, built using these methods, are very resistant to earthquakes and are undoubtedly the result of centuries of construction experience.

CULT BUILDINGS

The most ancient architectural monuments include domed tombs - “dyurbe”. These monuments have survived to this day due to the fact that they were erected from cut stone on a strong lime mortar “khorasan” (the so-called lime mortar with a large admixture of crushed bricks or tiles. The latter were ground like flour in special mills).

Durbe, following the example of other Muslim countries, is a tomb structure over the graves of rulers, high-ranking officials, rich and influential citizens and clergy, distinguished by their righteous life or learning.

A wonderful monumental structure of this type is located not far from the former Khan’s palace. This Eski-dyurbe. The thickness of the walls is about 1.5 meters. The upper part of the walls turns into an octahedron, covered with a semicircular elongated dome, the diameter of which at the base is slightly more than 6 meters. The Eski-Durbe has a beautifully proportioned portal with a pointed arch, moderately decorated with three relief rosettes. On the southern side, the dyurbe is adjacent to an open arcade the width of its main part, and a length of 6 meters 20 cm. It is formed from seven keel-shaped arches-spans, the width of which is about 2 meters. On the northern side, the durbe has two window openings, on the western side - one, on the south - door and window bays, and on the eastern side in the depths of the portal niche - small entrance doors. The masonry of the dome was masterfully executed, at the base of which large stones were placed, decreasing in size as they move towards the top. Based on style analysis, the construction time of Eski-dyurbe can be dated back to the 15th century.

One of the earliest is Durbe in Chufut-Kale. In plan, it is an octagon with a portal in the form of a quadrangle, strongly extended on the south side, covered with a semicircular dome.

Based on the nature of the masonry, details and dates available in the literature, this monument dates back to the 15th century. Durbe Dzhanyke-khanum, as already noted, it has the inscription: “This is the tomb of the famous Empress Nenekejan-Khanym, daughter of Tokhtamysh Khan, who died in the month of Ramadan 841.”

Inside, on both sides of the portal there is one recessed niche in the form of semicircles in plan. Inside the dyurbe, on a stone elevation in the northern side, there is a tombstone on a stepped pedestal, covered with inscriptions. Architectural and decorative parts such as the semicircular columns on the outer corners of the octagon, treated with relief geometric wickerwork, bear traces of beautiful, clear artistic workmanship.

In terms of style and construction techniques, the Dzhanyke Khanum dyurbe is very close to the dyurbe located in Staroselye (formerly Salachik), built in 1501 by order of Mengli-Girey I over the grave of his father.

It is of great interest both for its size and artistic architectural merits. durbe, attributed to Muhammad Girey II, located in the new microdistrict of Bakhchisarai. This majestic structure made of cut limestone is an octagon about 10 meters high. The main octahedron passes into a sixteen-sided drum, on which there is a hemispherical dome built of cut stone. The lancet window openings on each side are arranged in two tiers; the platbands of the lower row of windows are made of marble. The corners of the octagon end with semicircular pilasters running from top to bottom, tied together by a common cornice of good profile. The doorway faces east, which is one of the features of ancient Tatar dyurbes (entrance holes of dyurbes during the period of strengthening of Islam in Crimea were made mainly to the south). Time of construction of this dyurbe - XVI century. U. Badaninsky writes: “...by 1584 the monument already existed, since that year the murdered Crimean Khan Muhammad Giray II Fat was buried here along with his young son Safa Giray.”

Next to the dyurbe of Muhammad Girey II there are two more dyurbes. They are small, modestly decorated.

Perhaps the earliest is Durbe, which is also located in a new microdistrict of the city next to the highway running from Simferopol to Sevastopol.

Judging by the relief inscription on the slab above the door, the durbe was built by order of Muhammad Shah Bey. In plan, the Durbe is a square, each side of which is approximately five and a half meters. The octagonal drum, on which the semicircular, somewhat elongated dome rests, was obtained by cutting the upper corners of the main cube at an angle of almost 45°. The entrance hole is on the south side. There was a portal above the entrance, one pylon of which survived. Above the door there is a slab with an Arabic inscription, on the sides of which two relief circles are carved. All the walls on the outside and the remains of the portal are lined with regular rows of hewn stone, but inside the masonry is rough, made of unhewn stones. The mausoleum is small, and the cut corners give it a squat appearance and a rounded silhouette.

Two powerful durbes are located in the Khan’s cemetery, which is located on the territory of the former Khan’s palace. In plan they represent an octagon with an entrance on the north-eastern side. Both outside and inside their architecture is simple. It should be noted that there is an octagonal drum above the outer hemispherical dome, the corners of which are rotated by 45° with respect to the main polygon.

The latest to survive is durbe "Dilyary-Bikech", built by order of Krym-Girey in 1764. It is perhaps the swan song of the architecture of Bakhchisarai during the Crimean Khanate. Durbe represents an octagon with an entrance on the western side. The corners are decorated with thin pilasters; on each face plane there are windows in two rows. The bottom of the durbe has a base; on an octagonal base there is a drum, also octagonal, rotated 45°. The dome of the mausoleum is hemispherical, elongated. The drum is decorated with pilasters and arches. All profiles are extremely relief and protrude strongly from the plane of the walls. The inside of the mausoleum is plastered and, obviously, painted. The dome, as an exception, is made of brick.

Mosques occupied a large place in architecture. One of the first was a large mosque - six-pillar basilica under a gable roof, founded in 1314 in Solkhat in honor of Uzbek Khan. Its wooden ceiling is supported from the inside by two white stone arcades, dividing the mosque into three naves. The main entrance is highlighted from the north by a portal decorated with excellent stone carvings. The carvings inside the building are interesting and brightly painted. The temple has been well preserved to this day, with the exception of the minaret. One of the most beautiful, after Khan-Jami, is Eshil-Jami Mosque (“Green Mosque”), built in the mid-18th century during the reign of Crimea-Girey Khan, in Bakhchisaray. She was an example of Ottoman art of this period. And, despite the fact that by this time Ottoman architecture was in decline, this mosque, supposedly built and painted by the talented Iranian master Omer, is of great interest. The plan of the mosque had a regular quadrangle. A small minaret was added to the northeast corner. The building was covered with a hipped roof, which was covered with tiles painted green, hence the name of the mosque. The building was made of cut stone of local rock, fastened with mortar. The walls of the mosque were decorated with cornices and pilasters carved in stone; in addition, they were painted on the outside. The mosque was illuminated through windows located in two rows. From the main facade, facing south, there was an entrance directly into the courtyard of the mosque; a stone staircase led to the courtyard. Inside the mosque, a well-thought-out and executed decoration immediately caught the eye; the middle part of the room in the form of a quadrangular square is separated from the rest by a wooden colonnade supporting a number of beautiful, ornate oriental arches. On the north side, at the level of the upper windows, the “mafil” (choir) adjoined the colonnade. Judging by the fact that the choirs are somehow awkwardly squeezed into the arch to the detriment of architectural logic, we can assume that according to the original idea of ​​the builder they were not there and that this is a later distortion belonging to the time when the mosque was a monastery of dervishes. On the south side, on the axis of the building, there was a lancet niche (“mihrab”) with stalactite processing, spoiled by later coloring. “Mihrab” is a sacred place where the imam stands during worship and those praying (performing namaz) turn their gaze. The hand of a talented and sensitive artist was visible throughout the picturesque decorative decoration. Here frescoes, decorative sculpture and calligraphy merged compositionally with each other. “Khattats,” that is, calligraphers, are a special kind of master, they were also often poets, and enjoyed exceptional respect in the East. Eshil-Jami's frescoes were distinguished by their splendor and delicate execution. Many researchers believe, bearing in mind the time of construction of the mosque and the high skill of the fresco artist, that the author of the frescoes is Omer. The author of the “Green Mosque” frescoes, Omer, was a first-class master - all the details of the frescoes, for example, roses and flowers on the arches, are perfectly outlined and painted in pleasant pink and fawn tones. On the arches and walls there are verses from the Koran, written graphically impeccably, in black paint on a white field. On the southern wall, on the sides of the “mihrab”, the silhouette of a mosque is depicted in ornamental script. The walls were plastered and painted a pleasant green color, only interrupted in places by picturesque panels and inscriptions. The capitals of the columns and details of the arches were made of alabaster and painted on top.

The windows of Eshil-Jami were of significant interest. They were laid out according to a certain pattern with a mosaic of pieces of multi-colored glass, fastened together with special alabaster solutions. This type of window has now been preserved only in the rooms of the former khan's palace and in the windows of the Khan-Jami mosque. The floor was paved with marble slabs.

Amazed her contemporaries with her extraordinary beauty Juma-Jami Mosque in Gezlev (Evpatoria). The name translates as “Friday mosque” - in honor of the Prophet Muhammad. It is also called “Khan-Jami” - “Khan’s Mosque”, because the religious ceremony of ordaining the khan took place there. This beautiful mosque was created by the Turkish architect Hoxha Sinan. The work of Hoxha Sinan is the pinnacle of Ottoman architecture. One of his masterpieces is the Juma-Jami Mosque.

Combining the architectural forms of Byzantium and the East, using local building materials, the architect created in Crimea an architectural structure that was exceptional in its grace and simplicity, in its harmony and rationality. Juma-Jami was one of the largest and most beautiful mosques on the entire Crimean peninsula. The most likely date of construction is 1552.

The mosque is a central domed structure, approaching a square in plan. The central hall (about 22 m high) is covered with a powerful spherical dome. To the west and east there are two-story galleries topped with flattened domes, three on each side. In the northern part, a vestibule with five domes adjoins the main volume of the building. All domes were covered with sheet lead. The architectural composition of the mosque is distinguished by a gradual increase in height and a corresponding complication of geometric volumes. Inside the mosque, the southern wall is of particular interest, in the center of which there is an open altar - a mihrab and a pulpit. The mihrab is a shallow pentagonal niche. Mihrabs, usually distinguished by excellent decoration, were decorated with multicolored geometric and floral patterns. The elegance of the mosque was emphasized by two beautiful minarets.

Minarets are an integral part of mosques and a wonderful monument of oriental architecture. Early mosques were built without minarets, but inside there was already a “member” - a platform with a staircase and a platform for the imam. In the Ottoman era, members received a magnificent structure with railings and a canopy in the form of a tent and were richly ornamented. The materials for them were stone, marble and wood. A magnificent monument of this type has been preserved in Bakhchisarai.

Member Azisa(the current new microdistrict of the city) is a small platform to which stone steps lead. On the site there are walls of a small octagonal tower with a cone-shaped ceiling. There is a small arch in each face of the turret, and a small hole is made in the southern side. Such members were the prototype of future minarets. Gradually changing, they finally became an integral part of the mosque and took the form that came to be called a minaret.

All minarets are distinguished by the perfection of the masonry from cut stones, and the seams are made especially thin. Such masonry requires highly qualified craftsmen. Very often one can observe, next to the rubble masonry of the mosque walls, a remarkable masonry of slender minarets, which indicates that there were special craftsmen and schools for the construction of minarets. This can probably explain that the minarets of the Ottoman era were built on an independent foundation and could be erected at different times with the mosque. A particularly interesting point in the minarets is the transition from the square base to the twelve-sided pillar, which consists of the following: each side of the square is divided into three parts. From the boundaries of these divisions three faces go to the dodecahedron, forming the intersection of a tetrahedral pyramid with an octagonal one.

Almost at the very top of such a minaret there is a “sherfe” - a balcony for the muezzin, who calls Muslim believers to the next prayer. Such a balcony often had decoration. Above the sherfe, the minarets had a thinner round or polyhedron-shaped turret, covered with a conical dome. Typically, a crescent-shaped “alley” was placed at the top of the pointed dome.

Of the four minarets that have survived to this day in Bakhchisarai (one of them in the upper part has been destroyed), the most elegant are the two minarets of the Khan-Jami mosque.

The former Khan's palace is a monument of high construction art.

The palace, which today occupies an area of ​​four hectares (and in the past was even larger), included gardens surrounding the main buildings.

A stone bridge across the river leads to the palace from the head of Bakhchisarai street. Behind the bridge is a wide gate, renovated in the 19th century, above it is a colorfully painted tower with colored glass, in the upper part of which there is the coat of arms of the palace - two snakes coiled in a fight. To the left of the gate along the main facade there were benches facing the street. Behind the gate, a vast unpaved courtyard opened up, where the khan’s army gathered, meetings of ambassadors took place, etc. The courtyard is surrounded by palace buildings: on the left - a mosque, a cemetery with magnificent tombstones and two mausoleums, then stables; on the right are state halls for various purposes, living quarters, courtyards with fountains and, finally, the remains of a harem, imperceptibly turning into gardens.

Muslim architecture, which provided examples of monumental severity and beauty, thoughtfulness and correctness of forms in religious buildings - mosques, madrassas, mausoleums, and in the construction of private dwellings, seemed to provide complete freedom for the manifestations of whimsical oriental fantasy, folk tastes and local traditions. Since ancient times, the palace in the East had a type of courtyard composition: the center was a courtyard and a garden with a fountain. The garden motif is one of the most characteristic moments of Muslim architecture: floral patterns carved in stone, wall paintings, design of fountains - everything strives to reproduce the garden as the most beautiful place on earth.

The light architecture of the palace buildings and the lack of monumentality in the Khan's residence are not accidental: even the walls dividing the garden and the interior are to some extent conventional: their task is to create coolness on a hot summer day; a marble fountain gurgles inside, maintaining the freshness of the air and the illusion of being in garden.

The palace was repeatedly repaired and restored, while some of the buildings lost their original appearance. On this occasion, A. S. Pushkin wrote: “I walked around the palace with annoyance ... at the semi-European alterations of some rooms.”

But with the passage of time, both the historical and artistic significance of the palace became more clearly realized, because in the surviving buildings, ornaments and in the entire architectural design, traces of beautiful, unique art are preserved. The restoration, which was carried out quite recently, was already of a scientific nature.

The most ancient part of the palace is the Aleviz portal, created by an outstanding Italian architect. A lush carved stone portal with a semicircular pediment frames an oak door covered with strips of wrought iron. It led to the courtyard, which communicated with the main halls of the palace. In this courtyard is the Golden Magzub. Its marble slab is decorated with carved floral patterns.

In addition, there are two inscriptions made in Arabic script: the upper one with the name of the khan - Kaplan (lion) - and the date, the lower poetic one - from the Koran: “And the Lord gave them, the youths of paradise, a pure drink to drink.”

Opposite this fountain, in the corner, is the famous Fountain of Tears - “Selsebil”. Initially, his carved stone slab was located near the wall of the mausoleum of Dilyara-Bikech - “the beautiful princess,” according to legend, the beloved wife of Crimea-Girey Khan. This fountain was built at his command by the court master Omer in 1764.

The personality of Dilyara-Bikech is completely unclear and is surrounded by poetic legends. Here is one of them.

FOUNTAIN OF TEARS

(Legend)

Khan Crimea-Girey was fierce and formidable. He spared no one, did not feel sorry for anyone. When Crimea-Girey carried out raids, the earth burned, the ashes remained. No prayers or tears touched his heart. People trembled, fear ran ahead of the name of the khan.

Well, let him run,” he said, “it’s good if they’re afraid...

Whatever a person is, he cannot exist without a heart. Let it be stone, let it be iron. If you knock on the iron, the iron will ring. If you knock on a stone, the stone will respond. And people said that Crimea-Girey has no heart. Instead of a heart, he has a ball of fur. If you knock on a ball of fur, what answer will you get? Will such a heart hear? But the decline of man comes. The once young khan grew old and his heart weakened.

One day, a slave, a small, thin girl, was brought to the old khan’s harem. Her name was Delyare. She did not warm the old khan with affection and love, but Crimea-Girey still fell in love with her. And for the first time in his long life, he felt that his heart could hurt, that he could suffer, that he could rejoice, that his heart was alive.

Delyare did not live long. She withered away in captivity, like a delicate flower deprived of the sun.

For the first time, Krym-Girey’s heart was filled with pain. Khan understood how difficult it can be for the human heart.

Crimea-Girey called the Iranian master Omer and told him:

Make it so that the stone will carry my grief through the centuries, so that the stone will cry like a man’s heart cries.

The master asked him:

Was the girl nice?

What do you know about her? - answered the khan. - She was young. She was as beautiful as the sun, graceful as a deer, meek as a dove, kind as a mother, gentle as the morning, affectionate as a child.

Omer listened for a long time and said:

If your heart weeps, so will the stone. If there is a soul in you, there must be a soul in the stone. Do you want to transfer your tears to the stone? OK, I'll do it. The stone will cry.

On a marble slab, Omer carved a flower petal, one, another... And in the middle of the flower he carved a human eye, from which a heavy man's tear was supposed to fall onto the chest of the stone to burn it day and night, without ceasing, for years, centuries...

And Omer also carved a snail - a symbol of doubt. He knew that doubt was gnawing at the khan’s soul: why did he need his whole life?

The fountain still stands in the Bakhchisarai Palace and cries, cries day and night...

When Pushkin, standing at the fountain, heard the legend, the fountain and the legend inspired him to write the poem “The Bakhchisarai Fountain” and the poem “To the Fountain of the Bakhchisarai Palace.”

One of the earliest buildings of the palace is the Council and Court Hall - Sofa. The hall has two rows of windows. The colored, very beautiful and never repeated stained glass windows of the top row of windows date back to the end of the 16th century; The wooden center of the ceiling dates back to the same period.

The Divan, the highest state council, which decided all issues of domestic and foreign policy, except religious ones, gathered in the hall. He was also the highest court in the Khanate.

Next is located Summer gazebo, built, or rather, rebuilt by the same Omer: initially it was surrounded on three sides only by columns with arches - the gazebo was open. During renovations at the beginning of the 19th century, it was glazed. In the center of the gazebo there is a fountain with a swimming pool.

Adjacent to the summer gazebo is a charming Pool courtyard- the kingdom of the sun, lush climbing greenery, flowers and water.

Among the earliest buildings of the palace is Small mosque. This is a semi-dark room stretched from east to west, the main part of which is covered by a dome resting on an octagonal drum with arches and sails. There is a niche on the south side - mihrab

In the courtyard there is harem(previously it had four buildings with 73 rooms). The four rooms of the surviving outbuilding house the few things that recreate the everyday side of life in the palace. “Harem” translated from Arabic means “forbidden”, “inviolable”; no one except the khan and the eunuchs had the right to enter here. The openwork wooden carving of the veranda bars covers it from top to bottom from prying eyes; The windows with colored glass are located so high that only the sky is visible from them.

Next to the harem there is a tower where, according to legend, the Khan’s falcons were kept and where the inhabitants of the harem were allowed to climb to look at the world around them, at the motley, colorful life of the court. Falcon Tower It has a cubic stone base, on which is installed a wooden hexagon, covered with boards, turning into a lattice and hipped roof under the roof itself.

From the Fountain Courtyard you can take a wide staircase to the second floor, where the official, ceremonial chambers are located. The central place in them was occupied by the hall for receiving ambassadors. Ambassadorial Hall- a once luxurious and richly decorated chamber, but its interior has not been preserved: the double-height hall had a marble floor and a wooden ceiling with paintings in blue tones. In this hall, two niches with an alcove have been preserved (the khan sat in one of them, the musicians were located in the other).

A special place among the chambers intended for receiving ambassadors is occupied by Golden Cabinet- one of the best and best preserved interiors of the palace. Twenty-four windows with multi-colored glass fill the room with golden light. The fine carving of the wooden ceiling, painting with an abundance of gilding to a certain extent recreate the decoration of the khan's office built by Omer, making it look like a precious box. The walls between the windows of the second row are decorated with molded alabaster vases with fruit.

The most majestic structure of the palace complex is Great Khan Mosque, or Khan-Jami. This is a massive rectangular stone building, stretching from north to south, covered with a hipped tiled roof, with two slender minarets on the sides. The thin ten-sided turrets of the minarets are made of well-hewn stone slabs fastened with lead. They are surrounded by carved stone balconies. Inside the minaret there was a spiral staircase along which the muezzins climbed.

Behind the mosque is Khan's cemetery with two mausoleums - durbe. Carved marble and stone tombstones are of great interest. Sixteen khans, as well as their relatives and associates, are buried here.

In the far corner behind the cemetery you can see one of the city's earliest structures - Sary-Gyuzel bathhouse. The bathhouse in those days was a kind of club, a place of relaxation, meetings and conversations. Sary-Gyuzel is a powerful stone square building, covered with domes with openings in the form of stars and crescents.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about the development of cities.

2. Describe handicraft production.

3. What types of residential buildings were there?

4. Describe the Durbe architectural style.

5. Name the architectural features of mosques and minarets.

STORIES ABOUT AKHMET-AHAY

(Legend)

The grandson of Oja Nasreddin Akhmet-Akhai, that’s for sure, lived in Crimea. In the village of Ozenbash, not far from Bakhchisarai. He did not have any documents or pieces of paper confirming that he was the grandson of the famous Odzhi. But still, Akhmet decided to go to Bakhchisaray to the local qadi to prove his honorable origin.

Arriving in Bakhchisarai on a donkey, he tied the stupid animal to a large davul drum that stood at the gate, and he himself went to the qadi.

As soon as he opened his mouth: “So and so, they say, effendi,” he heard a terrible noise. It was the donkey who reached for fresh grass and pulled the davul. He grumbled and hummed with all his tightly stretched skin. The donkey got scared, pulled harder, the drum rumbled like heavenly thunder. What should the poor animal do? The donkey ran as fast as he could away from this noise. And the davul rolls and thunders behind him.

The donkey reached the main street that leads to the palace, and a caravan met him: camels loaded with tin and utensils. The donkey and the davul flew at the camels, they got scared and rushed as fast as they could through the streets and alleys of the great city. People poured out of their houses, people were screaming, asking each other: has the war begun? Or did the shaitan himself decide to visit Bakhchisarai and drag away sinners to himself?

No one can really answer, but can you imagine the noise? The caravan did not carry silk or cloth: dishes and tin!

Only in the evening the city calmed down. The caravan workers caught the camels and calculated their losses. We came to the chief qadi. They complain about Akhmet-Akhai. The chief qadi listened to them and asked:

And on what business did this man come to the city? “He needs paper, that he is the grandson of the famous Oja Nasreddin,” the qadi, at whose gate the davul stood, enters the conversation. - How can I give such a paper, effendi? He has no evidence.

The impudent man must be punished! - the smaller official assents.

Punish? - The chief qadi scratched his eyebrow with a sharp nail. - You can punish. And look at him with both eyes!

Look in both eyes, listen to what he says, in both ears, because there is no doubt: this man is really Nasreddin’s grandson! Only the grandson of a well-known troublemaker could stir up such a big city in ten minutes and for a whole day. From now on, consider Akhmet-Akhai a worthy grandson of a great ancestor!

And the caravan men shook their heads and reasoned among themselves for a long time.

Some believed: Akhmet-Akhai tied the donkey to the davul out of stupidity. Others said:

Eh, no! He looked far away. A donkey tied to a drum can blow up Samarkand, let alone Bakhchisarai.

It’s true,” others confirmed. - Our fathers told us that Nasreddin himself began with exactly these things when he appeared in Bukhara.

“Insolent and mocking,” the merchants grumbled. - And the grandson will follow his path.

“It’s all the will of Allah,” the poor people laughed. - He will go if Allah orders.

This is how Akhmet-Akhai lived in his native village of Ozenbash. Some considered him a great mocker, others considered him a simpleton. What really happened? Who will say now? Now judge for yourself...

REMEMBER THESE DATES

1223 - first appearance of the Tatar-Mongols in Crimea.

Second half of the 30s. XIII century - first quarter of the 15th century.- Crimea as part of the Golden Horde.

1428-1466 - G odes of the reign of Hadji-Devlet Giray (with interruptions), the founder of the Girey dynasty.

1433 - p proclamation of independence of the Crimean ulus.

1443 - formation of the independent Crimean Khanate.

1467-1515 - years of reign (with interruptions) of Mengli-Girey I.

1475 - Turkish invasion of Crimea.

1475-1774 - Crimean Khanate within Turkey.

1515-1521 - years of reign of Muhammad-Girey I.

1571 - one of the largest campaigns of the Tatars against Moscow.

1577-1584 - years of reign of Muhammad Giray II.

1593 - attack of the Tatars on the Zaporozhye Sich, destruction of its fortifications, transfer of the Sich to the island. Bazavluk (Chertomlyk).

1606 - attack of the Cossacks on Kaffa.

1644-1654 - years of reign of Islam Giray III.

1647-1657 - Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky.

1648-1654 - liberation war of the Ukrainian people.

1667 - Truce of Andrusovo.

1687-1689 - campaigns of V.V. Golitsyn.

1695-1696 - Azov campaigns of Peter I.

1709-1713 - years of reign of Devlet-Girey II.

1711-1713 - Russia stopped paying "funeral" payments to Khan.

1724-1730 - years of reign of Mengli-Girey II.

1735 - Leontiev's trip to Crimea.

1736 - trip to Crimea by B.K. Minikh.

1737, 1738 - hiking in Crimea Lassi.

1758-1764 - years of reign of Crimea-Girey I.

1768- 1769 - years of reign of Crimea-Girey I. Secondary.

1769-1770 - years of reign of Devlet Giray IV.

1771 - conquest of Crimea by the Russian army under the command of Prince V. M. Dolgorukov.

1769-1774 - Russian-Turkish war.

1774 - Kuchuk-Kainardzhiysky world. The Crimean Khanate was proclaimed an independent state.

1775-1776 - years of reign of Devlet-Girey IV. Secondary.

1776-1783 - years of reign of Shagin-Girey. The last Crimean Khan.

1778 - resettlement of Christians from Crimea.

1783 - annexation of Crimea to Russia.

April 8, 1783 - Manifesto of Catherine II on the liquidation of the Crimean Khanate and the inclusion of its territory into the Russian Empire.

1. Crimean ulus of the Golden Horde Crimean ulus - ulus of the Golden Horde, which existed in the first half of the 13th-15th centuries on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. History The Tatars occupied the steppe Crimea in 1239, simultaneously with Batyyan’s campaigns, the southern Russian lands, and subjugated the remnants of the living Tampolovites.

The Tatars were divided into tribes, tribes and clans. The tribes were headed by 6 senior feudal families - “beys, beks” (Shirins, Baryns, Argyns, Yashlovs, Mansurs and Sajeuts), who each owned huge tracts of land and constituted the senior link of the feudal ladder. Their vassals were the heads of tribes and the heads of individual clans.

The ordinary Tatar population, exploited by the feudal lords, came to Crimea in a purely nomadic pastoral system. Only a small amount of barley was sown to feed the horses that the Tatars needed to go after captives.

At first, Crimea constituted a special ulus of the Golden Horde; for the first time he temporarily separated from it under Khan Nogai. Re-annexed to the Golden Horde after the death of Nogai (circa 1290), Crimea in the 14th century was usually ruled by khan's governors, whose position gradually began to acquire a hereditary character; the capital was the city of Solkhat (present-day Old Crimea).

The final fall of Crimea from the Golden Horde occurred in the 15th century.

Crimean ulus of the Golden Horde

At the beginning of the 13th century. The Mongol-Tatar hordes, united by Genghis Khan, quickly conquered Northern China and Central Asia. Then came the turn of the steppes of the Urals and Volga region, Russian lands and the Northern Black Sea region. The first clash of the united Russian-Polovtsian army with the advanced units of the Mongol-Tatars took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River near the Sea of ​​Azov. During a fierce battle, the expeditionary corps of Genghis Khan's troops, which penetrated into the Azov region through Transcaucasia and the North Caucasus, inflicted a crushing defeat on the coalition of Russian princes and the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan. The city of Sugdeya (now Sudak), located in South-Eastern Taurica, also became a victim of the conquerors. The prominent center of the Black Sea trade turned out to be the first city in Europe to experience the power of the new “conquerors of the Universe.” However, the events of 1223 were only a kind of reconnaissance in force for the Mongol-Tatars. They finally settled in the Northern Black Sea region only in the late 30s. XIII century, after Batu’s hordes fell on Eastern Europe. Initially, the Mongols took possession of the steppe and foothill parts of the Crimean Peninsula, conquered the Polovtsians who roamed here and delighted the Crimean Yurt, centered in the city of Solkhat (Crimea), where the headquarters of the Golden Horde governor was located. The most notable and powerful families of the Crimean Yurt were Shirin, Mansur, Baryn, Sijiut, Argin, Kipchak, Yashlau. Each of them had his own inheritance (beylik), within the boundaries of which the head of the clan (bey) felt like a rightful owner. Tatar beys and murzas also subjugated the ethnically diverse population of Taurica. Their rights to receive income from certain territories were formalized by tarkhan labels containing a list of duties in favor of the new owners, which were imposed on local residents. But the establishment of the dependence of the inhabitants of Crimean cities and rural settlements on the Tatar elite did not at all mean that they protected themselves from raids by nomads. Tavrika was devastated more than once during the struggle for the Golden Horde throne, there were also punitive expeditions sent against the obstinate and rebellious inhabitants of the peninsula, and there were simply predatory attacks in order to get rich at the expense of successful subjects. One of the most famous Tatar campaigns in Crimea is associated with the name of Nogai. In 1299, his troops devastated almost the entire peninsula. The Golden Horde repeatedly approached the walls of the Genoese colonial cities. True, after 1308 all their attempts to take control of Kafa ended in failure, but they had the opportunity to regularly destroy Sugdeya, which was nearby. In the second half of the 14th century. The Golden Horde entered a period of endless struggle for the Khan's throne. The central power, which too often changed hands, weakened and lost real control over what was happening in different parts of the huge state. At this time, two independent Tatar principalities emerged in Taurica. The center of one becomes Solkhat-Crimea, the other is formed around Kyrk-Ora (Chufut-Kale). This is evidenced by a written source, according to which in 1363 in the Battle of the Blue Waters (a tributary of the Southern Bug) “the khans of the Crimea, Maikop and Kirkel” fought against the Lithuanian prince Olgerd. In the “Khans of Crimea and Kirkel” one should see the rulers of two parts of the once united Crimean Yurt, and the “Khan of Maikop” is most likely none other than the ruler of the principality of Theodoro, which was being formed at that time. The stubborn struggle of the Crimean Tatar nobility for final isolation from the Golden Horde marked the 15th century. The first stage in the development of “separatist tendencies” on the peninsula led to the formation in the 20s - 40s. Crimean Khanate led by the Girey dynasty. The second led to the fact that at the very end of the 15th century. Mengli-Girey Khan not only finally secured the Crimean throne for his dynasty, but also, having defeated the horde of Shikh-Akhmat, ended the dependence of his possessions on the Golden Horde rulers. It was the Crimean Khanate that became the main heir to the Golden Horde, the most powerful Tatar state formed on its ruins.

2. Genoese colonies in Crimea In the middle of the 13th century. There have been significant changes in international trade. Before this, the most important trade routes connecting the countries of Western Europe with the East passed through the port cities of Syria and Palestine (where Western European knights had established themselves as a result of the Crusades since the end of the 11th century) and through the harbors of Egypt. In the second half of the 13th century. The Crusaders lost their possessions in the eastern Mediterranean. Trade routes partially moved to the shores of the Azov and Black Seas. It was then that Venetian and Genoese colonies appeared in Crimea.

In the Crimean ports, ships with goods from Western Asia, Egypt, Byzantium, Western Europe and caravans from the Golden Horde, Central Asia and China were unloaded. At the same time, Crimea was a connecting link in the economic and political relations of Byzantium and the Slavic states of the Balkans with the Russian lands. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the Crimean Peninsula becomes the object of aggressive aspirations not only of the Mongol-Tatars, but also of two competitors - Venice and Genoa, the largest Italian trading republics, which for many years, with varying success, waged an irreconcilable struggle with Byzantium for the Black Sea trade routes and markets.

At first, the Venetians had the advantage. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204), in the organization of which the wealthy merchants of the Republic of St. played a huge role. Mark (as Venice was called in the Middle Ages), led to the defeat of Byzantium and the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders. A significant part of the capital of the empire and its suburbs, lying on the routes from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea, fell into the hands of the Venetians. Their ships were able to sail freely in the Black Sea.

Italian sources talk about the trade of the Venetians in the Crimea (in Soldai - Sudak) already in the first years after the fourth crusade (1206). From the writings of the famous traveler Marco Polo (second half of the 13th century) it is clear that Soldaya was well known to the Venetians and was often visited by them.

But if Venice managed to extract great benefits from the Fourth Crusade, then its main enemy and trade rival - Genoa - suffered great damage from the defeat of Byzantium: the Venetians achieved the expulsion of Genoese merchants from all lands captured by the crusaders. Therefore, Genoa moved towards rapprochement with the enemy of Venice - the Nicaean Empire (the Greek state in Asia Minor), which became the center of Byzantine resistance to the crusaders.

In March 1261, an agreement was concluded between the Nicaean emperor Michael Palaiologos and the Genoese, according to which eternal peace was proclaimed between Byzantium and Genoa. In the event of the return of Constantinople to Greek rule, the Genoese were given the exclusive right of navigation and trade in the Black Sea. In July 1261, the troops of Michael Palaiologos captured Constantinople. This event was a heavy blow for Venice. The Venetian quarter in the capital of Byzantium was burned, and its territory was transferred to the Genoese. From this moment the Genoese colonization of the Northern Black Sea region began.

Researchers of the history of the Genoese colonies in the Black Sea region have a number of written sources at their disposal. First of all, we should mention the statutes of the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea, drawn up in Genoa in 1290, 1316, 1449, as well as the archive of the Bank of St. George, which contains the richest, still not fully studied documents illuminating the life of the Genoese colonies in the last period of their existence.

An important source on the early history of the Genoese colonies of the Black Sea region are notarial acts drawn up in Cafe, Soldai and Constantinople at the end of the 13th century. Interesting information on the history of the Genoese colonies in Crimea can be gleaned from the descriptions of Arab, Persian and Western European travelers who visited Cafe and Soldaya in the 13th-15th centuries. Byzantine and Russian sources provide a lot of valuable information. Of particular interest to the historian are epigraphic materials - inscriptions carved on stone slabs in the walls of the towers of Genoese fortresses, and the very remains of these fortresses, preserved in Feodosia, Sudak, Balaklava and other places.

3. Formation of the Crimean Khanate

The history of the formation of the Crimean Khanate dates back to the end of the 14th century, when in the main yurt of the Golden Horde, under the influence of internal strife, an internal war for the throne began between the claimants Kuchuk Mukhamed and Ulu Mukhamed. The rest of the beks were not constant in their choice, moving first to one side, then to the other, as a result of which the Golden Horde was seriously shaken and one could soon foresee the collapse of this recently still strong Tatar state. Around the same time, the Crimean Tatars began their struggle for independence, when around 1427 a contender for the Crimean independent throne, Hadji-Divlet, appeared, who subsequently added the title Girey to his name. Having gathered around himself a selected army, Hadji-Divlet directed his attacks first at the Kipchak Ulu Mukhamed, and after defeating the first, he sent his forces to Kuchuk Mukhamed advancing from the Volga banks. This enemy was also defeated, as a result of which Hadji-Divlet secured for himself not only high authority among the Tatars, but could already consider himself the owner of a completely independent khan’s throne, the power of which extended not only to the Crimean peninsula, but also included the adjacent northeastern steppes and western steppes Dnieper and Don. The next step was to unite the entire territory of the peninsula, by that time divided into the steppe part subject to the Tatars, Kafa with Gothia (that is, with the southern coast of Crimea, up to and including Balaklava) and the small independent Christian principality of Mangup. If successful, the entire sea border with several strong fortresses and good ports, from Yeni-Kaledo to the mouth of the Dnieper, would be in the hands of Hadji Giray.

The Tatar-Mongol conquerors took possession of the Crimean Peninsula, where there were also Slavic settlements. From the end of the 13th century. In Crimea, a special Tatar governorship was formed, dependent on the Golden Horde. The feudal Tatar nobility who settled here sought to consolidate the Crimean Peninsula in their possession, seizing lands and robbing the local population.

Back in the 13th century. The crusaders opened the way to the Northern Black Sea region for Genoese and Venetian merchants. The Tatar-Mongol invaders cut off Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region from Rus' and helped establish Italian colonies here. In the 70s of the XIII century. with the permission of the Mongol Great Khan, the Genoese colony of Kafa was founded in Crimea (in the territory of present-day Feodosia). Genoese merchants also captured other cities on the Black Sea coast - Chersonesos, Chembalo (Balaklava), Sugdeya (Sudak), Kerch. Venetian merchants fought with the Genoese for the right to exploit the population of Crimea. By resorting to robbery and maritime robbery, Italian merchants made large amounts of capital. Grain, salt, furs, timber, etc. were exported from the colonies. The Tatar nobility sold slaves and various goods through Italian cities, receiving jewelry, fabrics and weapons. She collected tribute from the colonies, and in case of resistance, she subjected them to defeat.

The formation of the Crimean Khanate dates back to the end of the first quarter of the 15th century. Hadji Giray managed to establish himself in Crimea as a khan with the support of the Principality of Lithuania, which was interested in weakening the Golden Horde. The Russian government tried to use the Crimean khans to fight the Great Horde and Lithuania. Therefore, it sought to maintain diplomatic relations with Crimea. Rus' was also interested in developing trade and cultural ties with the countries of Southern Europe through the harbors of the Northern Black Sea region.

From the second half of the 15th century, after the conquest of the Balkan Peninsula and the fall of Constantinople, Turkey began to strive to capture the Northern Black Sea region, taking possession of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus. In 1454, the Turkish fleet bombarded Belgorod (Ackerman) and approached Cafe. The Tatar feudal lords agreed with the Turks on joint actions against the Genoese. In 1475, the Turkish fleet again besieged Cafa, bombarded it and forced it to surrender. After this, Turkish troops captured Sudak, Mangup and Tana on the Sea of ​​Azov. The entire coastal strip of Crimea came into the possession of the Turkish Sultan as a sanjak (military administrative unit) with its center in Kafa, where the Turkish Pasha was located with large military forces. The northern, steppe part of Crimea, as well as the lower reaches of the Dnieper, were transferred by Turkey into the possession of the Crimean Khan Meigli Giray, who was a vassal dependent on her.

Turkey's seizure of the southern coast of Crimea increased for Rus' the danger of predatory raids from the Crimean Tatar khans, supported by Turkish feudal lords. One of the main reasons for the predatory raids was the hunt for slaves for the Turkish slave market. The strengthening of Turkish positions in the Crimea and at the mouth of the Don increased the danger for Rus' from the Kazan Khanate, which could become a support for Turkey in the implementation of its foreign policy plans.

4.Crimea under Mengli-Gerey

5.Administrative and political structure in the Crimean Khanate Throughout the history of the Crimean Khanate, it was ruled by the Geraev (Gireev) dynasty. Khan, being the supreme landowner, owned salt lakes and villages near them, forests along the Alma, Kachi and Salgir rivers and wastelands, on which settlements of new inhabitants arose, gradually turning into a dependent population and paying tithes to him. Having the right to inherit the land of a deceased vassal, if he had no close relatives, the khan could become the heir to the beys and murzas. The same rules applied to Bey and Murza land ownership, when the lands of poor farmers and cattle breeders passed to the Bey or Murza. From the land holdings of the khan, lands were allocated to the Kalga Sultan. The khan's possessions also included several cities - Kyrym (modern Old Crimea), Kyrk-Er (modern Chufut-Kale), Bakhchisarai.

There were “small” and “large” sofas, which played a very serious role in the life of the state. " Small sofa“a council was called if a narrow circle of nobility took part in it, resolving issues that required urgent and specific decisions.

« A big sofa“- this is a meeting of “the whole earth”, when all the Murzas and representatives of the “best” black people took part in it. By tradition, the Karaches retained the right to sanction the appointment of khans from the Geray clan as sultan, which was expressed in the ritual of placing them on the throne in Bakhchisarai.

The state structure of the Crimean Khanate largely used the Golden Horde and Ottoman structures of state power. Most often, the highest government positions were occupied by the sons, brothers of the khan or other persons of noble origin.

The first official after the khan was the Kalga Sultan. The khan's younger brother or another relative was appointed to this position. Kalga ruled the eastern part of the peninsula, the left wing of the khan's army and administered the state in the event of the death of the khan until a new one was appointed to the throne. He was also the commander-in-chief if the khan did not personally go to war. The second position - nureddin - was also occupied by a member of the khan's family. He was the governor of the western part of the peninsula, chairman of small and local courts, and commanded smaller corps of the right wing on campaigns.

The mufti is the head of the Muslim clergy of the Crimean Khanate, an interpreter of laws, who has the right to remove judges - qadis, if they judged incorrectly.

Kaymakans - in the late period (end of the 18th century) governing the regions of the Khanate. Or-bey is the head of the Or-Kapy (Perekop) fortress. Most often, this position was occupied by members of the khan family, or a member of the Shirin family. He guarded the borders and watched over the Nogai hordes outside the Crimea. The positions of qadi, vizier and other ministers are similar to the same positions in the Ottoman state.

In addition to the above, there were two important female positions: ana-beim (analogous to the Ottoman post of valide), which was held by the mother or sister of the khan, and ulu-beim (ulu-sultani), the senior wife of the ruling khan. In terms of importance and role in the state, they had the rank next to nureddin.

An important phenomenon in the state life of the Crimean Khanate was the very strong independence of the noble bey families, which in some way brought the Crimean Khanate closer to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The beys ruled their possessions (beyliks) as semi-independent states, administered justice themselves and had their own militia. The beys regularly took part in riots and conspiracies, both against the khan and among themselves, and often wrote denunciations against the khans they did not please the Ottoman government in Istanbul.

6. Military organization in the Crimean Khanate Military activity was mandatory for both large and small feudal lords. The specifics of the military organization of the Crimean Tatars, which fundamentally distinguished it from the military affairs of other European peoples, aroused special interest among the latter. Carrying out the tasks of their governments, diplomats, merchants, and travelers sought not only to establish contacts with the khans, but also tried to familiarize themselves in detail with the organization of military affairs, and often their missions had the main goal of studying the military potential of the Crimean Khanate.

For a long time, there was no regular army in the Crimean Khanate, and all the men of the steppe and foothills of the peninsula who were able to bear arms actually took part in military campaigns. From an early age, Crimeans became accustomed to all the hardships and hardships of military life, learned to wield weapons, ride horses, and endure cold, hunger, and fatigue. The Khan, his sons, and individual beys carried out raids and got involved in hostilities with their neighbors mainly only when they were confident of a successful outcome. Intelligence played a major role in the military operations of the Crimean Tatars. Special scouts went ahead in advance, found out the situation, and then became guides for the advancing army. Using the factor of surprise, when it was possible to take the enemy by surprise, they often obtained relatively easy prey. But the Crimeans almost never acted independently against regular, numerically superior troops.

The Khan's Council established a norm in accordance with which the khan's vassals had to supply warriors. Some of the residents remained to look after the property of those who went on a campaign. These same people were supposed to arm and support the soldiers, for which they received part of the military spoils. In addition to military service, the khan was paid sauga- a fifth, and sometimes most of the booty that the Murzas brought with them after the raids. The poor people who took part in these campaigns hoped that going for loot would allow them to get rid of everyday difficulties and make their existence easier, so they relatively willingly followed their feudal lord.

In military affairs, the Crimean Tatars can distinguish two types of marching organization - a military campaign, when the Crimean army led by a khan or kalga takes part in the hostilities of the warring parties, and a predatory raid - bash-bash(five-headed - a small Tatar detachment), which was often carried out by individual murzas and beys with relatively small military detachments in order to obtain booty and capture prisoners.

According to the descriptions of Guillaume de Beauplan and de Marsilly, the Crimeans were equipped quite simply - they used a light saddle, a blanket, and sometimes even covered the horse with sheep skin, and did not put on a bridle, using a rawhide belt. A whip with a short handle was also indispensable for the rider. The Crimeans were armed with a saber, a bow and a quiver with 18 or 20 arrows, a knife, a flint for making fire, an awl and 5 or 6 fathoms of belt ropes for tying captives. The favorite weapons of the Crimean Tatars were sabers made in Bakhchisarai; scimitars and daggers were taken in reserve.

Clothing on the campaign was also unpretentious: only the nobles wore chain mail, the rest went to war in sheepskin coats and fur hats, which were worn in winter with the wool inward, and in summer and during rain - with the wool outward or Yamurlakha cloaks; They wore red and sky blue shirts. At the camp, they took off their shirts and slept naked, putting the saddle under their heads. We didn’t take tents with us.

There were certain tactics usually used by the Crimeans. At the beginning of the attack, they always tried to go around the enemy’s left wing in order to more conveniently release arrows. One can highlight the high skill of archery with two or even three arrows at once. Often, already put to flight, they stopped, closed ranks again, trying to envelop as closely as possible the enemy who was pursuing them and scattered in pursuit, and thus, almost defeated, snatched victory from the hands of the victors. They entered into open hostilities with the enemy only in case of their obvious numerical superiority. Battles were recognized only in the open field; they avoided sieging fortresses, since they did not have siege equipment.

It should be noted that almost exclusively residents of the steppe and partly foothill regions of Crimea and Nogais took part in military campaigns.

CRIMEAN KHANATE, a state on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula (from 1475 - on most of its territory) and adjacent lands in the 15-18th centuries [until the mid-15th century, these territories constituted the Crimean yurt (ulus) of the Golden Horde]. The capital is Crimea (Kirim; now Old Crimea), from about 1532 - Bakhchisarai, from 1777 - Kefe (Kaffa).

Most Russian historians attribute the emergence of the Crimean Khanate to the early 1440s, when the founder of the Girey dynasty, Khan Hadji Giray I, became the ruler of the Crimean peninsula with the support of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV Jagiellonczyk. Turkish historiography denies the existence of Crimean statehood until the 1470s.

The main population of the Crimean Khanate were Crimean Tatars; along with them, significant communities of Karaites, Italians, Armenians, Greeks, Circassians and Gypsies lived in the Crimean Khanate. At the beginning of the 16th century, part of the Nogais (Mangyts), who wandered outside the Crimean Peninsula, moving there during periods of drought and lack of food, came under the rule of the Crimean khans. The majority of the population professed Hanafi Islam; part of the population is Orthodoxy, Monothelitism, Judaism; there were small Catholic communities in the 16th century. The Tatar population of the Crimean Peninsula was partially exempt from paying taxes. The Greeks paid jizya, the Italians were in a more privileged position thanks to partial tax breaks made during the reign of Mengli-Girey I. By the mid-18th century, the population of the Crimean Khanate was about 500 thousand people. The territory of the Crimean Khanate was divided into kaymakans (vicerarchates), which consisted of kadylyks, covering a number of settlements. The boundaries of large beyliks, as a rule, did not coincide with the boundaries of kaymakans and kadylyks.

In the mid-1470s, the Ottoman Empire began to exert a decisive influence on the internal and foreign political situation of the Crimean Khanate, whose troops captured the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula with the fortress of Kaffa (Kefe, taken in June 1475). From the beginning of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanate acted as a kind of instrument of Ottoman policy in the Eastern European region, and its military forces began to take regular part in the military campaigns of the sultans. Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, there was a cooling of relations between the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire several times, which was associated both with internal political instability in the Crimean Khanate itself (which entailed the refusal of the khans to participate in the military campaigns of the sultans, etc.) and the foreign policy failures of the khans ( for example, with the failure of the Turkish-Crimean campaign against Astrakhan in 1569), and with the political struggle in the Ottoman Empire. In the 18th century, there were no military confrontations between the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire, but increased political instability in the center and regions of the Ottoman Empire led to more frequent changes of khans on the Crimean throne than in the 17th century.

The state structure of the Crimean Khanate finally took shape at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. Supreme power belonged to the khan, a representative of the Giray dynasty, who was a vassal of the Turkish Sultan (officially consolidated in the 1580s, when the name of the Sultan began to be pronounced before the name of the khan during Friday prayers, which in the Muslim world served as a sign of vassalage).

The suzerainty of the Sultan consisted in the right to confirm the khans on the throne with a special berat, the obligation of the Crimean khans, at the request of the Sultan, to send troops to participate in the wars of the Ottoman Empire, and the refusal of the Crimean Khanate to form allied relations with states hostile to the Ottoman Empire. In addition, one of the sons of the Crimean Khan was supposed to be in Constantinople (Istanbul) as a hostage. The sultans paid the khans and members of their families a salary and provided military support in campaigns when they met the interests of the Ottoman Empire. To control the khans, the sultans, since 1475, had at their disposal the fortress of Kefe with a strong garrison (under Mengli-Girey I, its governors were the sons and grandsons of the sultans, in particular the grandson of Sultan Bayazid II, the future Sultan Suleiman I Kanun), Ozyu-Kale (Ochakov ), Azov, etc.

The heir to the Crimean throne (kalga) was appointed khan. The new khan had to be approved by the heads of 4 clans of the Crimean Khanate (Karachi Beks) - Argynov, Barynov, Kipchakov and Shirinov. In addition, he had to receive an act (berat) from Istanbul about his approval.

Under the khan, there was a council of nobility - a divan, which decided mainly on foreign policy issues. Initially, the main role in the diwan, in addition to members of the khan’s family, was played by the Karachi beks of 4 (from the mid-16th century - 5) clans - Argynov, Barynov, Kipchakov, Shirinov, Sejiutov. Then representatives of the nobility, nominated by the khans, began to play an important role. The divan included heads of families who were hereditary “amiyat”, that is, intermediaries in the diplomatic relations of the Crimean Khanate with the Russian state (the Appak-Murza clan, later beks, in the Russian service - the Suleshev princes), as well as Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ( ON) (since 1569 they united into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) [the family of Kulyuk-Murza, later the beks of the Kulikovs (Kulyukovs)]. Representatives of these clans and their relatives, as a rule, were appointed ambassadors to Moscow, Krakow and Vilna. In addition, the divan included the Karachi beks of the Crimean Mangyts (Nogais who recognized the power of the Crimean Khan) - the Diveev beks (the family of one of the descendants of Edigei - Murza Timur bin Mansur). During the reign of Mengli-Girey I, the greatest influence in the diwan was possessed by the Karachi beys Shirinov Eminek and his son Devletek. The predominance of the Shirins (who claimed descent from the Chinggisids) in the Divan generally remained until the end of the 18th century. From the end of the 16th century, the bash-aga (vizier), appointed by the khan, began to play an important role in the diwan.

The basis of the military forces of the Crimean Khanate was the cavalry (up to 120-130 thousand horsemen), fielded for the period of military campaigns by the khan himself, other Gireys, the Crimean nobility and Crimean legs, as well as garrisons of fortresses. A distinctive feature of the Crimean Tatar cavalry was the absence of a convoy and the presence of a spare horse for each rider, which ensured speed of movement on the campaign and maneuverability on the battlefield. If the army was led by a khan, as a rule, a kalga remained in the Crimean Khanate to ensure stability.

The economic situation of the Crimean Khanate throughout the entire period of its existence was unstable, as regularly recurring droughts led to massive loss of livestock and famine. Until the mid-17th century, one of the main sources of income for the Crimean Khanate was booty (mainly prisoners) captured during the Crimean Khans' raids. The Khan was considered the supreme owner of the land of the Crimean Khanate. The Gireys had their own domain (erz mirie), which was based on fertile lands in the Alma River valley. The khans also owned all the salt lakes. The khan distributed the land to his vassals as inalienable possession (beyliks). The owners of most of the cultivated land and livestock were, along with the khan, large feudal lords - the families of beys, medium and small feudal lords - the Murzas and Oglans. Land was provided for rent on the terms of payment of a 10th share of the harvest and working 7-8 days of corvee per year. The key role in the use of land by free rural residents was played by the community (jamaat), in which collective land ownership was combined with private one. There were also waqf lands owned by various Islamic institutions.

Livestock farming occupied a leading position in the economy of the Crimean Khanate. Agriculture was practiced only in part of the peninsula (the main crops were millet and wheat). The Crimean Khanate was one of the main suppliers of wheat to the Ottoman Empire. Viticulture and winemaking, horticulture and gardening were also developed. The extraction of salt brought great income to the khan's court. Craft production, largely regulated by guild associations, was dominated by leather processing, woolen products (mainly carpets), blacksmithing, jewelry and saddlery. In the steppe territories, nomadic animal husbandry was combined with agriculture, handicraft production, and local and transit trade. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, traditions of trade exchange with neighboring countries developed, the practice of simultaneous circulation of Turkish, Russian, Lithuanian and Polish money was established when the Crimean khans minted their coins, the procedure for collecting duties by the khans, etc. In the 16th century, Christians formed the basis of the merchants of the Crimean Khanate. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the economy of the Crimean Khanate experienced a gradual reduction in the share of income from military spoils, and from the 2nd half of the 18th century the use of slave labor in agriculture and handicraft production sharply decreased.

Domestic policy. After the death of Hadji-Girey I in 1466, the throne was inherited by his eldest son, Nur-Devlet-Girey. His power was disputed by his brother Mengli-Girey I, who around 1468 managed to take the Crimean throne. Nur-Devlet-Girey managed to escape from the Crimean Khanate, and in the subsequent struggle for the throne, both contenders actively sought allies. Nur-Devlet-Girey tried to enlist the support of the khans of the Great Horde and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV, and Mengli-Girey I in the early 1470s began negotiations on an anti-Horde alliance with the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Vasilyevich. By 1476, Nur-Devlet-Girey took possession of the entire Crimean Khanate, but in 1478/79 Mengli-Girey I, sent from Istanbul by Sultan Mehmed II with Ottoman troops, re-established himself on the throne.

The second reign of Mengli-Girey I (1478/79 - January 1515) and the reign of his son Muhammad-Girey I (1515-23) was a period of strengthening of the Crimean Khanate. In April 1524, the throne of the Crimean Khanate, with the support of Ottoman troops, was taken by Muhammad-Girey's brother I Saadet-Girey, who lived in Istanbul. At the same time, the Sultan appointed Gazi-Girey I as kalga under his uncle, but at the moment of taking the oath of allegiance, Saadet-Girey I ordered the death of his nephew, which marked the beginning of the tradition of physical elimination of pretenders to the throne, which persisted throughout the subsequent history of the Crimean Khanate. During the reign of Saadet-Girey I (1524-32), the military-political activity of the Crimean Khanate decreased, and large fortification construction began on Perekop in order to protect the Crimean peninsula from Nogai attacks. The Khan's dependence on the Ottoman Empire sharply increased, and the most characteristic signs of the weakness of the Khan's power in Crimea appeared: a split in the Giray family and uncertainty in the succession to the throne (5 kalg changed). In May 1532, the khan abdicated the throne in favor of his nephew Islam Giray, supported by the majority of the nobility, and left the Crimean Khanate (died around 1539 in Istanbul).

The active position of the new khan Islam-Girey I aroused the discontent of the Turkish Sultan Suleiman I Kanuni, who in September 1532 appointed Sahib-Girey I, who had previously ruled in Kazan, as khan (September 1532 - early 1551). By the summer of 1537, he managed to defeat the forces of the deposed Islam Girey I, north of Perekop, who died in the process. Despite the victory, the position of the new khan did not become stable, since he had opponents among members of the Girey dynasty, and among the Crimean nobility, and among the Nogai nobility, who organized a conspiracy against him. In the summer of 1538, during a campaign against Moldavia, Sahib-Girey I almost died in a skirmish with the Nogai, who were “led” to him by conspirators from among the nobility of the Crimean Nogai. In the 1540s, the Khan carried out a radical reform in the Crimean Khanate: residents of the Crimean Peninsula were forbidden to lead a nomadic lifestyle, they were ordered to break up their tents and live sedentary lives in villages. Innovations contributed to the establishment of a sedentary agricultural system in the Crimean Khanate, but caused discontent among a significant part of the Crimean Tatars.

The contender for the throne was the grandson of Mengli-Girey I, Devlet-Girey I, who fled from the Crimean Khanate to the Ottoman Empire, who arrived in Kefe and proclaimed himself khan. Most of the nobility instantly went over to his side. Sahib-Girey I, who was at that time on another campaign against Kabarda, hastily returned to the Crimean Khanate, but was captured and died along with his sons. In the spring of 1551, the Sultan recognized Devlet-Girey I as khan (ruled until June 1577). During his reign, the Crimean Khanate flourished. The new khan exterminated the entire family of the overthrown khan, gradually eliminating all representatives of the dynasty, except for his own children. He skillfully played on the contradictions between various clans of the Crimean nobility: the Shirins (represented by his son-in-law, Karachi-bek Azi), the Crimean Nogais (represented by Karachi-bek Diveya-Murza) and the Appak clan (represented by Bek Sulesh) were loyal to him. The Khan also provided refuge to emigrants from the former Kazan Khanate and Circassian princes from Zhaniya.

After the death of Devlet-Girey I, his son Muhammad-Girey II (1577-84) ascended the throne, whose reign was marked by an acute internal political crisis. Part of the nobility supported his brothers - Adil-Girey and Alp-Girey, and the Sultan supported his uncle Muhammad-Girey II Islam-Girey. The khan's attempt to strengthen his position by establishing the position of a second heir (nuradin) further aggravated the situation. As a result of an unsuccessful attempt to suppress the performance of the Kalga Alp-Girey, Mohammed-Girey II was killed.

The position of the new khan Islam Girey II (1584-88) was also precarious. In the summer of 1584, the sons of Muhammad-Girey II Saadet-Girey, Safa-Girey and Murad-Girey with detachments of Crimean Nogais invaded the Crimean peninsula and occupied Bakhchisarai; Saadet Giray was proclaimed khan. Islam Giray II, with the military support of Sultan Murad III, retained nominal power. The rebellious princes of Giray asked for the “arm” of the Russian Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, who recognized Saadet-Girey (died in 1587) as the Crimean Khan, and his brother Murad-Girey received Astrakhan. The decline in the prestige of the khan's power increased the discontent of the Crimean nobility, which was subjected to repression after the rebellion of 1584. Her flight began to the rebellious princes and to Istanbul to the Sultan. Of the nobility, only individual representatives of the Shirin and Suleshev clans remained loyal to the khan. The military potential of the Crimean Khanate, which was subjected to attacks by the Dnieper Cossacks, fell sharply.

The internal political situation of the Crimean Khanate stabilized during the first reign of Muhammad-Girey II's brother - Gazi-Girey II (May 1588 - end of 1596). Under him, his brother Fetkh-Girey became Kalga, and Safa-Girey became Nuradin, who returned to Crimea along with part of the Murzas who had previously emigrated. Upon arrival in the Crimean Khanate, Gazi-Girey II immediately reached an agreement with the majority of representatives of the Crimean nobility. The khan's entourage consisted of supporters of the children of Muhammad-Girey II - beks Kutlu-Girey Shirinsky, Debysh Kulikov and Arsanay Diveev. Some supporters of Islam Girey II were forced to flee to Kefa and then to Istanbul. By the mid-1590s, Gazi-Girey II faced a new threat of destabilization of the situation in Crimea: his main support in the Girey family - Safa-Girey - died, Arsanay Diveev died, and relations with Kalga Feth-Girey worsened. As a result, representatives of the ruling elite of the Ottoman Empire, dissatisfied with the khan, persuaded Sultan Mehmed III to appoint Feth-Girey khan.

Feth-Girey I (1596-97), upon arrival in the Crimean Khanate, sought to protect himself from his brother’s revenge by appointing his nephews Bakht-Girey and Selyamet-Girey, the sons of Adil-Girey, as kalga and nuradin, but his position remained unstable. Soon, as a result of the political struggle in Istanbul, the Sultan issued a berat (decree) to restore Ghazi-Girey II to the Crimean throne and provided him with military support. After the trial, Feth-Girey was captured and killed along with his family.

During his second reign (1597-1608), Gazi-Girey II dealt with the rebellious members of the Girey family and the Murzas who supported them. Nuradin Devlet-Girey (son of Saadet-Girey) and Bek Kutlu-Girey Shirinsky were executed. The khan's nephew Kalga Selyamet-Girey managed to escape from the Crimean Khanate. After this, Gazi-Girey II appointed his sons, Tokhtamysh-Girey and Sefer-Girey, as kalga and nuradin.

Since the beginning of the 17th century, changes of khans on the Crimean throne became more frequent; only individual representatives of the Girey dynasty tried to put up real resistance to the comprehensive control of the Ottoman government over the Crimean Khanate. Thus, Muhammad-Girey III (1623-24, 1624-28) and his brother Kalga Shagin-Girey in 1624 refused to obey the decree of Sultan Murad IV on the removal of the khan and by force defended their right to power and the autonomous status of the Crimean Khanate within the Ottoman Empire . Khan refused to participate in the Turkish-Persian War of 1623-39, became closer to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which opposed the Ottomans, and in December 1624 concluded an agreement with the Zaporozhye Sich, directed against the Ottoman Empire. However, in 1628, a new armed conflict between the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire ended in the defeat of the united Crimean-Zaporozhian troops and led to the expulsion of Muhammad-Girey III and Shagin-Girey from the Crimean Khanate. Separatist tendencies in the relations of the Crimean Khanate with the Ottoman Empire also manifested themselves under Muhammad-Girey IV (1641-44, 1654-66) and Adil-Girey (1666-71). In the 18th century, the authority and power of the khans decreased, the influence of the beys and heads of the nomadic Nogai hordes increased, and centrifugal tendencies on the part of the Nogais developed.

Foreign policy. The main foreign policy opponent of the Crimean Khanate at the beginning of its existence was the Great Horde, which was defeated by the Crimeans in the 1490s - 1502. As a result, part of the Nogai tribes came under the power of the Crimean khans. The Crimean khans positioned themselves as successors to the khans of the Golden Horde. In 1521, Muhammad-Girey I managed to place his brother Sahib-Girey on the Kazan throne, and in 1523, after a successful campaign against the Astrakhan Khanate, he placed Kalga Bahadur-Girey on the Astrakhan throne. In 1523, Sahib-Girey was forced to leave for the Crimean Khanate, and the Kazan throne was taken by his nephew, Safa-Girey (1524-31). In 1535, with the support of his uncle, Safa-Girey managed to regain the Kazan throne (ruled until 1546 and in 1546-49). The military-political activity of the Crimean Khanate in this direction sharply decreased after the annexation of the Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan (1556) khanates to the Russian state.

The active actions of Mengli-Girey I in the Volga region led to conflicts with the Nogai Horde that was being formed at that time. Nogai played an important role in the history of the Crimean Khanate throughout the 16th-18th centuries, in particular, some of them were part of the army of the Crimean Khanate. In 1523, the Nogais killed Khan Muhammad-Girey I and Bahadur-Girey, and then, having defeated the Crimean troops near Perekop, invaded the Crimean peninsula and devastated it. From the mid-16th century, the Little Nogai Horde (Kaziyev Ulus) came into the orbit of influence of the Crimean Khanate.

Another important direction of the Crimean Khanate’s foreign policy was relations with the Circassians, both “near” and “distant”, that is, with Western Circassia (Zhaniya) and Eastern Circassia (Kabarda). Zhaniya already under Mengli-Girey I firmly entered the zone of Crimean influence. Under Mengli-Girey I, regular campaigns against Kabarda began, led either by the khan himself or his sons (the largest took place in 1518). This direction of the foreign policy of the Crimean Khanate retained its significance until the end of its existence.

During the reign of Mengli-Girey I, the important role of the Crimean Khanate in international relations in Eastern Europe emerged. Diplomatic ties of the Crimean Khanate with the Russian state, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Mengli-Girey I were intensive and regular. The practice of concluding alliance treaties with them (bringing the so-called sherti) and the tradition of receiving “remembrances” (“mentions”; in cash and in the form of gifts) were established, which were considered by the khans as a symbol of the former rule of the Genghisids over Eastern Europe. In the 1480s - early 1490s, the foreign policy of Mengli-Girey I was characterized by a consistent course towards rapprochement with the Russian state in order to create a coalition against the Great Horde and the Jagiellons. At the beginning of the 16th century, after the collapse of the Polish-Lithuanian-Horde alliance, there was a slow but steady increase in the hostility of the Crimean Khanate towards the Russian state. In the 1510s, the union of the Crimean Khanate and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was formed. The beginning of the raids of the Crimean khans on the Russian state also dates back to this period. Relations between the Crimean Khanate and the Russian state sharply worsened under Devlet-Girey I, the reason for which was the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, as well as the strengthening of its positions in the North Caucasus (the construction of the Terki fortress in 1567 at the confluence of the Sunzha River with the Terek). In 1555-58, under the influence of A.F. Adashev, a plan for coordinated offensive actions against the Crimean Khanate was developed; in 1559, Russian troops under the command of D.F. Adashev for the first time acted directly on the territory of the Khanate. However, the need to concentrate military forces in the theater of the Livonian War of 1558-83 forced Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible to abandon further implementation of Adashev’s plan, which opened up the possibility of revenge for Devlet-Girey I. Attempts by the government of Tsar Ivan IV to solve the problem by diplomatic methods (the embassy of A.F. Nagogo in 1563-64) were unsuccessful, although on January 2, 1564, a Russian-Crimean peace treaty was concluded in Bakhchisarai, which was violated by the khan just six months later. The intensity of the Crimean raids decreased only after the defeat of the troops of the Crimean Khanate in the Battle of Molodin in 1572. Moreover, from the 1550s, raids were carried out on the southern lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was associated with the participation of the Dnieper Cossacks in the military operations of the Russian governors. Despite the allied obligations of Devlet-Girey I to Sigismund II Augustus, the raids of the Crimean khans on the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland continued in the 1560s (the largest in 1566). Muhammad Girey II, in conditions of an acute internal political crisis in the Crimean Khanate, refrained from intervening in the Livonian War of 1558-83. In 1578, through the mediation of the Turkish Sultan Murad III, an alliance treaty between the Crimean Khanate and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was concluded, but at the same time diplomatic relations with Moscow were resumed. At the beginning of 1588, Islam Giray II, on the orders of Murad III, undertook a campaign against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (as a response to Cossack attacks). In 1589, the Crimeans made a major raid on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, against the background of the strengthening of Moscow’s position in the Caucasus (due, among other things, to the fact that Astrakhan was given to Murad-Girey) and the Ottoman Empire’s dissatisfaction with the friendly relations of the Crimean Khanate with the Russian state, the aggressiveness of the Crimean Khanate towards the Russian state intensified in the early 1590s. x years. In 1593-98, Russian-Crimean relations stabilized and became peaceful; at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries they became complicated again, but after 1601 they were resolved. With the beginning of the Time of Troubles, the Polish king Sigismund III unsuccessfully tried to secure support for the actions of False Dmitry I from the Crimean Khan, but Gazi-Girey II, with the approval of the Sultan, took a hostile position towards the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, considering it as an ally of the Habsburgs. In 1606-07, the Crimeans attacked the southern lands of Poland.

The gradual weakening of the Crimean Khanate led to the fact that in the 17th and 18th centuries it pursued a less active foreign policy. Relations between the Crimean Khanate and the Russian state throughout the 17th century developed in line with the already established forms and traditions of diplomatic relations. The practice of annual exchange of embassies continued; until 1685 inclusive, the Russian government paid the Crimean khans an annual tribute (“commemoration”), the amount of which reached 14,715 rubles (finally abolished by a special clause of the Peace of Constantinople in 1700). Correspondence with the king in the Tatar language was carried out by the khan, kalga and nuradin.

In the 1st half of the 18th century, the Crimean khans were generally on friendly terms with Russia. However, individual raids in the 1730s and the 1735 campaign of Khan Kaplan-Girey I to Persia through the territories of the Russian Empire led to military operations of the Russian army in the Crimean Khanate during the Russian-Turkish War of 1735-39.

Annexation of the Crimean Khanate to Russia. During the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, after the first victories of the Russian army, the Yedisan Horde and the Budzhak (Belgorod) Horde in 1770 recognized the suzerainty of Russia over themselves. The Russian government unsuccessfully tried to persuade the Crimean Khan Selim-Girey III (1765-1767; 1770-71) to accept Russian citizenship. 14(25).6.1771 Russian troops under the command of General-in-Chief Prince V.M. Dolgorukov (from 1775 Dolgorukov-Krymsky) began an assault on the Perekop fortifications, and by the beginning of July they took the main strategically important fortresses of the Crimean Peninsula. Khan Selim Giray III fled to the Ottoman Empire. In November 1772, the new Khan Sahib-Girey II (1771-75) concluded an agreement with Russia recognizing the Crimean Khanate as an independent state under the patronage of the Russian Empress. According to the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774, which fixed the independent status of the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Sultan reserved the right of the spiritual guardian (caliph) of the Crimean Muslims. Despite the attraction of part of the Tatar elite to Russia, pro-Turkish sentiments dominated in Crimean society. The Ottoman Empire, for its part, tried to maintain political influence in the Crimean Khanate, the northwestern Black Sea region, the Azov region and the North Caucasus, including the Caucasian coast of the Black Sea. 24.4 (5.5). 1777 Shagin-Girey, loyal to Russia, was elected Crimean Khan with the right to transfer the throne by inheritance. The tax policy of the new khan, the abuse of taxation and the attempt to create a court guard on the Russian model provoked popular unrest throughout the Crimean Khanate in October 1777 - February 1778. After suppressing the unrest due to the continued threat of a Turkish landing on the peninsula, the Russian military administration withdrew all Christians (about 31 thousand people) from Crimea. This measure had a negative impact on the economy of the Crimean Khanate and caused, in particular, a reduction in tax revenues to the Khan's treasury. The unpopularity of Shagin-Girey led to the fact that the Crimean nobility elected the protege of the Ottoman Empire Bahadur-Girey II (1782-83) as khan. In 1783, Shagin-Girey was returned to the Crimean throne with the help of Russian troops, but this did not lead to the desired stabilization of the situation in the Crimean Khanate. As a result, on April 8 (19), 1783, Empress Catherine II issued a manifesto on the annexation of Crimea, the Taman Peninsula and the lands up to the Kuban River to Russia.

The annexation of the Crimean Khanate to Russia significantly strengthened the position of the Russian Empire on the Black Sea: prospects for the economic development of the Northern Black Sea region, the development of trade on the Black Sea and the construction of the Russian Black Sea Fleet appeared.

Lit.: Matériaux pour servir à l’histoire du Khanate de Crimée - Materials for the history of the Crimean Khanate. St. Petersburg, 1864 (text in Tatar); Kurat A. N. Topkapi Sarayi Мüzesi arsivindeki Altin ordu, Kinm ve Türkistan hanlarma ait yarlikl ve bitikler. Ist., 1940; Le Khanat de Crimée dans les archives du Musée du palais de Topkapi. R., 1978; Grekov I. B. Ottoman Empire, Crimea and the countries of Eastern Europe in the 50-70s of the 16th century. // Ottoman Empire and the countries of Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe in the XV-XVI centuries. M., 1984; From the history of regions: Crimea in the geopolitical fault lines of Eastern Europe. Heritage of the Golden Horde // Domestic history. 1999. No. 2; Trepavlov V.V. History of the Nogai Horde. M., 2001; Khoroshkevich A.L. Rus' and Crimea. From alliance to confrontation. M., 2001; Faizov S. F. Letters of the khans Islam-Girey III and Muhammad-Girey IV to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and King Jan Casimir: 1654-1658: Crimean Tatar diplomacy in the political context of the post-Pereyaslav time. M., 2003; Smirnov V.D. The Crimean Khanate under the supremacy of the Ottoman Porte. M., 2005. T. 1: Until the beginning of the 18th century.

A. V. Vinogradov, S. F. Faizov.

CRIMEA KHANATE(1441/1443–1783), medieval state in Crimea. It was formed on the territory of the Crimean ulus of the Golden Horde during the period of its collapse. The founder of the Crimean Khanate is Hadji Giray (1441/1443–1466). The borders of the Crimean Khanate during the period of its power (mid-15th century) included the territories of the Northern Black Sea region from the mouth of the Dniester in the West to the right bank of the Don in the East, to the Vorskla River in the North.

The administrative division of the Crimean Khanate was traditional for the medieval Turkic-Tatar states and consisted of four large possessions of the Argyn, Baryn, Kipchak and Shirin clans. The nomadic possessions of Yedisan, Budzhak, and Small Nogai depended on the Crimean Khanate. During its heyday, the Khanate was divided into beyliks, which united the lands of several settlements and were ruled by representatives of various Tatar clans.

The capital is the city of Bakhchisarai - a large religious, political and commercial center. There were other large cities: Solkhat (Iski-Crimea), Kafa, Akkerman, Azak (Azov), Kyrk-Er (Chufut-Kale), Gezlev, Sudak. All of them were centers of beyliks and the focus of administrative power, crafts, trade, and religious life.

Tatars, Greeks, Armenians, Karaites, and Crimeans lived on the lands of the Crimean Khanate; There are also Italian merchants in port cities.

The nobility called themselves Tatars, sometimes with the addition of “Krymly” (that is, Crimean), and the main population most often defined themselves on religious grounds - Muslims.

The main language in the Crimean Khanate was Turkic; office work, diplomatic correspondence and literary creativity were also carried out in it; Since the 16th century, numerous Ottomanisms began to penetrate into it.

The economic activities of the population of the Crimean Khanate were strictly zoned: agriculture, gardening and viticulture were cultivated in the southern foothills, semi-nomadic cattle breeding - in the steppe part of Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. Wheat, barley, millet, rice, and lentils were grown. Peaches, pears, apple trees, plums, cherries, and nuts were grown in the gardens. The population was engaged in beekeeping, fishing and hunting. Cities, especially port cities, were centers of highly developed crafts such as ironworking, weapons, weaving, leatherworking, woodworking, pottery, jewelry, and construction. Trade relations with Turkey, Russia, Poland, and the countries of Transcaucasia were developed. The main items exported from the Crimean Khanate were wheat, honey, and slaves; import - weapons, fabrics, spices, luxury goods. Famous trade fairs are in Cafe, Gezlev, Sudak and Or-Kapu (Perekop).

The supreme power in the Crimean Khanate belonged to the khans from the Girey clan, descendants of Khan Jochi. The tamga (coat of arms) of the Crimean Khanate was a sign in the form of a trident comb, and the tughra was a calligraphically written tamga, preserved in various forms in the diplomatic correspondence of the Crimean khans. After the establishment of vassal dependence of the Crimean Khanate on the Turkish Empire in 1475, a different system of power was formed here. The real ruler of Crimea was the Turkish Sultan, who had the right to remove and appoint khans, control all international relations of the Khanate, and also call upon Crimean troops to go on campaign. Formally, the khans of the Crimean Khanate were autocratic monarchs, but in reality their power was limited by the Turkish sultans and ruling clans. The khans sealed all the laws of the country with their seal and performed other representative functions. The basis of the khan's wealth was his ulus, located in the valleys of the Alma, Kacha and Salgir rivers. The residence of the khans from the end of the 15th century was in Bakhchisarai. The second most important representative of the Gireys was the heir to the throne - kalga, usually the eldest representative of the clan after the khan. His residence and administration were located in Ak-Mosque. Ownership of kalga - kalgalyk was not inherited, but was state property. Since 1578, another heir to the throne appeared in the Crimean Khanate - Nuraddin, the third in importance; his possessions were located in the Alma valley in Kachi-Saray. In fact, power in the Crimean Khanate belonged to the Tatar nobility, in which there were 4 ruling families: Shirin, Argyn, Baryn and Kipchak (Yashlav). Later they were joined by the Nogai clans Mangyt (Mansur) and Sidzheut. In the 16th–18th centuries, there was probably a rotation of clans, when the Mangyts ousted the Argyn, Kipchak or Baryn clans from power structures. The form of influence of the aristocracy on state affairs was the council under the khan - the divan. It included Kalga, Nuraddin, Shirin Bey, Mufti, representatives of the highest Tatar nobility led by Karachibeks from the four ruling clans, the rulers were the serakesirs of the three nomadic hordes (Budzhak, Yedisan, Nogai). The Divan was in charge of all state affairs, and also resolved complex legal cases that were not subject to the jurisdiction of estate and local courts; was involved in determining government expenditures, including for the maintenance of the khan and his court.

The highest administrative and military power was exercised by Ulug Karachibek from the Shirin clan, his residence was in Solkhat. Ensuring the external security of the state was carried out by the or-bek, whose residence was in Perekop. Financial affairs and taxes were in charge of the khan-agasy (vizier), as well as various officials: kazandar-bashi, aktachi-bashi, defterdar-bashi, killardzhi-bashi. After establishing dependence on the Turkish Empire, the representative of the Sultan began to play an important role in the life of Crimea.

The social organization of the nobility in the Crimean Khanate had a hierarchical system related to the rights to land ownership or levying a certain tax, for which the owners were obliged to serve their overlord. Ownership was divided into conditional - iqta, suyurgal and unconditional - tarkhan (exemption from all or part of taxes and duties). The highest stratum of the nobility consisted of the descendants of the Gireys - Kalga, Nuraddin, Sultans, Murzas, Beks and small serving nobility - Emeldyashi and Sirdashi. The army of the Crimean Khanate consisted of the Khan's guard (kapy-kulu) and militias of Tatar clans, as well as troops of nomadic tribes with a total number of 4 thousand to 200 thousand soldiers. The basis of the army was the serving nobility, which comprised a cadre of military leaders and professional warriors, mainly heavily armed cavalrymen, whose total number reached 8–10 thousand people. At the beginning of the 16th century, under the khan, a permanent professional army began to form, similar to the Turkish one, consisting of detachments of infantrymen armed with muskets (janissry and tyufenkchi), as well as field artillery (zarbuzan). Artillery was used in field battles and in the defense of fortifications. Combat and transport fleets were used for crossings and battles on rivers. In the 16th–18th centuries, the detachments of the Crimean Khan most often acted as part of the Turkish troops. In field battles, operational maneuvers, flanking, and false retreats were used. During the battle, the Tatars tried to maintain their distance, hitting the enemy with arrows.

The bulk of the population consisted of the tax-paying class, which paid taxes to the state or feudal lord, the main of which was yasak, traditional for the Tatar states. There were other taxes, fees and duties: supplies of provisions to the troops and authorities (anbar-mala, ulufa-susun), yam duty (ilchi-kunak), taxes in favor of the clergy (gosher and zakat). Large revenues to the treasury of the Crimean Khanate were provided by payments for the participation of military contingents of the Crimean Tatars in the campaigns of the Turkish sultans, monetary indemnities from Poland and Russia issued to prevent raids on their territory, as well as military booty.

The state religion in the Crimean Khanate was Islam. The head of the clergy was a mufti from the Sayyid family. Muftis and seyids actively participated in the political life of the country and were also involved in legal proceedings. The clergy also operated religious educational institutions - mektebs and madrassas. In them, the bulk of the country's population learned to read and write and the basic canons of religion. Data have been preserved about the existence of handwritten libraries and book copyists at the madrasah and the khan’s court. The literacy and culture of the population are evidenced by preserved objects with inscriptions, tombstones with epitaphic inscriptions, and documents on office work. Literature was actively developing. A collection of poems and poems “The Rose and the Nightingale” by Khan Gazi-Girey has been preserved. Khans Bogadyr-Girey and Selim-Girey were also poets. There was an official historiography in the Crimean Khanate. In the 16th–17th centuries, “The History of Khan Sahib-Girey” by Remmal Khoja, the anonymous “History of Dasht-i Kipchak”, around 1638, and “The History of Khan Said-Girey” by Haji Mehmed Senai appeared. The famous fundamental work of the 18th century “Seven Planets” by Sayyid Muhammad Riza. The main motive of these works is the desire to prove the intrinsic value of Tatar history, to determine the role and place of the Crimean khans in the history of Turkey.

Construction and architecture were at a high level of development, for example, white-stone Bakhchisaray was famous for its mosques - Takhtaly-Jami (1704), Yeshel-Jami (1764), Khidzhi-Jami (1762–1769). The Jumi-Jami mosque (XVI century) was created in Yevpatoria. Mausoleums (dyurbe) of the Crimean khans and khan-bike - Turabek-khanum, Mengli-Gireya, Muhammad-Gireya were also built. The art of stone carving reached a high level; tombstones with floral ornaments were made. Music developed; famous musicians were some representatives of the Girey family who were educated in Turkey: Sahib-Girey, Gazi-Girey.

The population of the Crimean Khanate became the basis for the formation of the modern Crimean Tatar nation, laying down its main political, cultural and linguistic traditions.

The Crimean Khanate pursued an active foreign policy. Having strengthened the internal position in the state, Hadji Giray and his immediate descendants fought with the khans of the Great Horde, and often entered into an alliance with the Russian state. However, during this period the influence of the Ottoman Empire sharply increased, which extended its power to the entire Black Sea coast. On June 1, 1475, the Turkish fleet captured Cafa and other Italian colonies and Gothic fortresses. From that time on, the Crimean Khan became a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. In the first third of the 16th century, as Turkey strengthened and Russia began to expand in the Volga region, Russian-Crimean contradictions intensified. They sharply intensified after the deposition of the Russian protege Shah-Ali in Kazan and the elevation of Khan Sahib-Girey to the throne. The installation of Sahib-Girey and then his younger brother Safa-Girey on the Kazan throne caused a series of conflicts and wars between Moscow and the Crimean Khanate. Russian military campaigns became more frequent after the death of Safa-Girey in 1546 and ended with the conquest of Kazan (1552). Wars between the Crimean Khanate and Russia began, in which the main demand of the Crimean Khan was the return of khans from the Girey clan to Kazan. In these wars, the Crimean Khanate was supported by Turkey, which, in an effort to expand its influence in the North Caucasus, undertook an unsuccessful campaign against Astrakhan (1569). In 1571, Khan Devlet-Girey approached Moscow and burned it, but in 1572 he was defeated in the Battle of Molodi, which forced him to sign peace with Moscow. All attempts to liberate Kazan from Russian rule were unsuccessful. In the 17th–18th centuries, the Crimean Khanate participated in all military enterprises of the Turkish Empire: in wars against Hungary, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia, Austria and Iran. The territories of Russia, Ukraine, Poland and Wallachia were subjected to repeated attacks by Crimean troops.

At the end of the 17th century, during the war with Turkey, Russia launched Crimean campaigns (1687, 1689), which ended in vain. In 1711, the troops of the Crimean Khanate took part in the war with Russia, which ended with the Prut Peace Treaty, which ensured the preservation of the Crimean Khanate. At the end of the 18th century, the aggressive policy of the Russian Empire led to a series of Russian-Turkish wars. According to the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty of 1774, the Crimean Khanate ceased to be a vassal of Turkey and moved into the sphere of influence of Russia. The policies of Khan Shagin-Girey (1777–1783) caused discontent among the population and aristocracy and provoked an uprising. Under the pretext that the new khan was not approved by Russia, Russian troops were brought into Crimea. In 1783, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to the Russian Empire. On April 8, 1783, Empress Catherine II issued a manifesto, according to which Crimea, Taman and Kuban became Russian regions. The population formally retained its former rights and was ensured a peaceful life and justice. A new era began for Crimea - the period of Russian colonization and the gradual displacement of the Tatars.

• Hadji Giray (1443–1466)
• Nur-Devlet (1466–1469, 1474–1477)
• Mengli-Girey I (1469–1515, with a break in 1474–1478)
• Janibek-Girey I (1477–1478)
• Muhammad Giray I (1515–1523)
• Gazi-Girey I (1523–1524)
• Saadet Girey I (1524–1532)
• Islam Giray I (1532)
• Sahib Giray I (1532–1551)
• Devlet-Girey I (1551–1577)
• Muhammad-Girey II (1577–1584)
• Islam Giray II (1584–1588)
• Gazi-Girey II (1588–1597, 1597–1608)
• Fath Giray I (1597)
• Selamet-Girey I (1608–1610)
• Janibek-Girey II (1610–1622, 1627–1635)
• Muhammad-Girey III (1622–1627)
• Inet-Girey (1635–1638)
• Bahadur-Girey (1638–1642)
• Muhammad-Girey IV (1642–1644, 1654–1665)
• Islam Giray III (1644–1654)
• Adil-Girey (1665–1670)
• Selim Giray I (1670–1677, 1684–1691, 1692–1698, 1702–1604)
• Murad-Girey (1677–1683)
• Hadji Giray II (1683–84)
• Saadet-Girey II (1691)
• Safa-Girey (1691–92)
• Devlet-Girey II (1698–1702, 1707–13)
• Gazi-Girey III (1704–07)
• Kaplan-Girey I (1707, 1713–16, 1730–36)
• Kara-Devlet-Girey (1716–17)
• Saadet-Girey III (1717–24)
• Mengli-Girey II (1724–30, 1737–39)
• Fath Giray II (1736–37)
• Selim Giray II (1743–48)
• Arslan-Girey (1748–56, 1767)
• Maksud-Girey (1767–68)
• Halim-Girey (1756–58)
• Crimea-Girey (1758–64, 1767–69)
• Selim Giray III (1764–67, 1770–71)
• Devlet-Girey III (1769–70, 1775–77)
• Kaplan-Girey II (1770)
• Maksud-Girey II (1771–72)
• Sahib-Girey II (1772–75)
• Shagin-Girey (1777–83)