Methodology of analysis. Research methods as they are Toward a methodology for analysis and measurement

Any scientific, research and practical activity is carried out on the basis of methods, techniques and methodologies.
Method It is a method or way of doing things.
Methodology- a set of methods, techniques for carrying out any work.
Methodology- this is a set of methods, rules for the distribution and assignment of methods, as well as work steps and their sequence.
System analysis also has its own methods, techniques and methodologies. However, unlike the classical sciences, system analysis is in the development stage and does not yet have a well-established, generally recognized "toolkit".
In addition, each science has its own methodology, so let's give one more definition.
Methodology- a set of methods used in any science.
In a sense, we can also talk about the methodology of system analysis, although it is still a very loose, "raw" methodology.

1. Consistency
Before considering the system methodology, it is necessary to understand the concept of "system". Today, such concepts as "system analysis", "system approach", "system theory", "systematic principle", etc. are widely used. However, they are not always distinguished and are often used as synonyms.
The most general concept, which refers to all possible manifestations of systems, is "systematic". Yu.P. Surmin proposes to consider the structure of systemicity in three aspects (Fig. 1): system theory, system approach and system method.

Rice. 1. The structure of consistency and its constituent functions.

1. System theory (system theory) implements explanatory and systematizing functions: gives rigorous scientific knowledge about the world of systems; explains the origin, structure, functioning and development of systems of various nature.
2. A systematic approach should be considered as a certain methodological approach of a person to reality, which is a certain commonality of principles, a systematic worldview.
An approach is a set of techniques, ways of influencing someone, in studying something, doing business, etc.
Principle - a) the basic, initial position of any theory; b) the most general rule of activity, which ensures its correctness, but does not guarantee unambiguity and success.
So, an approach is some generalized system of ideas about how this or that activity should be performed (but not a detailed algorithm of action), and the principle of activity is a set of some generalized techniques and rules.
Briefly, the essence of the system approach can be defined as follows:
A systematic approach is a methodology of scientific knowledge and practical activity, as well as an explanatory principle, which are based on the consideration of an object as a system.
The systematic approach consists in the rejection of one-sided analytical, linear-causal research methods. The main emphasis in its application is on the analysis of the integral properties of the object, the identification of its various connections and structure, features of functioning and development. The systems approach seems to be a fairly universal approach in the analysis, research, design and management of any complex technical, economic, social, environmental, political, biological and other systems.
The purpose of a systematic approach is that it directs a person to a systematic vision of reality. It forces us to consider the world from a systemic standpoint, more precisely, from the standpoint of its systemic structure.
Thus, the systematic approach, being the principle of cognition, performs orientational and worldview functions, providing not only a vision of the world, but also orientation in it.
3. The system method implements cognitive and methodological functions. It acts as some integral set of relatively simple methods and techniques of cognition, as well as the transformation of reality.
The ultimate goal of any system activity is to develop solutions, both at the design stage of systems and in their management. In this context, systems analysis can be considered a fusion of the methodology of general systems theory, systems approach and systems methods of justification and decision making.

2. Natural science methodology and systematic approach
System analysis is not something fundamentally new in the study of the surrounding world and its problems - it is based on a natural-science approach, the roots of which go back to past centuries.
The central place in the study is occupied by two opposite approaches: analysis and synthesis.
Analysis involves the process of dividing the whole into parts. It is very useful if you need to find out what parts (elements, subsystems) the system consists of. Knowledge is acquired through analysis. However, it is impossible to understand the properties of the system as a whole.
The task of synthesis is the construction of a whole from parts. Understanding is achieved through synthesis.
In the study of any problem, several main stages can be indicated:
1) setting the goal of the study;
2) highlighting the problem (singling out the system): highlight the main, essential, discarding the insignificant, insignificant;
3) description: to express in a single language (level of formalization) phenomena and factors that are heterogeneous in nature;
4) establishing criteria: to determine what is "good" and "bad" for evaluating the information received and comparing alternatives;
5) idealization (conceptual modeling): introduce a rational idealization of the problem, simplify it to an acceptable limit;
6) decomposition (analysis): divide the whole into parts without losing the properties of the whole;
7) composition (synthesis): combine parts into a whole without losing the properties of the parts;
8) solution: find a solution to the problem.
In contrast to the traditional approach, in which the problem is solved in a strict sequence of the above stages (or in a different order), the system approach consists in the multiple connection of the solution process: the stages are considered together, in interconnection and dialectical unity. In this case, a transition to any stage is possible, including a return to setting the goal of the study.
The main feature of a systematic approach is the presence of a dominant role of a complex, not simple, whole, and not constituent elements. If, in the traditional approach to research, thought moves from the simple to the complex, from parts to the whole, from elements to the system, then in the systems approach, on the contrary, thought moves from the complex to the simple, from the whole to its constituent parts, from the system to the elements. At the same time, the effectiveness of a systematic approach is the higher, the more complex it is applied to.

3. System activity
Whenever the question of system analysis technologies is raised, insurmountable difficulties immediately arise due to the fact that there are no established systems analysis technologies in practice. System analysis is currently a loosely coupled set of techniques and methods of an informal and formal nature. So far, intuition dominates in systems thinking.
The situation is aggravated by the fact that, despite the half-century history of the development of system ideas, there is no unambiguous understanding of the system analysis itself. Yu.P. Surmin identifies the following options for understanding the essence of system analysis:
Identification of the technology of system analysis with the technology of scientific research. At the same time, there is practically no place for the system analysis itself in this technology.
Reduction of system analysis to system design. In fact, system-analytical activity is identified with system-technical activity.
A very narrow understanding of system analysis, reducing it to one of its components, for example, to structural-functional analysis.
Identification of system analysis with a systematic approach to analytical activity.
Understanding system analysis as a study of system patterns.
In a narrow sense, system analysis is quite often understood as a set of mathematical methods for studying systems.
Reducing system analysis to a set of methodological tools that are used to prepare, justify and implement solutions to complex problems.
Thus, what is called system analysis is an insufficiently integrated array of methods and techniques of system activity.
Today, the mention of system analysis can be found in many works related to management and problem solving. And although it is quite rightly considered as an effective method for studying management objects and processes, there are practically no methods of system analytics in solving specific management problems. As Yu.P. Surmin: "Systems analysis in management is not a developed practice, but growing mental declarations that do not have any serious technological support."

4. Approaches to the analysis and design of systems
When analyzing and designing existing systems, various specialists may be interested in different aspects: from the internal structure of the system to the organization of control in it. In this regard, the following approaches to analysis and design are conventionally distinguished: 1) system-element, 2) system-structural, 3) system-functional, 4) system-genetic, 5) system-communicative, 6) system-management and 7 ) system-information.
1. System-element approach. The indispensable property of systems is their components, parts, exactly what the whole is formed from and without which it is impossible.
The system-element approach answers the question of what (what elements) the system is formed from.
This approach was sometimes referred to as "enumerating" the system. At first, they tried to apply it to the study of complex systems. However, the very first attempts to apply this approach to the study of management systems of enterprises and organizations showed that it is almost impossible to “list” a complex system.
Example. There was such a case in the history of the development of automated control systems. The developers wrote dozens of volumes of the system survey, but could not start creating the ACS, because they could not guarantee the completeness of the description. The development manager was forced to quit, and subsequently began to study the systematic approach and popularize it.
2. System-structural approach. The components of the system are not a collection of random incoherent objects. They are integrated by the system, they are components of this particular system.
The system-structural approach is aimed at identifying the component composition of the system and the links between them that ensure purposeful functioning.
In a structural study, the subject of research, as a rule, is the composition, structure, configuration, topology, etc.
3. System-functional approach. The goal acts in the system as one of the important system-forming factors. But the goal requires actions aimed at achieving it, which are nothing but its functions. Functions in relation to the goal act as ways to achieve it.
The system-functional approach is aimed at considering the system from the point of view of its behavior in the environment in order to achieve goals.
In a functional study, the following are considered: dynamic characteristics, stability, survivability, efficiency, i.e., everything that, with an unchanged structure of the system, depends on the properties of its elements and their relationships.
4. Systemic genetic approach. Any system is not immutable, once and for all given. It is not absolute, not eternal, mainly because it has internal contradictions. Each system not only functions, but also moves, develops; it has its beginning, is experiencing the time of its birth and formation, development and flourishing, decline and death. And this means that time is an indispensable attribute of the system, that any system is historical.
The system-genetic (or system-historical) approach is aimed at studying the system from the point of view of its development in time.
The system-genetic approach determines the genesis - the emergence, origin and formation of an object as a system.
5. System-communicative approach. Each system is always an element (subsystem) of another, higher level system, and itself, in turn, is formed from subsystems of a lower level. In other words, the system is connected by many relationships (communications) with a variety of systemic and non-systemic formations.
The system-communicative approach is aimed at studying the system from the point of view of its relations with other systems external to it.
6. System management approach. The system constantly experiences perturbing influences. These are, first of all, internal perturbations, which are the result of the internal inconsistency of any system. These include external perturbations, which are far from always favorable: lack of resources, severe restrictions, etc. Meanwhile, the system lives, functions, and develops. This means that, along with a specific set of components, internal organization (structure), etc., there are other system-forming, system-preserving factors. These factors to ensure the stability of the system are called management.
The system management approach is aimed at studying the system from the point of view of providing
baking its purposeful functioning in the conditions of internal and external disturbances.
7. System-information approach. Management in the system is unthinkable without the transmission, receipt, storage and processing of information. Information is a way of connecting the components of the system with each other, each of the components with the system as a whole, and the system as a whole with the environment. In view of the foregoing, it is impossible to reveal the essence of systemicity without studying its informational aspect.
The system-information approach is aimed at studying the system from the point of view of transmitting, receiving, storing and processing data within the system and in connection with the environment.

5. Methods of system analysis
The methodology of system analysis is a rather complex and variegated set of principles, approaches, concepts and specific methods, as well as techniques.
The most important part of the methodology of system analysis is its methods and techniques (for simplicity, in what follows, we will generally talk about techniques).

5.1. Overview of systems analysis techniques
The available methods of system analysis have not yet received a sufficiently convincing classification that would be unanimously accepted by all experts. For example, Yu. I. Chernyak divides the methods of systematic research into four groups: informal, graphic, quantitative, and modeling. A rather deep analysis of the methods of various authors is presented in the works of V.N. Volkova, as well as Yu.P. Surmina.
The following sequence can be considered as the simplest version of the system analysis methodology:
1) statement of the problem;
2) structuring the system;
3) building a model;
4) study of the model.
Other examples and analysis of the stages of the first methods of system analysis are given in the book, which discusses the methods of leading experts in system analysis of the 70s and 80s of the last century: S. Optner, E. Quaid, S. Young, E.P. Golubkov. Yu.N. Chernyak.
Examples: Stages of system analysis methods according to S. Optner:
1. Identification of symptoms.
2. Determining the relevance of the problem.
3. Definition of the goal.
4. Opening the structure of the system and its defective elements.
5. Determination of the structure of opportunities.
6. Finding alternatives.
7. Evaluation of alternatives.
8. Choice of an alternative.
9. Drawing up a decision.
10. Recognition of the decision by the team of performers and leaders.
11. Starting the solution implementation process
12. Management of the solution implementation process.
13. Evaluation of implementation and its consequences.

Stages of system analysis techniques according to S. Yang:
1. Determining the purpose of the system.
2. Identification of problems of the organization.
3. Investigation of problems and diagnosis
4. Search for a solution to the problem.
5. Evaluation of all alternatives and selection of the best one.
6. Coordination of decisions in the organization.
7 Approval of the decision.
8. Preparation for input.
9. Managing the application of the solution.
10. Checking the effectiveness of the solution.

Stages of system analysis methods according to Yu.I. Chernyak:
1. Analysis of the problem.
2. System definition.
3. Analysis of the structure of the system.
4. Formation of a common goal and criterion.
5. Decomposition of the goal and identification of the need for resources and processes.
6. Identification of resources and processes - composition of goals.
7. Forecast and analysis of future conditions.
8. Evaluation of ends and means.
9. Selection of options.
10. Diagnosis of the existing system.
11. Building a comprehensive development program.
12. Designing an organization to achieve goals.

From the analysis and comparison of these methods, it can be seen that the following stages are presented in them in one form or another:
identifying problems and setting goals;
development of options and decision-making models;
evaluation of alternatives and search for a solution;
solution implementation.
In addition, in some methods there are stages for evaluating the effectiveness of solutions. In the most complete methodology, Yu.I. Chernyak specifically provides for the stage of designing an organization to achieve the goal.
At the same time, various authors focus their attention on different stages, respectively, detailing them in more detail. In particular, the focus is on the following steps:
development and research of decision-making alternatives (S. Optner, E. Quaid), decision-making (S. Optner);
substantiation of the goal and criteria, structuring the goal (Yu.I. Chernyak, S. Optner, S. Yang);
managing the process of implementing an already adopted decision (S. Optner, S. Yang).
Since the execution of individual stages can take quite a lot of time, there is a need for greater detail, division into sub-stages and a clearer definition of the final results of the sub-stages. In particular, in the method of Yu.I. Chernyak, each of the 12 stages is divided into sub-stages, of which there are a total of 72.
Other authors of system analysis methods include E.A. Kapitonov and Yu.M. Plotnitsky.
Examples: E.A. Kapitonov identifies the following successive stages of system analysis.
1. Setting goals and main objectives of the study.
2. Determining the boundaries of the system in order to separate the object from the external environment, to distinguish between its internal and external relations.
3. Revealing the essence of integrity.
A similar approach is also used by Yu. M. Plotnitsky, who considers system analysis as a set of steps to implement the system approach methodology in order to obtain information about the system. He distinguishes 11 stages in the system analysis.
1. Formulation of the main goals and objectives of the study.
2. Determining the boundaries of the system, separating it from the external environment.
3. . Compilation of a list of system elements (subsystems, factors, variables, etc.).
4. Identification of the essence of the integrity of the system.
5. Analysis of interrelated elements of the system.
6. Building the structure of the system.
7. Establishing the functions of the system and its subsystems.
8. Coordination of the goals of the system and each subsystem.
9. Clarification of the boundaries of the system and each subsystem.
10. Analysis of emergence phenomena.
11. Designing a system model.

5.2. Development of system analysis methods
The ultimate goal of system analysis is to assist in understanding and solving an existing problem, which boils down to finding and choosing a solution to the problem. The result will be the chosen alternative either in the form of a management decision, or in the form of creating a new system (in particular, a management system) or reorganizing the old one, which again is a management decision.
The incompleteness of information about the problem situation makes it difficult to choose methods for its formalized representation and does not allow the formation of a mathematical model. In this case, there is a need to develop methods for conducting system analysis.
It is necessary to determine the sequence of stages of system analysis, recommend methods for performing these stages, and provide, if necessary, a return to previous stages. Such a sequence of stages and sub-stages, identified and ordered in a certain way, in combination with the recommended methods and techniques for their implementation, constitutes the structure of the system analysis methodology.
Practitioners see methodologies as an important tool for solving problems in their subject area. And although today a large arsenal of them has been accumulated, but, unfortunately, it should be recognized that the development of universal methods and techniques is not possible. In each subject area, for various types of problems to be solved, a systems analyst has to develop his own system analysis methodology based on a variety of principles, ideas, hypotheses, methods and techniques accumulated in the field of systems theory and system analysis.
The authors of the book recommend that when developing a methodology for system analysis, first of all, determine the type of task (problem) being solved. Then, if the problem covers several areas: the choice of goals, the improvement of the organizational structure, the organization of the decision-making and implementation process, highlight these tasks in it and develop methods for each of them.

5.3. An example of an enterprise system analysis methodology
As an example of a modern methodology for system analysis, let's consider a certain generalized methodology for analyzing an enterprise.
The following list of system analysis procedures is proposed, which can be recommended to managers and specialists in economic information systems.
1. Determine the boundaries of the system under study (see the selection of the system from the environment).
2. Determine all subsystems that include the system under study as a part.
If the impact on the enterprise of the economic environment is clarified, it will be the supersystem in which its functions should be considered (see hierarchy). Based on the interconnectedness of all spheres of life in modern society, any object, in particular, an enterprise, should be studied as an integral part of many systems - economic, political, state, regional, social, environmental, international. Each of these supersystems, for example, the economic one, in turn, has many components with which the enterprise is connected: suppliers, consumers, competitors, partners, banks, etc. These components are simultaneously included in other supersystems - sociocultural, environmental, etc. And if we also take into account that each of these systems, as well as each of their components, have their own specific goals that contradict each other, then the need for a conscious study of the environment surrounding the enterprise becomes clear (see expanding the problem to a problematic). Otherwise, the whole set of numerous influences exerted by supersystems on the enterprise will seem chaotic and unpredictable, excluding the possibility of reasonable management of it.
3. Determine the main features and directions of development of all supersystems to which this system belongs, in particular, formulate their goals and contradictions between them.
4. Determine the role of the system under study in each supersystem, considering this role as a means of achieving the goals of the supersystem.
Two aspects should be considered in this regard:
the idealized, expected role of the system from the point of view of the supersystem, i.e., those functions that should be performed in order to realize the goals of the supersystem;
the real role of the system in achieving the goals of the supersystem.
For example, on the one hand, an assessment of the needs of buyers in a particular type of goods, their quality and quantity, and on the other hand, an assessment of the parameters of goods actually produced by a particular enterprise.
Determining the expected role of the enterprise in the consumer environment and its real role, as well as comparing them, makes it possible to understand many of the reasons for the success or failure of the company, the features of its work, and to foresee the real features of its future development.
5. Identify the composition of the system, i.e., determine the parts of which it consists.
6. Determine the structure of the system, which is a set of links between its components.
7. Determine the functions of the active elements of the system, their "contribution" to the implementation of the role of the system as a whole.
Of fundamental importance is the harmonic, consistent combination of the functions of different elements of the system. This problem is especially relevant for subdivisions, workshops of large enterprises, whose functions are often in many respects “not connected”, insufficiently subordinated to the general plan.
8. Reveal the reasons that unite individual parts into a system, into integrity.
They are called integrating factors, which primarily include human activity. In the course of activity, a person realizes his interests, defines goals, carries out practical actions, forming a system of means to achieve goals. The initial, primary integrating factor is the goal.
The goal in any field of activity is a complex combination of various conflicting interests. The true goal lies in the intersection of such interests, in their peculiar combination. Comprehensive knowledge of it allows us to judge the degree of stability of the system, its consistency, integrity, to foresee the nature of its further development.
9. Determine all possible connections, communications of the system with the external environment.
For a really deep, comprehensive study of the system, it is not enough to reveal its connections with all the subsystems to which it belongs. It is also necessary to know such systems in the external environment, to which the components of the system under study belong. Thus, it is necessary to determine all the systems to which the employees of the enterprise belong - trade unions, political parties, families, systems of socio-cultural values ​​and ethical norms, ethnic groups, etc. It is also necessary to know well the connections of structural divisions and employees of the enterprise with the systems of interests and goals of consumers, competitors, suppliers, foreign partners, etc. It is also necessary to see the connection between the technologies used at the enterprise and the “space” of the scientific and technical process, etc. Awareness of the organic, albeit contradictory, unity of all systems surrounding the enterprise allows us to understand the reasons for its integrity, to prevent processes leading to disintegration.
10. Consider the system under study in dynamics, in development.
For a deep understanding of any system, one cannot limit oneself to considering short periods of time of its existence and development. It is advisable, if possible, to investigate its entire history, to identify the reasons that prompted the creation of this system, to identify other systems from which it grew and was built. It is also important to study not only the history of the system or the dynamics of its current state, but also to try, using special techniques, to see the development of the system in the future, that is, to predict its future states, problems, and opportunities.
The need for a dynamic approach to the study of systems can be easily illustrated by comparing two enterprises that at some point in time had the same values ​​of one of the parameters, for example, sales volume. From this coincidence it does not follow at all that enterprises occupy the same position in the market: one of them can gain strength, move towards prosperity, and the other, on the contrary, experience a decline. Therefore, it is impossible to judge any system, in particular, about an enterprise, only by a “snapshot” of one value of any parameter; it is necessary to investigate changes in parameters by considering them in dynamics.
The sequence of procedures for system analysis outlined here is not mandatory and regular. The list of procedures is mandatory rather than their sequence. The only rule is that it is expedient to repeatedly return during the study to each of the described procedures. Only this is the key to a deep and comprehensive study of any system.

Summary
1. Any scientific, research and practical activity is carried out on the basis of methods (methods or methods of action), techniques (a set of methods and techniques for carrying out any work) and methodologies (a set of methods, rules for the distribution and assignment of methods, as well as work steps and their sequences).
2. The most general concept, which refers to all possible manifestations of systems, is "systematic", which is proposed to be considered in three aspects:
a) systems theory provides rigorous scientific knowledge about the world of systems and explains the origin, structure, functioning and development of systems of various nature;
b) a systematic approach - performs orientation and worldview functions, provides not only a vision of the world, but also orientation in it;
c) system method - implements cognitive and methodological functions.
3. System analysis is not something fundamentally new in the study of the surrounding world and its problems - it is based on a natural science approach. In contrast to the traditional approach, in which the problem is solved in a strict sequence of the above steps (or in a different order), the systems approach consists in the multiple-connectedness of the solution process.
4. The main feature of a systematic approach is the presence of a dominant role of a complex, not simple, whole, and not constituent elements. If, with the traditional approach to research, thought moves from the simple to the complex, from parts to the whole, from elements to the system, then with the systematic approach, on the contrary, thought moves from the complex to the simple, from the whole to its constituent parts, from the system to the elements. .
5. When analyzing and designing existing systems, various specialists may be interested in different aspects - from the internal structure of the system to the organization of management in it, which gives rise to the following approaches to analysis and design; system-element, system-structural, system-functional, system-genetic, system-communicative, system-management and system-information.
6. The methodology of system analysis is a set of principles, approaches, concepts and specific methods, as well as techniques.

The role of methodology in scientific knowledge.

The scientific activity of people, like any other, is carried out with the help of certain means, as well as special techniques and methods, i.e. methods, the correct use of which largely determines the success in the implementation of the research task. And here Methodology helps science in many ways.

Methodology - a system of principles and methods for organizing the organization of theoretical and practical activities of people; at the same time, methodology is the study of this system.

A technique is a way of organizing the activity of something.

Methodology is a way to achieve, an effective mechanism for building scientific knowledge.

Methodology- a set of general principles and methods (a set of F., cognitive and general theoretical methods and principles).

Methodology is very often understood as a system of methods used in a certain field of activity (in science, art, engineering, technology, etc.). But in the context of philosophical research, a different semantic content of the term "methodology" is emphasized. This is, first of all, the doctrine of the methods of scientific activity, the general theory of the scientific method. Including relevant issues in the scope of its consideration, the methodology solves them from epistemological positions, gives them an epistemological assessment, dealing with the technical side of the matter to a minimum extent. Its tasks are to study the possibilities and prospects for the development of appropriate methods in the course of scientific knowledge. The methodology of science is a theory of scientific knowledge that explores the cognitive processes taking place in science, the forms and methods of scientific knowledge. In this respect, it acts as metascientific knowledge of a philosophical nature.

M function. - internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical development and change of one or another object of reality.

M.N. includes:

Methods N.;

Methods of experimental and practical achievement of truth;

Problems of organization of scientific activity and social institutions corresponding to it;

The doctrine of the use of knowledge.

M. gives significant comprehensive research:

Scientific language;

Research methods;

Procedures;

Evaluation principles.

Classification knowledge methodology. Distinguish content and formal methodology natural science knowledge:

Formal - analysis of the language of N., description and analysis of formal research methods.

The structure of scientific knowledge and scientific theory;

Laws of generation, functioning and change of scientific theories;

The conceptual framework of science and its individual disciplines;

Characteristics of explanation schemes adopted in science;

Theories of methods of science;

Conditions and criteria of scientific character;

The formal aspects of the methodology are related to the analysis:

The language of science formalized methods of cognition;

Structures of scientific explanation and description.

Depending on the means, the methodological analysis of individual theories, concepts and problems can take place at the empirical and theoretical levels, acquire a special scientific or philosophical character.

Most of the natural sciences are focused on the empirical level.

Reflection N. leads to M.

The nature of the connections between the ways of obtaining new knowledge is described not only by M., but also logics: formal and dialectical.

Formal logic is truth from form, without the content of thought (mathematics).

Dialectical L - creative cognitive thinking, transitions from one cognitive model to another, the development of scientific theories and development paths (with content).

Laws of Formal logics are obligatory for Dialectic:

The law of identity. Wording: every concept and judgment is identical to itself. A comment: As you can see, everything is quite simple. If one obeys the law of identity, then one cannot replace any concept by another concept in the process of reasoning, any substitution of concepts is unacceptable. This requirement is obvious, but in practice such substitutions almost always take place. After all, one and the same thought can be expressed in different languages ​​and in different forms, which often leads to a change in the original meaning of the concept, to the substitution of one thought for another. This is especially important for the formalization of the language of science.

Law of non-contradiction. Wording: two opposite propositions cannot be true at the same time; at least one of them is necessarily false. A comment: an example is the well-known paradox about absolute armor and absolute projectile: Can a projectile penetrating absolutely everything penetrate armor that is absolutely not penetrated by anything?

Law of the excluded middle. Wording: two contradictory judgments cannot be simultaneously false: one of them is necessarily true; the other is necessarily false; the third judgment is excluded. Or, in a shorter version: Of two contradictory propositions, one is true, the other is false, and the third is not given.". The truth of the negation is equivalent to the falsity of the assertion. By virtue of this, the law of the excluded middle can also be conveyed as follows:" Every statement is either true or false". A comment: The very name of the law expresses its meaning: things can only be as described in the statement under consideration, or as its negation says, and there is no third possibility.

Law of Sufficient Reason. Wording: every true thought has a sufficient reason. Or - any position, in order to be considered completely reliable, must be proven, that is, sufficient grounds must be known, by virtue of which it is considered true. A comment: This law actually states that all thoughts that can be explained are considered true, and those that cannot be explained are considered false. In other words: every proposition that is proven is necessarily true.

The law of sufficient reason is directed against illogical thinking, which accepts unfounded judgments on faith, against all kinds of prejudices and superstitions; it expresses that fundamental property of logical thought, which is called validity or proof. By prohibiting taking anything on faith, this law acts as a reliable barrier to any intellectual fraud. It is one of the main principles of science (as opposed to pseudoscience).

But M. and L. are not identical: M. - more broadly - these are general, universal methods and principles of scientific knowledge.

Important concepts M.: fact, hypothesis, law, theory, scientific problem, methods and means of cognition, methods of testing knowledge, etc.

Principles and levels of M.:

1. Philosophical and ideological - the most general principles of the relationship of everything and development ...

2. Theoretical - the basis of the corresponding N. - in geography - the principle of actualization, development and historicism, systemicity (isomorphism, hierarchy, emergence, etc.).

3. Empirical - within the subject area.

Under methodology in the broad sense of the word, they understand the doctrine of the method, i.e. the theory of the method itself. In the theory of the method, at least the following problems must be solved:

What is the pattern on which the method is based?

What are the rules of the subject's action (their meaning and sequence) that make up the essence of the method?

What is the class of problems that can be solved using this method?

What are the limits of applicability of the method?

How is this method related to other methods?

For science in general, including natural science, it is important to know not only the theory of individual methods, but also the theory of the entire system of methods used in natural science or in its separate branch. Therefore, the most complete definition of the methodology is: methodology – it is a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system.

In general, many different definitions of the methodology of science have been proposed. In our opinion, we can proceed from the following definition of methodology: science methodology is a scientific discipline that provides a sufficiently complete and usable knowledge about the properties, structures, regularities of the emergence, functioning and development of scientific knowledge systems, as well as their interrelations and applications.

There are various methodology levels. Philosophical level methodology is a general system of principles and regulations of human activity. They are set by the theory of knowledge, which is developed within the framework of philosophy.

Methodological analysis can be carried out at the specific scientific and philosophical levels, the latter being the highest and defining level of methodologies. Why?

At the philosophical level, the analysis is carried out in the context of solving the fundamental worldview problems of a person's relationship to reality, the place and significance of a person in the world. Problems to be solved here:

The relationship of knowledge to reality;

The relationship of the subject to the object in cognition;

Places and roles of these forms of knowledge or methods of research in the system of man's cognitive attitude to the world.

Scientific picture of the world.

F. is a worldview concept that uses scientific knowledge (there is also a religious picture of the world and a philosophical one).

Changes with new scientific knowledge.

Synthesis of scientific knowledge from geography, biology, physics, chemistry, etc.

Scientific picture of the world(NKM) - (one of the fundamental concepts in natural science) a special form of knowledge systematization, qualitative generalization and ideological synthesis of various scientific theories.

Being a holistic system of ideas about the general properties and patterns of the objective world, the scientific picture of the world exists as a complex structure, including as components general scientific picture of the world and the picture of the world of individual sciences(physical, biological, geological, etc.). Pictures of the world of individual sciences, in turn, include the corresponding numerous concepts - certain ways of understanding and interpreting any objects, phenomena and processes of the objective world that exist in each individual science.

In the process of cognition of the surrounding world, the results of cognition are reflected and fixed in the human mind in the form of knowledge, skills, behaviors and communication. The totality of the results of human cognitive activity forms a certain model (picture of the world). In the history of mankind, a fairly large number of the most diverse pictures of the world were created and existed, each of which was distinguished by its vision of the world and its specific explanation. However, the progress of ideas about the surrounding world is achieved mainly due to scientific research.

The scientific picture of the world does not include private knowledge about the various properties of specific phenomena, about the details of the cognitive process itself.. The scientific picture of the world is not a collection of all human knowledge about the objective world, it is an integral system of ideas about the general properties, spheres, levels and patterns of reality (i.e. a kind of "model of the world").

Scientific picture of the world- a system of human ideas about the properties and patterns of reality (the real world), built as a result of generalization and synthesis of scientific concepts and principles. Uses scientific language to designate objects and phenomena of matter.

The scientific picture of the world is a set of theories collectively describing the natural world known to man, an integral system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the universe. The picture of the world is a systematic formation, therefore its change cannot be reduced to any single (even the largest and most radical) discovery. We are usually talking about a whole series of interconnected discoveries (in the main fundamental sciences), which are almost always accompanied by a radical restructuring of the research method, as well as significant changes in the very norms and ideals of scientificity.

For Western philosophy in the mid-90s of the XX century, there were attempts to introduce new categorical means into the arsenal of methodological analysis, but at the same time, a clear distinction between the concepts of "picture of the world" and "scientific picture of the world" was not made. In our domestic philosophical and methodological literature, the term "picture of the world" is used not only to denote a worldview, but also in a narrower sense - when it comes to scientific ontologies, i.e. those ideas about the world that are a special type of scientific theoretical knowledge. In this sense, the scientific picture of the world acts as a specific form of systematization of scientific knowledge, setting the vision of the objective world of science in accordance with a certain stage of its functioning and development.

In the process of science development there is a constant renewal of knowledge, ideas and concepts, earlier ideas become special cases of new theories. The scientific picture of the world is not a dogma and not an absolute truth. Scientific ideas about the surrounding world are based on the totality of proven facts and established cause-and-effect relationships, which allows us to make conclusions and predictions about the properties of our world that contribute to the development of human civilization with a certain degree of confidence. The discrepancy between the results of testing the theory, the hypothesis, the concept, the identification of new facts - all this makes us reconsider the existing ideas and create new, more appropriate realities. This development is the essence of the scientific method.

Geographical picture of the world(GKM) is the basis of knowledge, reflecting "man's idea of ​​nature and society." Already in this definition of its essence, not only dualism (duality), but also the multidimensionality of the subject of study are laid down. That is why two particular pictures have historically developed - physical-geographical and socio-geographical. For a long time, they have been developing in an offline mode of scientific research and have achieved some success. An example is the physical-geographical picture of the world, on the basis of which the image of a common object was formed - the geographical shell and its component - the natural territorial complex (landscape).

The works of E. Neef, V.S. Preobrazhensky, T.D. Alexandrova and T.P. Kupriyanova summarized and brought into the system the leading axioms and axiomatic propositions reflecting the modern methodological and theoretical level of development of physical and geographical disciplines:

1. Axiomatic position: geographical substance is inconceivable otherwise than as existing in time and space.

2. Geographic axiom: all geographical phenomena, in whatever form they appear, belong to the planet Earth.

3. Fundamental theoretical concepts in geography:

a) about the geographical envelope as a sphere of interpenetration and interaction of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere;

b) about the unity of continuity and discreteness of the geographic envelope;

c) about the hierarchy of natural geocomplexes that make up the geographic envelope and their qualitative certainty;

d) about the natural geocomplex as a multicomponent dynamic system;

e) about the natural geocomplex as a system of interacting morphological parts.

Vladimir Pavlovich Maksakovskii paid sufficient attention to the GKM in his works "Geographic Culture" and "GKM" in 2 volumes.

General geographic representations:

1. Teachings: about the geographical environment, about geosystems, about geoecology, about constructive geography.

2. Theories: regional development, geographic assessments, risk geography (and all!!).

3. Concepts: geotechnical systems, environmental monitoring, geographical expertise, problematic regional studies, polarized landscape.

4. Hypotheses: cosmogonic, continental drift, greenhouse effect, population stabilization.

Scientific thinking style.

Main features:

Understanding the nature of knowledge itself;

Main types of laws;

Ways of description and theoretical expression of laws.

SNM is a set of norms and stereotypes of a scientist's thinking. Close to the concept of a paradigm.

STYLE OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING - a historically established set of methodological regulations, ideals and norms of science, philosophical principles that determine the content and direction of changes in science at a historically specific stage of its development.

The concept of S.N.M. (SNM), along with the concepts of "paradigm", "research program", "theme", "philosophical foundations of science", "basic models of knowledge", etc., refers to a number of means of metatheoretical study of the structure and dynamics of science.

Initially, the concept of SNM was associated with the question of the features of fundamental research: it was assumed that the dominant science or the leading fundamental theory of a certain era completely determined the SNM of this era (namely: the categorical composition of knowledge, a certain type of logical organization of knowledge).

In the course of studying the SNM phenomenon, ideas about its complex heterogeneous nature were clarified. SNM is both a socio-cultural and intra-scientific phenomenon and is formed under their influence.. The main mechanism of socio-cultural determination of SNM is associated with a system of specific historical norms and ideals of science, rooted in the culture of the era. The norms and ideals of science, embodied in the fundamental leading theory, set the direction for other theories of a given scientific discipline, a number of disciplines, and science as a whole. For example, during the formation of experimental natural science, classical mechanics determined the "vision", explanation, description, structure of the theory of not only all mechanics, but also physics, chemistry, biology, and social philosophy. Philosophical ideas, ideas in the structure of the SNM are involved in the process of understanding the limits of the heuristic of the old ideals of scientificity and the formation of new ones. Through the philosophical component of the SNM, the ideals and norms of science, methodological guidelines are correlated with the features of the object studied by this science.

This was the case during the period of transition in the second half of the 19th century. a number of sciences - biology, physics, psychology, sociology - to the study of systemic statistical objects. The study of mass-like objects - gases, demographic and social systems and processes, complex organic objects, etc. - required a rethinking of the old and the development of new philosophical concepts: chance, probability, possibility, historicism, evolution etc. (in the 20th-21st centuries, “physicists and lyricists”, spatial thinking of geographers, evolutionary thinking among biologists, etc. appear).

On the one hand, these philosophical categories reflected a new understanding of the structure of the material world and its objects. On the other hand, they expressed in a reflected, objectified form the main value preferences of this historical period. The basis of the philosophical ideas of the SNM are deterministic categories: conditionality, connection, cause, effect, necessity, chance, possibility, reality and others. It is through them that the nature of the organization of objects of science and the features of the interaction between the phenomena of the material world "shine through" with the greatest completeness. The analysis of the object determination of the SNM reveals the closest connection of the SNM with the scientific picture of the world (SCM), since it is the SCM that forms the basic knowledge about the system-structural features of the objects studied by science, about their spatio-temporal characteristics, and the features of the interaction of material objects.

The mutual consistency of SNM and NCM is especially clearly manifested at critical moments in the development of science: when the leading theories change, the scientific revolution, etc. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. the entry into the arena of biology of population genetics, the emergence of systems and cybernetic approaches revealed the limitations of the Darwinian picture of biological reality and its operational component - the probabilistic style of thinking in biology. The formation of the synthetic theory of evolution was oriented towards a new picture of the world and a new understanding of the biological object. The bioobject began to be presented as a complex self-governing and self-developing system.

Evolution of SNM:

Transition from deterministic to probabilistic understanding;

Consistency.

For SNM geography:

Historical and genetic approaches;

- systems approach.

Global and Regional Scientific Research.

Levels and attributes of knowledge of the planet Earth.

states dynamics reflections from a certain base of comparison (p. b), then the factors and reasons that caused the transition to this next state are quantitatively evaluated.

Sometimes the analysis is characterized by two stages: positive analysis (data processing) and normative analysis (evaluation of the results of positive analysis and development of management decisions). The same results of technical calculations can receive an unfavorable or favorable assessment for different purposes of analysis.

When conducting AHD, it is necessary to be guided by certain principles and rules developed by science and practice.

• 1. Scientific approach. Use of the scientific method - observation, formulation of a hypothesis, verification or confirmation of the validity of a hypothesis. System view - the enterprise is considered as a system. The use of models: their main feature is the simplification of reality in order to increase the possibility of understanding and solving problems.
• 2. Complexity- requires coverage of all aspects of activity, understanding of cause-and-effect relationships between all elements of the system, indicators.
• 3. Systems approach- each object has elements (structure), which are characterized by properties and relations (interrelations) of elements. Thus, each object of the economy is a large, complex, dynamic, probabilistic, open or developing system.

The principles also include: objectivity, accuracy, reliability, effectiveness, efficiency, effectiveness of analysis.

In addition to the principles in the analysis, one should understand and take into account the presence of patterns and concepts:

• * uncertainty and risk;
• * business information;
• * time value of money, etc.

Taking into account these concepts improves the quality of analytical conclusions and decisions.

The method of science in a broad sense is understood as a method of studying a subject. Each science has its own subject and method of research. The method of economic analysis is understood as a dialectical method of approach to the study of economic processes in their formation and development. The characteristic features of the method are: the use of a system of indicators, the study of the causes of changes in these indicators, the identification and measurement of the relationship between them in order to improve socio-economic efficiency.

In other words: the method of economic analysis is a method of systemic complex measurement and generalization of the influence of factors on the development of economic processes at a specific management object.

On the basis of a general approach to the study of economic activity (as a methodology of analysis), on the basis of principles (general rules), concepts (specific for a given science, emerging particular patterns), a methodology for performing analysis (instructions for implementing the process of analytical activity) is being developed.

The technique consists of a sequence of methods, techniques or methods of analysis in the narrow sense (as opposed to methodology - a method of research, analysis in the broad sense) used to process economic information about the operation of a particular object.

The technique can be general (typical) and private (for the industry, for a particular enterprise, analytics).

An economic analyst must be able to examine the concrete reality and provide the user, who makes the decision, with objective analytical information. If necessary, the specialist must choose or develop a methodology for economic analysis. The theory of economic analysis contains a developing system of knowledge necessary for the formation of a professional analytical judgment, for teaching the skills of planning and performing analytical calculations.

The methodology of economic analysis determines the general approach to the construction of methods for its implementation. It defines a sequence of three mandatory actions:

• a) identification of the situation using knowledge of economic indicators, algorithms for their calculation;
• b) assessment of changes in the values ​​of indicators mainly by quantitative methods in comparison with the plan, with the previous actual value (using the methods of analysis of dynamics, comparison, index);
• c) quantitative assessment of the influence of various factors on the dynamics of the studied indicator (using the methods and techniques of factor analysis).

Thus, the characterization is given first states business processes (point a), then quantitatively measured, expressed dynamics or rejection of this last regular, current reflections from a certain base of comparison (p. b), then the factors, the reasons that caused the transition to this next state (p. c) are quantitatively evaluated.

On the basis of predominantly quantitative technical methods, techniques, methods of information processing, a conclusion is made, the interpretation of the results of analytical calculations.

Sometimes the analysis is characterized by two stages: positive analysis (data processing) and normative analysis (evaluation of the results of positive analysis and development of management decisions). The same results of technical calculations can receive an unfavorable or favorable assessment for different purposes of analysis.

• 1) general study of the financial condition and dynamics;
• 2) in-depth (detailed, factorial, SWOT analysis);
• 3) synthesis (search for optimal linkages of conflict goals, formulation of final normative assessments, determination of directions and tasks of management policy).

Methods, methods, techniques (no distinction is made between them) constitute the tools for performing quantitative economic analysis (technical analysis). A sequence of information processing operations is built from them.

• * statistical, considered in the academic discipline "Economic statistics" and intended for processing mass data;
• * accounting related to the preparation and analysis of balance sheets, including accounting;
• * mathematical, using the mathematical apparatus;
• * qualitative methods that do not use quantitative economic measurements, calculations, but are intended for a qualitative assessment of the situation;
• * quantitative methods, a counterbalance to qualitative ones, which form the basis and specifics of economic analysis. This group includes:
• * traditional methods and techniques that have been used almost since the emergence of economic analysis as a separate branch of special knowledge, as an independent training course (the use of absolute, relative and average values; the use of comparison, grouping, index method, chain substitution method, balance method);
• * mathematical, based on a systematic cybernetic approach, on a set of economic and mathematical models that reflect the quantitative characteristics of economic processes.

Economic-mathematical methods in analysis include:

• 1) methods of elementary mathematics;
• 2) classical methods of mathematical analysis (differential, integral, variational calculus);
• 3) methods of mathematical statistics (study of one-dimensional and multidimensional statistical aggregates);
• 4) econometric methods (production functions, input-output intersectoral balance, national accounting);
• 5) methods of mathematical programming (linear, block, non-linear, dynamic);
• 6) methods of operations research (inventory management, game theory, queuing theory, network planning and management methods, etc.);
• 7) methods of economic cybernetics (system analysis, simulation methods, modeling methods, teaching methods, business games);
• 8) mathematical theory of optimal processes (Pontryagin's maximum for managing technical and economic processes and resources);
• 9) heuristic methods.

• * grouping;
• * absolute values;
• * average values;
• * determination of indicators of the structure, vertical analysis, as well as the determination of growth rates;
• * calculation of indexes of coefficients;
• * horizontal analysis, determination of absolute changes and growth rates;
• * trend analysis;
• * factor analysis;

Any method of economic analysis uses such logic of priority. At the same time, the analyst does not necessarily include all methods in the methodology, sometimes they are repeated (absolute values, their dynamics; relative indicators, their dynamics). Factor analysis, if applied, is mandatory after the analysis of the dynamics.

The sequence logic expresses the methodology: indicators, their change, explanation of the reasons for the change (compare: characterization of the state through absolute, average, relative indicators; determination of their dynamics; assessment of the quantitative influence of factors).

In the course of the theory of economic analysis, students receive the skills and abilities to apply only traditional methods of economic analysis. They are used to solve problems of economic analysis classified in the literature according to different principles.

Methodology and research methods is a logical organization of human activity. It consists in determining the subject and purpose of the study, guidelines and approaches in its implementation, the choice of methods and means that would show the best result. Next, we will consider in more detail what features the methodology and methodology of research have in general and in relation to some areas of activity.

Target

Any human activity can be characterized by methodology. However, in the study of any phenomena or events, it is of decisive, decisive importance. Research methodology, regardless of the field of activity, begins with the selection, definition and formulation of the goal. It consists in the search for options for the formation of a management system, as well as the organization of its development and functioning, which would be most effective in the study process. However, this idea of ​​the goal is considered very general. In practice, research activities pursue a variety of goals. Examples include monitoring the quality of management, creating an atmosphere of innovation and creativity, timely detection of problems, the aggravation of which may complicate work in the future, staff development, analysis of strategies, and so on.

An object

It is the control system. In a methodological sense, it is necessary to clearly understand and take into account the socio-economic class of a given system. This means that the human being is its fundamental component. Its activity determines the specificity of all processes of its formation and functioning. The interactions on the basis of which this system exists are distinguished by contradictory and complex relations of people, which are based on attitudes and motives, values ​​and interests. No matter how perfect this or that modern technical tool is, its value will depend on human needs, the reasons for its development and further application. The management system is based on the activities of people. It is possible to conduct research on technology, but they are impossible in isolation from a person, all the factors of its application in the conditions of his activity.

Thing

It is the problem. It is a real contradiction that needs to be resolved. The activity of the control system is characterized by the presence of a large number of various problems. They act as a contradiction to tactics and strategy, conditions and opportunities, qualifications of employees, needs for innovation, and so on. Some of them are considered "eternal", others - maturing or transient. Research is needed to address these issues. The goal is the basis for recognizing certain contradictions.

An approach

It is the next component, which includes the research methodology. An approach is a learning angle, in some way it is a starting point or starting point. This is where the research process begins. The approach determines the direction of the study in relation to its purpose. There are various types of it. In particular, there are conceptual, systemic and aspect approaches. The latter is a choice of any facet of the problem based on the principle of relevance or taking into account the resources that are allocated for study. For example, the methodology of psychological and pedagogical research involves the educational aspect of the problem. The conceptual approach provides for the preliminary development of a set of basic (key) provisions - the concept. It determines the general direction, continuity, architectonics of the study. The systematic approach assumes a research methodology of a relatively high level. In this case, to solve the problem, it is necessary to take into account as much as possible all its aspects, in integrity and their interconnection. This approach presupposes the allocation of the essential and the main. It also provides for determining the nature of interactions between the facets of the issue, its characteristics and properties. Allocate, in addition, the approach of scientific, pragmatic and empirical. The latter uses experience as a basis. If the approach is focused on obtaining the nearest result, then it is called pragmatic. However, the most effective is the scientific perspective of the study. It is characterized by appropriate goal setting. The methodology of scientific research involves the use of specific tools.

Methods and techniques

The research methodology assigns them a major role. Methods and techniques are divided into four groups:

• Specific. These methods are formed due to the specifics of control systems. They reflect the features of management activities.
• General scientific. They reflect the corresponding apparatus of study. The methodology of scientific research determines the effectiveness of any types.
• Formal-logical. They are methods of human intellectual activity, which constitutes the basis of managerial study.
• Sociological. They occupy a special position in the toolkit for studying social processes and systems.

Methodology of sociological research

In this case, the value orientations of community members in relation to various phenomena serve as the scope of the tools. Their study makes it possible to detect trends in social development, to determine the measures of the most effective influence on members of associations. The methodology of sociological research involves a more complete picture of the reality being studied. It, together with the objective characteristics that an external object has, includes the prevailing stereotypes, interests and value orientations. Due to the methods used, accurate ideas about the dynamics and state of social structures are formed. The main purpose of the study is to predict and explain the behavior of the subjects of society in certain conditions, the features of artificial modeling of the environment, and the analysis of the nature of interactions within society. Studies of this type are designed to determine the adequacy of the social sphere, established within the framework of the goals.

Key directions

The main guidelines for the practical use of sociological methods in the study of processes are:

The solution of problems should be ensured by the formation of three main sections:

• Development of the research program.
• Organizing, conducting tests and surveys.
• Interview and preparation of a scheme for processing and systematizing data.

Knowledge Structure

In the methodological system, Yudin distinguishes 4 levels:

• Technological.
• Specific scientific.
• General scientific.
• Philosophical.

The penultimate level involves the use of theoretical concepts. They are applicable to all or most of the scientific fields. The second level involves a set of methods, procedures, techniques and principles of study. The methodology of a particular scientific research contains both problems specific to a certain field of study and questions that are posed at higher levels. These, for example, include the problems of implementing a systematic approach or modeling in the study of the education process. The technological level involves a combination of technology and research method. In other words, a set of procedures is used, which ensure the receipt of reliable empirical information, their primary processing. After that, the material can be included in the body of scientific knowledge. At this level, the normative, clearly expressed nature of the study is visible. The content of the philosophical level consists of general cognitive principles and the categorical structure of the discipline as a whole.

All these levels of methodology form a complex structure. Within its framework, there is some subordination between the steps. At the same time, the philosophical level is considered the substantive basis of any methodological knowledge. It defines ideological approaches to the very knowledge and transformation of reality.

Methodology and methods of pedagogical research

The highest level that characterizes the professional readiness of a teacher is the presence of a specific culture. Its main features are:

• Understanding the procedures corresponding to the categories of philosophy and the basic concepts that form the conceptual framework of education.
• Awareness of different concepts of pedagogy as levels of ascent to the concrete from the abstract.
• Installation on the transformation of educational theory into the method of cognitive activity.
• Orientation of thinking to the genesis of pedagogical configurations and "holistic" properties of these forms.
• The desire to reproduce educational practice in the conceptual and terminological system.
• Understanding of humanistic and ideological tasks and so on.

Formation of culture

When the teacher learns the methodology and methods of pedagogical research, his thinking begins to be based on their principles. In this regard, he begins to think "principally". The methodology of pedagogical research assumes supra-situational activity of thinking. At the private level, the development of the principles and integrity of education, public policy, a unified approach, the expansion of a common educational subject and the primacy of educational goals in the educational process are of particular importance.

An information tool for characterizing the economy of a commercial enterprise is accounting and management accounting, and a means of studying the life of an enterprise is an analysis that allows you to correctly determine the state of the enterprise and its development and make the most rational decisions in the face of constantly changing events.

With the help of economic analysis, they study reality - facts and processes, i.e. primary material to be investigated. However, the facts alone sometimes do not explain much. Therefore, the task of economic research is not only to register them, but also to reveal the essence of phenomena, the connection between them, to know the causes of their occurrence, development trends. Penetration into the essence of the studied economic phenomena is possible only through the use of scientific research methods.

Methodology- an important element of the theory, a generalization of research methods used in any science. Theory - a system of generalized reliable knowledge about one or another "fragment" of reality, which describes, explains and predicts the functioning of its constituent objects. Practice is a criterion for the correctness and reliability of a theory. Each science, except for a specific subject and object of study, has its own method as a general approach to research, a way of research, a way to achieve a goal, a set of techniques for studying reality. The term "method" has received a double meaning in science: a method as a general approach to research and a method as a technique for solving a specific problem. The method as a general approach is specified in methodology as a set of techniques (methods) for solving problems.

Methodology(it can be called the philosophy of methodology) economic analysis consists of a method as a general approach to research and a specific methodology as a set of special techniques (methods) used to process and analyze economic information.

The method of economic analysis - as a general approach to research - is based on dialectics. The basic principles of the method of economic analysis reflect, for example, the following main features of dialectics:

• unity of analysis and synthesis. The studied economic phenomena have a set of features and properties. In order to correctly understand this phenomenon, it is necessary to divide it into the simplest constituent elements, to study each element in detail, to reveal its role and significance within a single whole, i.e. spend analysis. After the nature of each of the constituent elements is known, their role and significance within a given whole phenomenon are clarified, it is necessary to combine these elements again in accordance with their role and purpose into a single whole, i.e. execute synthesis, which allows us to formulate diagnostics and evaluate the phenomenon as a whole. As already mentioned, analysis and synthesis are two sides of a single process of cognition of phenomena;
• study of economic phenomena in their interrelation. All phenomena of economic life are not only closely connected, but also influence each other in a certain way; between many of them there is a causal relationship: one is the cause of the other. For example, between the most important indicators of economic activity - the volume of production and the cost of production - there is a direct interaction: an increase in the volume of production leads to a decrease in the cost due to the so-called fixed costs, which do not increase with the growth of output; cost reduction, in turn, allows more products to be produced with available resources.

Interrelation and interdependence necessitate an integrated approach to the study of economic activity. The concept of complexity covers a comprehensive study of both all indicators in their connection and interdependence, and all aspects of economic activity, i.e. economics, organization, engineering and technology, social conditions and nature management, because only a comprehensive study makes it possible to correctly assess the results of work, to reveal deep reserves in the economy of enterprises;

study of economic phenomena in development. The figure of sales of products for the year at some enterprise in itself means little, especially if the volume of sales is given in abstract value terms. If, next to this figure, we put others showing the sale of products for previous years, as well as those provided for by the plan for future years, then the figure will “speak”. That is why it is necessary to study the indicators of the economy not only in statics, but also in dynamics, getting the opportunity to judge the speed of economic development.

The development of an enterprise is not just a quantitative growth of products. Production grows and develops in ascending order - from simple to complex, from the lowest level to the highest, from the old qualitative state to the new one. Behind the series of increasing figures for the sale of products, one must see a radical change in the technique and technology of production, organizational and economic improvement of the enterprise.

The study of economic phenomena in development necessitates the use of such an analytical technique as comparison. It is possible to give a correct assessment of the activity of an enterprise only by comparing its indicators in time (months, years, etc.) and space (with the industry average level, with the indicators of similar enterprises).

So, the method of economic analysis as a general approach to the study of economic processes is based on materialist dialectics. The features of the method of economic analysis are the use of a system of indicators and factors of economic activity, the choice of meters and assessments depending on the characteristics of the analyzed phenomena, the study of the causes of changes in indicators and the identification of the influence of factors on the effective indicator using the techniques of mathematics, statistics and economic accounting.