1. The concept of experimental psychology 1. In the expansion value: Scientific discipline that studies the problem of psychological research methods in general. 2. All scientific psychology as a knowledge system obtained on the basis of experimental study of the psyche of man and animals (according to V. Wondtu). 3. The system of experimental methods and methods implemented in specific studies (M. V. Matlin). 4. The theory of the psychological experiment (F. J. Mac Gigan).

Experimental psychology is a field of psychology that studies laws and patterns of the use of experiment and other objective methods in the study of mental phenomena. The object of experimental psychology is an experiment and other objective methods. The subject of experimental psychology is laws and patterns in the application of experiment and other objective methods in the study of mental phenomena.

Gustav Teodore Fehner () (, Gros - Roashane, near Musku, -, Leipzig), German physicist, psychologist, philosopher - idealist, writer - satiri (spoke under the name of Dr. Mises). His views had an impact on many scientists and philosophers of the 20th century, including: Gerardus Heymans, Ernst Mach, Wilhelm Wyandt, Sigmund Freud and Walls Hall. Ferechner is considered the creator of the formula S \u003d klogi, which proves the presence of a scientifically based connection between the body and the psyche

Wilhelm Wondt () German physiologist and psychologist. Founder of experimental psychology and cognitive psychology. Less known as the main figure in social psychology, however, the last years of the life of the Wandet passed under the sign (psychology of peoples), which he understood as the doctrine of the social basis of the highest mental activity

Edward Titchener (1867-1927) noted that the psychological experiment is not a test of any strength or ability, but dissection of consciousness, analysis of a part of the mental mechanism, and psychological experience is self-observation under standard conditions. Each experience, in his opinion, is a homework lesson. Developed a powerful direction in psychology, referred to as "structuralism" or "structural psychology".

Herman Ebbigauz () German psychologist. He was opponent V. Dieltei. Experimental memory studies based on the memorization of syllables (1885). Developed several techniques for studying memory processes. He opened a number of phenomena of memory psychology, in particular, "edge factor", that is, more efficient memorization of the first and last syllables of a number. Built curves of memorization and forgetting - which show that these processes are non-linear. It also found that meaningful material is remembered better than meaningless.

James McKin Kettel (1860- 1944) was born on May 25, 1860 in the United States. In 1880 he graduated from Lafayette College, in 1886 he received a Ph.D. in the University of Leipzig. He also studied at the universities of Paris, Geneva. Worked by Assistant Wilhelm Wyandt in Leipzig. I read lectures at the University of Cambridge, at the University of Pennsylvania, where he headed the Department of Psychology. In 1891, Kettlell accepted an invitation to Colombian University and took the position of professor of experimental psychology, became the Dean of the Faculty of Anthropology, Professor of Philosophy and Professor of Psychology. Kettlell was studying the problems of human behavior, education, organization of science; Developed methods of psychological measurements.

Alfred Bina () French psychologist, doctor of medicine and the right to the University of Paris, the founder of the first laboratory of experimental psychology in France. It sought to approve an objective research method in psychology. It is known, first of all, as the compiler (together with T. Simon in 1905) the first practical test of the intellect, called the "scale of mental development of Bina Simon" (analogue of modern IQ test). Later in 1916, the scale of Bina Simon was reworked by L. Thememan in the "Intellect Scale of Stanford Bina"

Heinrich Rorshah (1884-1922) Swedish Psychiatrist. Invented his named after his name, became one of the main funds of psychodiagnostic personality study, its structure and unconscious motivation. T eating is the interpretation of the test set of ink spots of various configurations and colors that have a certain meaning for the diagnosis of hidden installations, motivations, properties of character. The work of R. gave impetus to the development of one of the main directions in modern psychodiagnostics, since it made it possible to approach the consideration of the individual as integrity, and not a totality of individual abilities

Differential psychology, a field of psychology that studies individual differences between people. The prerequisite for the emergence of the "differential psychology" at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries was introduced into the psychology of the experiment, as well as genetic and mathematical methods. F. Galton (United Kingdom) was a pioneer of the development of differential psychology, which invented a number of receptions and instruments to study individual differences. V. Stern (Germany) introduced the term "Differential Psychology" (1900). The first major representatives of differential psychology were A. Bina (France), J. Kettel (USA) and others

Francis Galton () English researcher, geographer, anthropologist and psychologist; Founder of differential psychology and psychometrics. Galton. Introduced into psychology and anthropology the concept of heredity Galton introduced into psychology and anthropology the concept of heredity

William Lewis Stern () German psychologist and philosopher is considered one of the pioneers of differential psychology and psychology of the person. To Roma, he had a great influence on the nascent children's psychology. The creator of the concept of an intelligent coefficient, which later followed the basis of the famous IQ test of Alfred Bina. Father of the German writer and philosopher Gunter Anders. In 1897, the shtern invented the tone variator, which allowed him to significantly expand the possibility of studying the sound perception of a person.

Sigmund Freud () Austrian psychologist, psychiatrist and neurologist, founder of the psychoanalytic school of the therapeutic direction in the psychology that postulates the theory according to which the neurotic human disorders are caused by the multicomplex relationship of unconscious and conscious processes

Karl Gustav Jung () Swiss psychiatrist, the founder of one of the directions of deep psychology, analytical psychology. In 1912, Jung published the "psychology of the unconscious", in which many of the ideas of Freud refuted; Two years later, he resigned from the post of president of the International Psychoanalytic Society. In 1921, I saw the work of "Psychological Types", in which Jung divided all people on introverts and extroverts, and also justified his theory of archetypes

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov () Rus. The scientist, researcher of the problems of psychology and the theory of knowledge, the founder of the physiological school and naturally - the scientific direction in psychology in Russia. In the work of "brain reflexes" (1863) developed the doctrine of brain mechanisms of consciousness and will; Put forward, relying on the discovery of "central braking" - the braking influence of nerve centers for behavior, is the provision that all acts of conscious and unconscious mental life in the method of origin are reflexes; Approved the principle of self-regulation and systemic organization of nervous psychological activity. For the first time, the concept of feedback as a necessary behavior regulator was noticed. The Teaching of Sechenov advanced the development of physiology and psychology in Russia forward; Perceived by I. P. Pavlov, V. M. Bekhterev, L. S. Vygotsky and their students, it became the basis of a systemic study of the vital activity of the body and its functions.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov () Academician, professor of physiology, the famous Russian scientist, creator of the teachings about "conditional reflexes". His main work - "Twenty years of experience of an objective study of the highest nervous activity (behavior) of animals" (Collection of articles, speeches, reports) - was published in 1923. I. P. Pavlov and his students first gave accurate experimental confirmation by theoretical views of Sechenov, Father of Russian physiology. In 1863, Sechenov issued the book "Brain Reflexes", in which, far ahead of his time, considered psychology as part of physiology, bringing science on mental processes to the study of motor (muscular) activities. Based on the idea of \u200b\u200bSechenov about the reflex mechanism, as a common basis of mental life, Pavlov has taken an analysis of the activities of the working devices of the body (muscles and glands), considering it as a set of reactions to external irritation committed by the body in order to fit the environment.

Bekhterev Vladimir Mikhailovich () Russian physiologist, neuropathologist, psychiatrist, psychologist. He founded the first experimental psychological laboratory in Russia (1885), and then the Psychoneurological Institute (1908) is the world's first center in the world's integrated study. Relying on the reflexing concept of mental activity, relying on I.M. M. Siechenov, developed natural science theory of behavior. Arriving in opposition to the traditional introspective psychology of consciousness, B. Theory initially received the name of objective psychology (1904), then psychoreflexology (1910) and, finally, reflexology (1917). B. made a major contribution to the development of domestic experimental psychology ("General Basics of Man's Reflexology", 1917).

Alexander Fedorovich Lazur () The founder of the national differential psychology, the author of the fundamental work on the nature and classification of personalities, the creator and head of the psychological laboratory under the psychoneurological institute, the author and developer of the method of natural experiment in psychology. The Lazur put forward the concept of a multi-level organization of a human psyche ("Essay on the science of characters", 1909).

Grigory Ivanovich Rossolim () in 1908 G. I. Rossolimo publishes the scale to measure the level of development of common abilities, which included in the history of psychology and psychodiagnostics called "Psychological Profiles". Constructing the test, he was not an empirical way, but developed a system of theoretical ideas about the personality structure and intelligence. The main purpose of his test The author considered the development of criteria for the differences between normal children from having different degrees of mental retardation.

In the Soviet period in pedology and psychotechnics, the practice of testing is gaining momentum. Tests get wide use, primarily in educational institutions. Fruitfully operate in the field of psychological testing M. Ya. Basov, M. S. Bernstein, P. P. Blonsky, A. P. Boltunov, S. M. Vasilevsky, S. G. Gellerstein, V. M. Kogan, N. D. Levitov, A. A. Lublinskaya, G. I. Rossolimo, I. N. Spielrein, A. M. Schubert and others

Lion Semenovich Vygotsky () L. S. Vygotsky An outstanding domestic psychologist, left a bright trace in science and practice, laid the foundations of the domestic to which the subject affects the other, forms its own inner world, psychodiagnostics. He has developed a doctrine on the development of mental functions in the process of mediated by the privacy of culture valuables. Cultural knowledge, first of all signs of the language, serve as a kind of guns, operating the main units of which are the meanings and meanings

Alexander Romanovich Luria () Following the ideas of L. S. Vygotsky, Luria developed a culturally - the historical concept of the development of the psyche, participated in the creation of theory of activity. On this basis, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe system structure of the highest mental functions, their variability, plasticity, emphasizing the lifetime nature of their formation, their implementation in various activities. Investigated the relationship between Heritally and Education in Mental Development.

2. Scientific research Science is the sphere of human activity, the result of which is a new knowledge of reality, which corresponds to the criterion of truth and characterized by the method. Criteria of truth (scientific) Knowledge: - Any theory is a temporary structure and can be destroyed. - Scientific recognizes knowledge that can be refuted in the process of empirical inspection. - Knowledge, for the refutation of which there is no appropriate procedure, cannot be scientific.

The theory is an assumption and can be refuted by the experiment experiment - the method of refutation of plausible hypotheses. Methodological principles: 1. The principle of falsifiability - - potential disproveryability of the theory; - Absolute refutation of the theory is always finally. 2. The principle of verification - any hypothesis can be refuted later (relative)

Experimental method An experimental method in psychology is a fixed system of funds, techniques and procedures that allow reliable and reliable knowledge of mental phenomena. It is based on the fact that a person implements its internal potential in the form of activity (behavior, activities, communication, games, etc.), which is carried out in a particular situation. Analyzing activity, correlating it, on the one hand, with a person as a subject, on the other, with the situation, the researcher gets the opportunity to reconstruct the structures and processes of the inner world, without which the observed activity would be impossible.

The states (phases) of science (on T. Kunu): 1. Revolutionary phase (breaking paradigm). 2. "Normal Science" - the rules and standards of scientific activities adopted by the scientific community, before the next revolution breaking the old paradigm. Stages of the regulatory process of scientific research: hypothesis extension (hypotheses). Research planning. CONDUCTING RESEARCH. Interpretation of data. Discover or irrefuting hypotheses. (Formulation of a new hypothesis).

Types of scientific research 1. Fundamental (excluding practical effect). 2. Applied (to solve a specific task). 3. Monodisciplinary and complex. 4. Single-factor (analytical) - identification of the most significant aspect. 5. Search (questions, previously not solved). 6. Critical (refutation of the existing theory, the choice of alternative hypotheses). 7. Reproducing.

Types of scientific theories 1. Axiomatic (based on axioms unproved under theory) and hypothetical - deductive (based on assumptions - hypotheses). 2. Qualitative theories (without attracting a mathematical apparatus). 3. Formalized theories (using the mathematical apparatus).

The hypothesis is a scientific assumption that has not yet been confirmed and is not refuted. - may turn, but can never be finally accepted; - Opened for further verification. I. Types of hypotheses (by origin): 1. Theoretical (theoretically reasonable; to verify the consequences of the theory). 2. Experimental (to confirm / denial theories). 3. Empirical (irrelevant to the theory; for this particular case).

II. Types of hypotheses (by content) 1. On the presence of a phenomenon (there is there?). 2. On the availability of communication between phenomena (correlation research). 3. On the presence of a causal relationship between phenomena - experimental hypotheses: - main (1-2) and alternative. - hypothesis about the difference (H 1). - Hypothesis of similarity (H 0).

The concept of perfect research results are objective, invariant with respect to time, space, such as object objects. The ideal study is intersubjectively. An ideal study cannot and should not fully comply with the real one. The scientific method must give the result as close as possible to the ideal. The concept and types of validity.

Introduction

The development of modern psychological science is characterized by the fact that the knowledge gained by decades is becoming increasingly used in practice and this practice is gradually expanding, covering more and more new areas of human activity. Unlike past centuries, not the interests of academic science, and life itself dictates psychology new research problems. If earlier, psychology basically represented abstract knowledge mined in scientific laboratories and outlined from the Department of Universities, then at the present time the applied industries of psychology are developing rapid pace, where the experiment is also widely used. However, such an experiment is not focused on obtaining so-called "net" knowledge, but to solve life, practical problems and tasks.

This state of affairs corresponds to the established separation of developed industries of psychology to actually scientific and applied. Scientific areas focus on obtaining theoretical knowledge necessary for the general, fundamental solution to the problems associated with the knowledge of a person, his psychology and behavior. In the applied industries on a scientific basis, the practical tasks associated with improving human activity, improving its behavior and an increase in the level of psychological development, are developed practical recommendations. According to these logic, scientific and educational and applied areas of research in pedagogical psychology, including experimental and scientific pedagogical psychology and experimental practical pedagogical psychology, along with theoretical scientific and theoretical applied psychology, are distinguished. In scientific and educational psychological and pedagogical studies, knowledge that enrich the appropriate science is mainly produced, but not always a practical application, and hypotheses and assumptions, the practical implementation of which should give a significant educational effect in applied psychological and pedagogical studies. . It is, above all, about the practice of learning and raising children.

Experimental psychology

Without experiment in science and in practice, despite its complexity and labor intensity, it is impossible to do well, since only in a carefully thought out, properly organized and conducted experiment, you can obtain the most evidentis, especially concerning causal dependencies.

Experimental psychology- Area of \u200b\u200bpsychology, organizing knowledge of common problems for most psychological areas of research and how to solve them. Experimental psychology is called scientific discipline on methods of psychological research.

The use of the experiment played a crucial role in transformation of psychological knowledge, in the transformation of psychology from the industry of philosophy to independent science. The experiment in psychology became a decisive factor in the transformation of psychological knowledge, he allocated psychology from philosophy and turned it into independent science. Various types of studies of the psyche with the help of experimental methods this is experimental psychology.

Since the end of the 19th century, scientists closely took up the study of elementary mental psychic functions - human sensory systems. Initially, these were the first timid steps, which summed up the foundation under the building of experimental psychology, separating it from philosophy and physiology.

Especially follows, noticeable Wilhelm Wyandt(1832-1920), German psychologist, physiologist, philosopher and linguistic. He created the world's first psychological laboratory (international center). From this laboratory, which later received the status of the institute, a whole generation of specialists in experimental psychology, which became in the future initiators of creating experimental psychological institutions. In the first works, WEDDT put forward a plan for the development of physiological psychology as a special science that uses the method of laboratory experiment to dismember the consciousness on elements and clarifying the pattern between them.

The subject of the psychology of WUNDT considered direct experience - affordable self-observation of the phenomenon or facts of consciousness; However, higher mental processes (speech, thinking, will), he considered inaccessible to the experiment, and proposed to study their cultural and historical method.

If initially the main object of experimental psychology the internal mental processes of a normal adult, analyzed by specially organized self-observation (introspection), were considered, in the future, experiments are carried out above the animals (K. Lloyd Morgan, E.L. Torndayk), exploring mental, children.

Experimental psychology begins to cover not only the study of general patterns of mental processes, but also individual variations of sensitivity, reaction time, memory, associations, etc. (F. Galton, D. Kettel).

Galtoni developed the techniques for diagnosing the abilities that marked the beginning of testing, methods of statistical processing of research results (in particular, the method of calculating correlations between variables), mass survey.

Kettelconsidered the identity as a set of a certain number of empirically (with the help of tests) of established or more or less autonomous psychological characteristics. Thus, in the depths of experimental psychology a new direction is born - differential psychology, the subject of which is individual differences between people and their groups.

Achievements of experimental psychology we carried the "academic" origin, i.e. Not aimed at the purpose of the application of its results to solve problems put forward by the practice of training, the treatment of patients, etc., in the future, there are widespread practical application in various spheres of human activity - from preschool pedagogy to astronautics.

The prerequisite for the occurrence of differential psychology, which studies individual differences between people and groups, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries was introduced into the psychology of the experiment, as well as genetic and mathematical methods. Development of theoretical schemes and specific methods of experimental psychology it is closely associated with the general progress of theoretical knowledge, the most intensively accomplished on the joints of science - biological, technical and social.

Currently, the methods of experimental psychology are widely used in various fields of human activity. The progress of human knowledge is already unthinkable without methods of experimental psychology, testing, mathematical and statistical processing of research results. Successes of experimental psychology are based on the use of methods of various sciences: physiology, biology, psychology, mathematics

Now experimental psychology in practice, it is considered as a discipline responsible for the formulation of correct experiments under many directions of applied psychology, for example, to determine the feasibility, the effectiveness of a change in innovation (for example, in labor psychology). Big successes in the use of its methods were achieved in the study of psycho-physiology and psychology of sensations and perceptions. However, the achievements of experimental psychology in promoting fundamental psychology are currently less significant and are subject to.

Methodology of experimental psychology based on the principles:

1. Total methodological principles:

2. The principle of determinism. Experimental psychology proceeds from the fact that human behavior and mental phenomena are a consequence of any reasons, that is, fundamentally explained.

3. The principle of objectivity. Experimental psychology believes that the object of knowledge is independent of the learning subject; The object is fundamentally learning through action.

4. The principle of falsifiability - the requirement of the methodological possibility of refuting the theory appropriate for the nature of the methodological possibility of refuting the theory appropriate for the results of a fundamentally possible real experiment.

Specific for experimental psychology principles:

The principle of unity of physiological and mental. The nervous system ensures the emergence and course of mental processes, but it is impossible to reduce mental phenomena to physiological processes.

The principle of unity of consciousness and activity. Consciousness is active, and the activity is conscious. An experimental psychologist is studying the behavior that is formed with the close interaction of the personality with the situation. It is expressed as follows: r \u003d f (p, s), where R is the behavior, P is a person, and S is a situation.

Principle of development. Also known as the principle of historicism and the genetic principle. According to this principle of the psyche of the subject - the result of long-term development in phylogenesis and ontogenesis.

System-structural principle. Any mental phenomena should be considered as holistic processes (impact is always performed on the psyche as a whole, and not on some isolated part of it.)

In the next chapter, we consider the experimental method in pedagogical psychology.

Introduction to experimental psychology.

How to start psychological research.

Literature - - ch. 2: 54-65, ch. 10, - ch. 1.6, - GL.4

Experiment

In any experiment, there is an object of study (behavior, phenomenon, property, etc.), in addition, in the experiment usually

· Something changes

· Potential sources of influence are constant

· Any behavior is measured

Under variable In psychology, they understand any value that interests us, property or parameter. This can be as a quantitatively measured value (such as growth, weight, reaction time, thresholds, etc.) and the values \u200b\u200bthat allow only a quality description (for example, Paul, Race, Mood, Character, etc.)

independent study dependent

Variable variable

control variables

Independent variable - variable variable by the experimenter; Includes two or more states (conditions) or levels.

Dependent variable - Variable changing with an independent variable, taking various values \u200b\u200bthat are measured.

Control variable - The variable that is kept constant.

The researcher changes the independent variable so that the effects (influence) of different values \u200b\u200bor levels of an independent variable could be determined by changes in the dependent variable.

At the same time, the main difficulty is to ensure the provision of the invariance of control variables. If in the process of the experiment, together with the independent variable we allocated, some other, which can also have an effect on the dependent variable, are indicated, they are talking about effect mixing.

Mixing It is related to the fact that the effect of an independent variable is accompanied by a number of other variables, which can systematically differ in the presentation of various conditions of an independent variable, and thereby have a favorable (or adverse) effect on the action of one of them.

The mixing is caused by the fact that when designing the experiment, we did not take into account any variable or not checked whether it is really included in the control variables and, thus, made it an independent variable.

Research project

includes the following steps

Search for ideas	Sources of ideas · Observations · Experts · Journals, books, textbooks, etc.
The wording of the checked hypothesis	The verified hypothesis is a statement on the intended or theoretical relations between two or more variables. The verified hypothesis or approves clearly, or implies implicitly that variables measurements.
Analysis of relevant literature	The literature review serves to not be inventing the bike, i.e., to determine what is already known about your hypothesis. The literature review helps to develop a reasonable study plan, choose the appropriate material and incentives. .
Development of the Scheme of Experiment
Conducting pretrests (aerobatic research)	Preliminary tests use a small number of subjects. This is done for verification · Is there any errors in the scheme and the experimental procedure · Do the test instructions understand the following instructions · How much time will take experiment · Is not too complex or easy tasks. At the same time, practice themselves to observe and measure the behavior of interest to us.
data collection
Statistical data analysis	Typically, the test logic of the hypotheses is as follows: the experimenter selects the conditions (experimental and control) to test its hypothesis, assuming that the experimental conditions will cause a certain effect compared to the control conditions. This hypothesis is checked in comparison with nul-hypothesis. Nul-hypothesis is a statement about the absence of communication between the selected variables. The experiment is considered successful when it is possible to reject zero-hypothesis, i.e. Show that it is false, and, therefore, the initial hypothesis about the availability of communication is true.
Data interpretation	It is not enough to get data - it is necessary to interpret them. Just data do not have values \u200b\u200bby themselves, they must be correlated with the theory explaining the behavior.
report

Measurements in psychology

Literature - - ch. 6 + See almost any policies in psychology +

+ Sidorenko E.V. Methods of mathematical processing in psychology. St. Petersburg, 1996.

Measuring scales

Strict the definition of the scale is quite difficult.

It is easier to say that the scale is a rule by which we set names (numbers) in accordance with objects or properties of objects.

Types of measuring scales

Typically distinguish 4 types of measuring scales (Druzhinin, 1997, Elmes et al, 1992, Stevens, 1951.):

· Name scales (nominal scale, Nominal Scale)

· Order scale (order scale, ORDINAL SCALE)

· Interval scales (interval, Interval Scale)

· Scale of equal relationship (relationship scale, Ratio Scale)

Types of scales are determined by the properties they possess. Types of scales are listed further with an increase in informativeness. Each subsequent scale has the properties of the previous scale and even additional. This means, in particular, that statistical procedures that can be used for the names of the items are suitable for all others. But statistics for the scale of equal relations are not suitable for three less informative scales.

Name scale	Measures the distinction property for some sign and nothing more. Name scale simply sorts objects to various categories. Examples
Scale order	Reflects the difference in the magnitude of some property. The values \u200b\u200bof the scale are put in compliance with the values \u200b\u200bof a certain property so that the order reflects the order of changing the value of this property in the selected objects. Such a scale shows the order of the objects of objects by the selected indicator, without giving any information about the real values \u200b\u200bof this indicator. Sometimes such scales may have zero, which coincides with the "zero" of the selected property. The order scale involves monotonous dependence between scale divisions and parameter indicator. Examples
Scale scale interval intervals	It has properties of differences, values \u200b\u200band equal intervals. In this scale, not only the values \u200b\u200bof the scale, but also the values \u200b\u200bof the intervals make sense. In the range of intervals, the difference value between the values \u200b\u200bof the scale can somehow reflect the difference in possessing the selected property. The range of intervals involves a linear relationship between the division of the scale and the parameter indicator. Examples
Collection of relationship	It has all the properties of previous scales and, in addition, has a real zero - that is, zero scale corresponds to "zero" of some selected property. Then the value of the scale correspond to the difference in the manifestation of some property relative to its "zero". This is the most powerful scale. In such scales, not only the difference, but also the ratio of values \u200b\u200bmakes sense (for example, in n. Once a larger value of the scale corresponds to n. Once greater value of the indicator). Examples

Scale type:

· Determines which statistical procedure we will use (see table)

· Helps critically evaluate studies of others

· Influences the interpretation of data, since different scales make it possible to reflect different properties.

Only from the scale of intervals makes sense to talk about the mean values \u200b\u200bof some indicator. For example, if we draw an IQ to the scale of intervals, we can talk about the middle indicator of the group, which will allow us to say, compare the average IQ of schoolchildren in different countries. If IQ is a scale of order, then then the concept of medium loses the meaning and no average IQ group can be.

Only in the scale of equal relationship we can talk about interest. So, for example, it is possible to argue that some technique allowed to increase creativity by 20% we can only when creativity is measured on an equal relationship scale.

Descriptive observations

The most obvious way to make observations in psychology;

Its intends to describe behavior.

Descriptive observations are listed which behavior is, with what frequency and with what sequence and in what quantity.

3 types of descriptive observations can be distinguished: natural, precedents (special cases) and reviews.

Benefits Descriptive observations:

· Useful at the initial stages of research

· It is useful when there is no possibility to use other methods

Disadvantages:

· Do not allow to draw conclusions about relationships between variables

· The impossibility of repetition makes them extremely subjective

· Antomorphism (attributing human characteristics to animals and even inanimate subjects)

· Internal non-reliability, as such methods allow A) to choose cases from the whole heap of cases, as well as select questions, answers and facts; b) correlate these cases and answers with our previously developed theory, and for such a way to "prove" any theory. Example: Freud's theory. What would be the genius of Freud, his theory does not withstand criticism in terms of the facts and evidence, on which it is based.

Alignment observations

These are observations of relationships, dependencies between different phenomena and properties. To study such a dependence, we can use correlation techniques. The use of correlation technology allows us to determine the degree of relationship between the two problems you are interested in. Usually, we hope that in one variable we can predict another. Such conclusions are made "EX POST FACTO", that is, after what happened. First, observations of the behavior you are interested in are collected and then the correlation coefficient is calculated, which expresses the degree of communication between two variables or measurements.

Variables in experiments

Independent	The experimenter chooses them from the calculation that they can cause changes in behavior. When changes in the level (value) of an independent variable leads to a change in behavior, we say that the behavior is controlled by an independent variable. If an independent variable does not control behavior, then this is called a zero result. The zero result may have several interpretations: 1. The experimenter was mistaken, thinking that an independent variable affects behavior. Then the zero result is faithful. 2. Changes in an independent variable were not valid.
dependent	They depend on the behavior of the subjects, which, in turn, depends on the independent variables. A good dependent variable must be reliable (i.e., when we repeat the experiment - the same subjects, the same levels of independent variables, ... - The dependent variable should be about the same. The dependent variable is unreliable, if there are problems with the measurement method. Another problem with a dependent variable, which can lead to a zero result is that the dependent variable is stuck on the lowest or highest scale mark. This is called the ceiling effect. This effect does not allow the effect of an independent variable to the dependent variable. And finally The zero result may appear thanks to statistical data processing. The results of a statistical test may not confirm the infidelity of zero-hypothesis, while it is not true.
Controls	In any experiment, there are more variables than actually can be controlled, i.e. There are no ideal experiments. The experimenter tries to control as much significant variables as possible and hopes that the remaining uncontrolled variables will give a small effect compared to the effect of an independent variable. The smaller the effect of an independent variable, the more carefully control should be. Zero results can also be obtained, if not enough to control various factors. This is especially characteristic of not laboratory conditions. You remember, probably that we call the influence of these uncontrolled factors with mixing.

Experimental schemes

Literature - - ch. 3, 4, 6, - ch. 2, 7, 8, - ch. five

There are two main features:

· Distribute several subjects for each level of an independent variable

· Distribute all subjects for all levels

The first opportunity is called

intergroup experimental scheme - This is the presentation of each of the conditions for an independent variable to various groups of subjects.

The second opportunity is called

Intraindividual experimental scheme -this is a presentation of one (or more) subjects of all under study. Sometimes such a scheme is also called another scheme of an individual experiment or intragroup .

Types of interaction

The main effects are statistically independent of the effects of interaction. This means that knowing the magnitude and direction of the main effects, we can not say anything about the interaction.

Example. Consider an experiment with two independent variables - 1 and 2. The independent variable 1 has two levels - A and B. The independent variable 2 also has two levels - 1 and 2. In all three cases depicted below, the main effects of these variables are the same (the difference in the dependent variable There are 20 units between the two levels of the independent variable 1, and the difference between the two levels of the independent variable 1 is 60 units).

3) and in this case there is intersecting interaction

Independent variable 1.
AND	IN	In A.

Independent variable 2.
		2-1

	AND	IN	average
average

This is intersecting interaction. It is most reliable, since it cannot be explained by the problems of measurement and scaling of the dependent variable.

The main effects in the tables are the same, and the graphs are all different.

Morality:The interaction must be considered before drawing conclusions in the experiment, where more than one independent variable.

Mixed scheme

This is a diagram where one or more intergroup variables is used and one or more intraindividual variables.

Any effective scientific method requires proper "maturation" both the science itself and a purely practical, social need for the results of this scientific activity. The latter is determining. It also happened with the psychology as a whole, and with the revolutionizing method - the experiment.

The history of its application preceded much, including the repeated change of views on the subject of psychology, on the nature of the psyche as a whole. As long as the mental was defined as something purely internal, only the only method was applied for its study - self-surveillance (introspection). The denial of the possibility of experiment in psychology and the corresponding mathematical processing of the results has long been a kind of ban on the very idea of \u200b\u200ba psychological experiment.

The first specialists who applied the method of experiment (together with the corresponding mathematical apparatus) to the tasks that are essentially psychological, there were astronomer scientists. The impetus for their research was the practical task of astronomy to fix the time of passing the star of the specified meridian in a special telescope grid (Bradley method). In 1796, a substantial (0.5-1.0 second) misconception was found in the Greenwich Observatory in determining time by different employees. In 1816, Königsberg astronomer Bessel reports the results of perennial experiments on measuring the "reaction time" of a person, that is, the time passing between the moment of the presentation of the stimulus and the moment of the beginning of the response of the person (the so-called "dismissed human delay", see the work number number 16 in chapter II). At the same time, "personal equations" are a first successful forms of mathematical symbolization in psychology, assigned to the perceptual activity of a person. Soon the first specialized device for experimental psychological studies was created - Hippan chronoscope. So an experimental psychology was born. Its first, fundamental labor was "Elements of psychophysics" (1860), written by a physicist and physiologist T. Ferechner.

A significant contribution to the development of ideas of experiment and measurements in psychology was made by F. Galton, which in 1884 organized the first truly massive (statistical) measurements in the "anthropometric" laboratory.

The approval, implementation and development of the method of experiment in psychology is associated with the discovery of the first laboratory of "Physiological Psychology" in 1879 V. Wundt, where numerous studies were conducted on the quantitative correlation of elementary physiological and mental processes.

By 1893 there were already 34 specialized experimental psychological cabinets in the world. The formation of experimental psychology in Russia is associated with the names of N. N. Lange, G. I. Chelpaunova, V. M. Bekhtereva, S. S. Korsakov, G. I. Rossolimo and others.

Further development of experimental psychology was very violent. The experimental method itself remained unchanged. He was all wider and "thinner" introduced into psychology, in it all the bolder was used by the apparatus of mathematics to the most diverse and complex mental phenomena and processes.

At the turn of the XX century. The experimental method is approved in all leading sectors of psychology, contributing to the restructuring of the whole science as a whole.

In itself, experimental research (like any other method) does not yet solve serious scientific tasks, it is not a complete research process. The latter can be conditionally divided into several logically interrelated stages, which are not strictly separated in time, can vary in places, occupy a large or smaller share in the scientific process:

1. Previous study, observation or theoretical analysis detects some important facts (or implies their presence), reveals contradictions or sets questions that should be studied in more detail. This is a kind of stage of setting the problem.

2. Formulates a working scientific hypothesis about the reason for the observed facts, about their patterns, relationships.

3. A psychological study is carried out in the proper sense of the word: experiment, observation, etc. - in order to verify the hypotheses formulated above, and the unconventation of the initial hypothesis does not at all mean the general failure of the study, a negative result is the beginning of a new cycle, a new "spiral" scientific process.

4. Processing, analysis, discussion and comparison of the results, their scientific interpretation, where new tasks are set, the prospects for the following stages of scientific research are outlined.

The experimental method allows:

1) to arbitrarily call the process of interest to the researcher (phenomenon, condition, function), and not wait for random manifestations of this process in a real situation and activity;

2) vary in the right directions themselves the conditions for the flow and manifestation of the process being studied, i.e., allocate (emphasize or "fix") the influence of individual variables (factors), study the process in "pure" form and at the same time establish valid patterns, communications and systems interdependencies;

3) produce a fairly strict quantitative dosage of the processes studied and the conditions for their flow, i.e., transition to the consistent mathematical processing of the results of the study, to the completed mathematical formalization of a solid study.

It is customary to allocate two types of experiments in psychology: the laboratory and natural, proposed by the Russian psychologist A. F. Lazur in 1912, the first is carried out in a specially equipped laboratory, the second - in natural for the subject. But the difference is not at all in the venue of the experiment, it is intended to eliminate the main difficulty or lack of a laboratory experiment, since any such experiment is artificial, i.e., the activities of the subject flows in the environment and the situation that the experimenter creates. At the same time, no technical improvements in the experiment and laboratory, no (albeit the most believable) models of the real working situation and the most "habitat" of the subject. A person always knows that this is not a real work that this is an experiment that can be terminated at any time at the request of the subject. In this case, the process studied by a psychologist can lose very significant connections, in fact, in the real situation. The experiment is always abstract to one degree or another, because it takes a studied process only in a strictly defined system of affecting conditions. This serious * disadvantage is not removed and by reorienting the experimental approach from analytic on synthetic, i.e., when switching to the analysis of the joint influence of all factors in their vitality (the latter is characteristic, for example, for a modern experiment in engineering psychology). From here, the dismissal difficulty of transferring the results (conclusions and recommendations) of a laboratory experiment to real practice, on the natural mental human mental activity, for which all laboratory experiment is carried out.

One of the ways to solve this methodological problem is scheduled and implemented in the works of B. M. Teplova * and his school of differential psychophysiology. Each mental mental property under study, it has many manifestations, therefore, with experimental study of this property, it is necessary to compare various methods, a special analysis apparatus (factor or dispersion analysis) is required. Then the question of the development of the system of "life indicators" of the test and measured property, i.e., on the need for an objective and scientific interpretation of the manifestations of the studied psychological properties in the real activity of the subject. Life indicators should be considered only in aggregate, in comparison, it is also necessary to know their intimate, procedural side, and not only an effective expression. The behavior of a person depends on many properties of the nervous system, i.e., the vital indicators are not unambiguous, not stable, moreover, in normal conditions, they are confused not so much to the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system, how much to the living conditions in which they have developed.

* (See: Teplov B. M. Problems of individual differences. M., 1961.)

The natural experiment is designed to eliminate the described disadvantage, according to the classic scheme, it is between the method of laboratory experiment and the observation method. In this case, the activities of the subject are investigated in its natural flow (conditions, tasks, execution), and external conditions are subjected to experimental impact, that is, the latter are not changing in their natural order, but in accordance with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe experimenter.

A very interesting development of the experimental method in psychology is the so-called training experiment, which acts as the implementation of one of the most important methodological principles of psychological research, namely the genetic principle. The training experiment involves a significant change in the position of the researcher. This is a transition from a simple (even research) statement of existing facts and patterns (method "of sections), from a psychological explanation of their current essence to the very process of learning itself, i.e., to the systematic formation of the necessary mental processes. The investigated phenomenon is formed by the experimental personnel. It is ruled by it from outside, it is investigated in the process of formation and development *. The researcher comes from a clear knowledge of what exactly necessary to form, what should the properties of the new mental education should be. According to this, a clear external system of experimental conditions is organized, which is based on and which is managed It provides a phased transition of the formable process from an external, subject to internal, or psychological (the process of interiorization), is ensured by working out an interiorizable effect on a special parameter system **.

* (See: Galperin P. Ya. Introduction to psychology. M., 1976.)

** (See: Talisina N. F. Management of knowledge learning. M., 1975.)

A kind of modification of the method of the experiment (in the direction, as if the opposite training experiment), the test method can also be considered. If any experiment on its methodical orientation is a study of patterns, the test is predominantly measuring or testing cash levels (without a serious analysis of the source and factors system). The test gives a measure or evaluation, thereby stating further research. The test is a kind of intelligence instrument, a measuring instrument that indicates the place of this subject among a certain contingent subject. And such an assessment is as a rule, only to this time of time.

The test as a measuring instrument was at one time the undisputed achievement of new psychology, because by its short, standard and subject to mathematical treatment, he made some orderliness and scientific relations in the elemental subjectivism and the household categories of human judgments about themselves and about other people. However, the initial estimated focus of the test requires not only the high professionalism of its creators and interpreters, but also their high moral (and in the essence of its class) responsibility for the fate of people who have been tested. It is known that the practice of testing in the conditions of capitalist society is a peculiar justification for the class and racial inequality of people *.

* (See: Gurevich K. M. Professional Fitness and basic properties of the nervous system. M., 1970.)

On the method of tests, of course, the general difficulties of the psychological experiment are affected: the problematicness of the measurement in psychology, the correspondence between the experimental and practical activities of the subjects, the variability of the manifestations of mental, etc. In addition, many tests are not known at all that it is measured (for example, The ambiguity of the concept of "intelligence coefficient"). Therefore, ignoring objective and purely methodological restrictions and difficulties of the test method can lead to very serious errors, especially in cases of professionally uncontrolled and massive creation, use and interpret the results of test techniques by poorly qualified people.