Overcoming fear

Fear- this is an emotional reaction to danger, which may be accompanied by such physical sensations as trembling, rapid breathing, strong heartbeat. This is a natural reaction, and it is characteristic of every normal person. It is the fear for one's life that causes the desire to act in the name of one's own salvation. If a person knows how to act, fear sharpens the reaction, activates thinking. But if he has no idea what to do, feels pain or weakness from blood loss, then fear can lead to stress - excessive tension, inhibition of thoughts and actions. These sensations can be so intense that sudden intense fear can lead to death. There are various ways to overcome fear. If a person is familiar with the technique of auto-training, then he will be able to relax, calm down, and analyze the situation impartially in a matter of minutes. If not, then thinking about something else will help the person relax and be distracted. Breathing exercises also have a good effect. You need to take a few deep breaths. When a person experiences fear or stress, his pulse speeds up, and he begins to breathe very quickly. Forcing yourself to breathe slowly means convincing the body that the stress is passing, whether it has passed or not.

Assistance to victims

· Burn. The burnt place should be cooled, wiped with an alcohol solution, apply a dry bandage. The affected area can be rubbed with a decoction of oak bark, raw potatoes, urine. Do not lubricate the burn with oil, do not open the resulting bubbles.

· Bleeding . Press the damaged vessel (artery - from above, except for the arteries of the head, neck) or apply a tourniquet / pressure bandage from improvised means (except for wires, ropes, cords). Treat the wound with iodine / hydrogen peroxide / brilliant green and close with a plaster / bandage. You can apply viburnum berries, wild rose, plantain, aloe to a bleeding wound. For purulent wounds, a decoction of burdock is applied. The tourniquet can not be kept longer than 1.5 hours in summer and 30 minutes. in winter.

· Fractures/dislocations. The injured limb must be immobilized (for which a splint or stick/ski/board is used). Pain can be reduced by applying ice. Finely chopped onion helps (with dislocations). You can not take painkillers, you can not try to set the limb yourself.

· Artificial respiration/cardiac massage necessary in case of clinical death (no pulse and breathing or spasmodic breathing, pupils do not react to light). The caregiver inhales air into the victim's mouth/nose about 24 times per minute. The nose / mouth of the victim should be clamped. Circulation can be restored by pressing on the chest. The patient should lie on a hard surface, unbutton the clothes. Death occurs within 5 minutes. after clinical death, but resuscitation should be continued for 20-30 minutes. Sometimes it works.

· Fainting . If breathing and cardiac activity are not disturbed, it is enough to unbutton the clothes, bring a swab with ammonia to the nose, and lay the person down so that the head is lower than the legs.

In case of any injuries, it is best to try to deliver the victim to a doctor.

Orientation on the ground

· By the sun. The sun is in the east at 7 am, in the south at 1 pm, and in the west at 7 pm.

· By the sun and the clock with arrows. To determine the direction in this way, it is necessary to hold the clock in a horizontal position and turn it so that the hour hand with its sharp end is directed towards the sun. A straight line dividing the angle between the hour hand and the direction of the number 1 points to the south.

· By moving the shadow. The shadow of a vertically placed stick will show the approximate east-west direction.

At night, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the North Star. To do this, you need to find the constellation Ursa Major with a characteristic arrangement of stars in the form of a bucket with a handle. An imaginary line is drawn through the two extreme stars of the bucket, and the distance between these stars is plotted on it 5 times. At the end of the fifth segment there will be a bright star - Polaris. The direction to it will correspond to the direction to the north.

The sides of the horizon can be determined by some signs of local objects.

· The bark of most trees is rougher on the north side;

· Stones, trees, wooden, tiled and slate roofs on the northern side are covered with moss earlier and more abundantly. On coniferous trees, resin is more abundant on the south side. It is useless to look for all these signs on trees in the thicket. But they are clearly expressed on a separate tree in the middle of a clearing or at the edge;

· Anthills are located on the south side of trees and stones;

· Snow melts faster on the southern slopes of hills and mountains.

Magnetic azimuth is used - a horizontal angle measured clockwise from 0 degrees to 360 from the north direction of the magnetic meridian to the direction to be determined.

For a rough estimate of distances on the ground, you can use the data from the following table:

Table #1

For each person, this table can be refined by him.

Shelter construction

The simplest shelter from wind and rain is made by linking individual elements of the base (frame) with thin spruce roots, willow branches, and tundra birch. Natural cavities in the steep bank of the river allow you to comfortably sit on them so that the place of sleep is between the fire and the vertical surface (cliff, rock), which serves as a heat reflector.

Organizing an overnight stay is hard work. First you need to find a suitable site. First of all, it must be dry. Secondly, it is best to settle down near the stream, in an open place, in order to always have a supply of water on hand.

When preparing a place to sleep, two holes are dug - under the thigh and under the shoulder. You can spend the night on a bed of spruce branches in a deep hole dug or thawed to the ground with a large fire. Here, in the pit, one should keep the fire in the fire all night in order to avoid a serious cold. In the winter taiga, where the thickness of the snow cover is significant, it is easier to arrange a shelter in a hole near a tree. In severe frost, you can build a simple snow hut in loose snow. To do this, the snow is raked into a heap, its surface is compacted, watered and allowed to freeze. Then the snow is removed from the pile, and a small hole is made in the remaining dome for the chimney. A fire built inside melts the walls and makes the whole structure strong. Such a hut retains heat. You can not climb under clothes with your head, because from breathing the material becomes damp and freezes. It is better to cover the face with clothes that are easy to dry later. From a burning fire, an accumulation of carbon monoxide is possible and you need to take care of a constant influx of fresh air to the combustion center.

A canopy, a hut, a dugout, a tent can serve as a temporary shelter. The choice of type of shelter will depend on the skill, ability, diligence and, of course, the physical condition of the people, since there is no shortage of building material. However, the more severe the weather, the more reliable and warmer the dwelling should be. Make sure that the future home is spacious enough. There is no need to adhere to the principle of "in close quarters, but not offended."

Before starting construction, it is necessary to clear the site well, and then, having estimated how much building material is needed, prepare it in advance: cut down poles, chop spruce branches, branches, collect moss, cut bark. To make the pieces of bark sufficiently large and strong, deep vertical cuts are made on the larch trunk, up to the wood itself, at a distance of 0.5 - 0.6 m from each other. After that, the strips are cut from above and below with large teeth 10–12 cm in diameter, and then the bark is carefully peeled off with an ax or a machete knife.

Making fire

A fire in the conditions of autonomous existence is not only warm, it is dry clothes and shoes, hot water and food, protection from midges and an excellent signal for a search helicopter. And most importantly, a fire is an accumulator of vivacity, energy and vigorous activity. But before starting a fire, all measures should be taken to prevent a forest fire. This is especially important during dry, hot seasons. A place for a fire is chosen away from coniferous, and especially withered trees. Thoroughly clean the space for a meter and a half around from dry grass, moss and shrubs. If the soil is peaty, then, so that the fire does not penetrate the grass cover and cause the peat to ignite, a “cushion” of sand or earth is poured.

In winter, with a high snow cover, the snow is carefully trampled down, and then a platform is built from several tree trunks.

Obtaining food and water

A person who finds himself in conditions of autonomous existence must take the most energetic measures to provide himself with food by collecting edible wild plants, fishing, hunting, that is, using everything that nature gives. Over 2,000 plants grow on the territory of our country, partially or completely suitable for food. When collecting plant gifts, care must be taken. About 2% of plants can cause severe and even fatal poisoning. To prevent poisoning, it is necessary to distinguish between such poisonous plants as the crow's eye, wolf's bast, poisonous milestone (hemlock), bitter henbane, etc. Food poisoning is caused by poisonous substances contained in some mushrooms: pale grebe, fly agaric, false honey agaric, false chanterelle, etc. It is better to refrain from eating unfamiliar plants, berries, mushrooms. When forced to use them for food, it is recommended to eat no more than 1-2 g of food mass at a time, if possible, drinking plenty of water (vegetable poison contained in such a proportion will not cause serious harm to the body). Wait 1 - 2 hours. If there are no signs of poisoning (nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dizziness, intestinal disorders), you can eat an additional 10-15 g. After a day, you can eat without restrictions. An indirect sign of the edibility of a plant can be: fruits pecked by birds; many seeds, scraps of peel at the foot of fruit trees; bird droppings on branches, trunks; plants gnawed by animals; fruits found in nests and burrows. Unfamiliar fruits, bulbs, tubers, etc., it is advisable to boil. Cooking destroys many organic poisons.

Prevention and treatment of diseases

· Sunstroke.The victim should be moved to the shade, give cold water, if possible, put ice / cold compress on the head, wrap with a wet cloth, cool.

· Frostbite. Rub the frostbitten area with a cloth, immerse in warm water, rub with alcohol, drink hot. Of the medicinal plants for frostbite, you can use grated onions (for rubbing a frostbitten area), blackberry tincture. Snow, rough cloth can not be rubbed. Lowering body temperature to 25 degrees is life-threatening. The person becomes lethargic, indifferent to others, the face turns pale.

· Poisoning. Antidotes are raw egg white, camphor (for poisoning with plant substances, insect poisons), milk, vegetable oil, potassium permanganate.

· Bites from snakes/insects. Immobilize the limb, try to suck out the poison (10 - 15 minutes). When ingested, it is said to be harmless unless the poison enters the bloodstream. When bitten by a rattlesnake, only the removal of the damaged area helps, up to cutting off the limb. When biting other snakes use alcohol, garlic, onions. You can not cauterize, cut the wound, you can not apply a tourniquet (except for a cobra bite). When bitten by a scorpion, dandelion, bedbug blood, chewed garlic are applied to the wound. In case of insect bites, the damaged area is smeared with elderberry or plantain juice. A dangerous disease is spring-summer tick-borne encephalitis. Since the disease is transmitted by a tick, it is very important to detect and remove the attached parasite in time. To do this, regular physical examinations are carried out, especially after crossing the dense undergrowth, after a night halt. You can not tear off the tick with your hands. To make it fall off, it is enough to burn it with a cigarette, anoint it with iodine, alcohol, or sprinkle it with tobacco chips, salt. The proboscis remaining in the wound is removed with a needle calcined on fire, and the wound is smeared with alcohol or iodine. Having accidentally crushed a tick, in no case should you rub your eyes, touch the nasal mucosa before your hands are thoroughly washed. To protect against flying blood-sucking and ticks, special repellent preparations are used. They are used in pure form, in solutions, ointments, pastes, lotions. The duration of the action of the repellent is affected by ambient temperature and humidity. Repellent ointments and lotions have the longest action.

Page 1 of 13

Chapter 4

4.1. General principles of survival
4.2. Finding your own location
4.3. Protection from the adverse effects of environmental factors
4.4. Organization of an emergency bivouac
4.5. Establishing communications and preparing means of signaling
4.6. Dangers of encounters with predatory animals
4.7. Organization and guidance of crossings over water barriers
4.7.1. Crossings over water
4.7.2. Crossing the river
4.7.3. Traveling on frozen lakes and rivers
4.7.4. Movement in the swamp
4.8. Organization and conduct of a tourist trip
4.9. Ways to carry the victim

4.1. General principles of survival

Survival is active expedient actions aimed at preserving life, health and working capacity in the conditions of autonomous existence.
From the very first minutes, a number of urgent tasks arise before people who find themselves in conditions of autonomous existence, the most important of which are:
- overcoming the stressful state caused by an emergency;
- provision of first aid to the victims;
- protection from the adverse effects of environmental factors;
- provision of water and food;
- determination of own location;
- Establishment of communication and preparation of signaling facilities.
The solution of these and a number of other problems depends on the ingenuity and resourcefulness of a person, his ability to effectively use emergency equipment and available tools.
The main postulate of survival: a person can and must maintain health and life in the most severe climatic conditions, if he manages to use everything that the environment gives to his advantage. But this requires certain knowledge and experience.
The duration of the autonomous period depends on a number of objective and subjective reasons that can promote or hinder human activity.
Factors of survival in conditions of autonomous existence. All factors affecting the ability to survive can be divided into 4 groups:
- anthropological;
- natural and environmental;
- material and technical;
- ecological.
Anthropological factors characterize the state of human health, the constancy of its internal environment, the reserve capabilities of the body. Anthropological factors include:
- psychological readiness;
- moral and volitional qualities;
- active-transformative activity that affects the predominance of positive or negative emotions;
- the ability to act in conditions of autonomous existence.
For an unprepared person, the environment is a source of all kinds of dangers, he is in constant anxiety. This state lasts from several minutes to several days.
Thus, an important task of training is to psychologically prepare a person to overcome a possible emergency, increase his emotional and volitional stability, teach him to correctly perceive and evaluate the current situation and act in accordance with the situation.
Natural and environmental factors - temperature, air humidity, solar radiation, precipitation, atmospheric pressure level, wind, etc.
People are able to endure even the most severe natural conditions for a long time. However, getting into them for the first time, they are poorly adapted to life in an unfamiliar environment. Therefore, the harsher the conditions of the external environment, the greater the effort required by the struggle for survival, the more strictly the rules of conduct must be followed and the more expensive the price paid for each mistake.
Material and technical factors provide protective materials in conditions of autonomous existence: clothing, emergency equipment, food and water supplies, improvised means used for various purposes, etc.
Environmental risk factors arise as a result of human interaction with the environment (accidents, injuries, etc.).
Physiological risk factors - diseases, natural disasters, heat, cold, hunger, thirst, fear, overwork, loneliness, improper organization of relationships within the emergency group. For a person who has fallen into emergency circumstances, these factors are of particular importance. It is for these reasons that most of the tragic outcomes of accidents occur.
Consider the main physiological risk factors.
Hunger. In medical literature, the feeling of hunger is understood as a set of sensations that express the physiological need of the body for food. Accordingly, starvation is a state of the body in the complete absence or insufficiency of the intake of nutrients. Conventionally, there are several types of fasting:
- absolute - a person is deprived of food and water;
- complete - a person is deprived of food, but not limited in water consumption;
- incomplete - food is consumed by a person in limited quantities, insufficient to restore energy costs;
- partial - with sufficient quantitative nutrition, a person does not receive one or more substances (vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.) with food.
With complete and absolute starvation, the body is forced to switch to internal self-sufficiency. It is estimated that in a person weighing 70 kg, the energy reserves of the body are approximately 160 thousand kcal; 40-45% of these reserves (65-70 thousand kcal) the body can use up without a direct threat to its existence.
In a state of absolute rest, a person needs one kilocalorie per hour per kilogram of mass to maintain the vital activity of the body (the work of the heart, lungs, brain and other organs). With a mass of 70 kg, a person's energy consumption will be 70 kcal / h or 1680 kcal / day. These are inevitable internal energy costs. The rest of the energy reserve

Table 13 Human energy costs for various types of movement

Type and nature of movement	Energy consumption, kcal/h
Walking on a flat road (4-5 km/h)
Walking on a flat road with a load (4 km/h)
Walking uphill at a speed of 2 km/h with a slope up to 15°
Running at 8 km/h
Cross-country skiing

The body of an average man is enough for 30-40 days of fasting without much damage to his health.
These calculations of the energy reserve of the body and the duration of safe fasting were made in the conditions of a “room” microclimate and complete immobility of a person.
In a real situation, a person is affected by cold, snow, rain, wind, blizzard, and the person is not in a stationary state. The costs of human energy for various types of movements are presented in Table. 13. The duration of safe fasting is significantly reduced by various diseases, increased emotionality, fear and other physical and mental conditions that increase the metabolism in the human body.
Thus, in real conditions of complete starvation, the body's energy reserve allows a person to do without food (without much damage to health) not for 30-40 days, but only 10-15 days.
Elderly people tolerate the absence of food more easily and longer, as their metabolic rate is lowered; in a young growing organism, energy costs are increased by 15-20% compared to the average indicators. Women endure fasting easier than men.
In addition, as practice shows, even in people of the same age, sex, body size, who are in exactly the same conditions, the deadlines for survival can be different due to the individual characteristics of the body and the state of the psyche at the time of starvation. There are cases when people did not take food for 40-50 and even 60 days and survived. On the contrary, there are examples of people dying from exhaustion in 20-25 days. With complete starvation, death usually occurs after 30-40% loss of initial weight.
Typical symptoms of prolonged fasting. In the initial period (2-4 days) there is a strong feeling of hunger. Appetite rises sharply, burning, pressure and even pain in the epigastric region, nausea can be felt. Dizziness, headaches, stomach cramps are possible. The sense of smell is noticeably sharpened. In the presence of water, salivation increases. Man constantly thinks about food.
During the initial period, a person's body weight decreases by an average of 1 kg daily, sometimes (in areas with a hot climate) - up to 1.5 kg. Then the daily weight loss decreases.
In the future, the feeling of hunger weakens. Appetite disappears, sometimes a person experiences some cheerfulness. Salivation does not increase even at the sight of food. The tongue is often covered with a whitish coating; when inhaled, a faint smell of acetone may be felt in the mouth. There may be poor sleep, prolonged headaches, increased irritability. With prolonged fasting, a person falls into apathy, lethargy, drowsiness.
Hunger as a cause of human death in the practice of emergency situations is extremely rare. Hunger enhances the damaging effect of other adverse factors. A hungry person freezes faster than a well-fed person, gets sick more often and endures the course of the disease more difficult. With prolonged fasting, mental activity weakens, and working capacity drops sharply.
Therefore, in the absence of food supplies, if it is impossible to provide them through hunting, fishing, and collecting wild edible plants, one should adhere to passive survival tactics, that is, expect help in the immediate vicinity of the accident site. In order to save energy resources, one should try not to leave the shelter without extreme need, lie more, sleep, minimize any vigorous activity, and do only the most necessary work.
Watches should be carried out alternately, dividing day and night time into short shifts (1-2 hours each). It is permissible to release from duty only the wounded, sick and young children. All other members of the emergency team must be involved in keeping watch without fail. With a large number of people, two attendants can be assigned at the same time. Such an order will prevent outbreaks of apathy, despondency, pessimism, which may result from a long passive stay in the shelter.
Heat, thirst. The concept of "heat", as applied to an emergency, is the sum of several components - ambient temperature, solar radiation intensity, soil surface temperature, air humidity, the presence or absence of wind, i.e., the climatic conditions of the place where the accident occurred.
In addition, there are many special cases when a person, for one reason or another, may feel that he is hot. For example, when the quantity or quality of clothing worn by a person does not correspond to the work he is currently doing. An inexperienced person, for fear of freezing, puts on all the clothes at his disposal, after which he begins to work intensively. Active activities release a significant amount of energy, which leads to increased sweating and wetting of clothing adjacent to the body. As a result, a person, having finished work, quickly freezes.
The practice of tourism and mountaineering knows many examples when a person during polar and high-altitude travels at sub-zero ambient temperatures received heat stroke.
Violation of the internal heat balance occurs primarily through the fault of the victim himself.
A sultry afternoon is somewhat more dangerous in the forest and forest-steppe zones. But here you can always find a shadow, a river or a lake to swim or moisten your headdress and face with cool water, and at the very peak of the heat to stop for a big halt.
It is much more difficult for a person in an emergency situation that occurred in a desert or semi-desert zone. This is explained by the fact that heat enters into an alliance with thirst here.
A person is almost two-thirds water, that is, the body of an adult weighing 70 kg contains 50 liters of water. Moreover, bones consist of 25% water, muscles - 75%, and the brain - 80%. It is the brain that suffers primarily from lack of water.
Water in the body is the main medium (intra- and extracellular) and in many cases the main participant in countless vital chemical reactions. Therefore, insufficient, as well as excessive, intake of water into the body seriously affects the general physical condition of a person.
Excess water overloads the kidneys, the heart, and flushes out the salts it needs from the body. Workers in hot shops, whose water consumption is much higher than the average (3-6 liters per day), sometimes show signs of water poisoning: loss of sensitivity, vomiting, convulsions, and intestinal upset.
Lack of water leads to weight loss, thickening of the blood and, as a result, overstrain of the heart, which expends additional effort to push the thickened blood into the vessels. At the same time, the concentration of salts in the blood rises, which serves as a signal that dehydration has begun. Brain cells respond to the threat of dehydration by immediately pumping out free fluid from the cells of the body. Up to 5% of the liquid is withdrawn without any consequences for the cells and, therefore, for the person himself. Dehydration of the body, exceeding 15%, can lead to death. At the same time, a person deprived of food is able to lose almost the entire supply of fat, almost 50% of protein, and only after that approach the dangerous line. Starvation, as already mentioned, can last several weeks, and a person deprived of water dies in a matter of days or hours (in a hot climate).
In favorable climatic conditions, the need of the human body for water does not exceed 2.5-3 liters per day. Moreover, not only the liquid that people consume in the form of various drinks is taken into account, but also the liquid that is part of solid food. In addition, water is formed in the body itself as a result of chemical reactions occurring in it.
It is important to distinguish true water hunger from the apparent one. Very often, the feeling of thirst arises not due to an objective lack of water, but due to improper water consumption.
One of the indicators of thirst is a decrease in salivation in the oral cavity. With a decrease in salivation by 15%, the first feeling of thirst occurs, with a 20% decrease, thirst is more pronounced, and at 50%, a feeling of unbearable thirst appears.
Initial dry mouth is often perceived as a feeling of intense thirst, although dehydration as such is not observed. A person begins to consume a significant amount of water, but there is no real need for this.
Excessive intake of water, accompanied by an increase in physical activity, leads to increased sweating. Simultaneously with the abundant excretion of excess fluid, the ability of body cells to retain water is impaired. A vicious circle arises - the more a person drinks, the more he sweats and feels more thirsty.
The experiment showed that some people drank 5-6 liters of water in 8 hours, while others in the same conditions managed 0.5 liters.
Drinking a lot of water in one gulp is not recommended. Such a one-time consumption of a liquid of thirst will not quench, but can lead to swelling, weakness. It must be remembered that the drunk water does not quench thirst immediately, but only after 10-15 minutes (after reaching the stomach, it is absorbed into the blood). It is best to drink water in small portions at short intervals until completely saturated.
Sometimes it is enough to rinse the mouth with cool water or suck on sour candy, caramel, fruit pit, etc. This will cause a reflex separation of saliva, and the feeling of thirst will be significantly reduced.
With intense sweating, leading to leaching of salts from the body, it is advisable to drink lightly salted water (0.5-1.0 g of salt per 1 liter of water). Such an amount of salt will hardly affect the taste of water and restore the salt balance of the body.
In the fight against frost, a person has a considerable arsenal of means. He can keep warm by building a snow shelter, using warm clothes, building a fire, doing intense physical work. Any of these methods will allow a person to save life for 1-3 days. Using all of the above possibilities, you can resist the elements, sometimes for weeks.
In the desert, only water can prolong life for a person who finds himself in an emergency.
Cold. To the greatest extent, cold threatens a person in the high-latitude zones of the country: in the tundra, forest-tundra, in winter in the taiga, steppes and adjacent semi-deserts, as well as in the highlands.
The above zones are heterogeneous in terms of temperature characteristics. Even in the same area at the same time, thermometer readings can vary by a dozen or more degrees. For example, in river valleys, gorges, and other depressions, the decrease in temperature as a result of the flow of cold air into lowlands is often much more noticeable than at elevated points of the relief.
Air humidity is important. For example, in the Oymyakon region, which is the cold pole of the Northern Hemisphere, the temperature can drop to -70 "C (the minimum -77.8" C was recorded in 1938), but due to the dryness of the air, low temperatures are tolerated quite easily. And vice versa, the wet, typical for coastal areas frost, which envelops and literally sticks to the skin, so subjectively the air temperature is always estimated lower than it really is.
Wind speed is of decisive importance for human survival in low temperatures (Table 14).
In areas devoid of natural shelters, low air temperature, combined with strong winds, can reduce the survival time of a person to several hours.
Long-term survival at sub-zero temperatures also depends on the condition of clothes and shoes at the time of the accident, the quality of the shelter built, the availability of food and fuel supplies, the moral and physical condition of the person.
As a rule, in an emergency, clothing is able to protect a person from the cold for a period sufficient to build a snow shelter.

Table 14. Dependence of the cooling effect of air on a person on wind speed

Actual air temperature, °C	Wind speed, m/s	Total cooling effect, °C

Shoes play a very important role in winter emergency conditions. Suffice it to say that 9 frostbite out of 10 occurs precisely on the lower limbs. Therefore, a person who has had an accident in the winter period of time should first of all pay attention to the condition of his legs.
In order to keep shoes, socks, footcloths dry, you can make shoe covers from improvised material (wrap your legs with a piece of loose fabric, etc.). Use the remaining material to warm clothes and protect your face from the wind.
Resistance to low temperatures largely depends on the mental state of a person. For example, a feeling of fear greatly reduces the life of a person even at temperatures close to zero. Panic fear of freezing contributes to freezing. And, on the contrary, the psychological attitude is “I am not afraid of the cold. I have real opportunities to protect myself from its impact” - significantly increases the period of survival, allows you to reasonably distribute forces and time.
Overwork is an inevitable companion of an emergency, a consequence of constant physical and mental stress.
During an emergency, a person is forced to build a shelter, get food, prepare firewood for fires, and perform many other necessary works that involve huge energy costs.
At the same time, a person can experience hunger and thirst, suffer from chronic lack of sleep, adverse climatic factors, feelings of fear and other stressors.
In cases of sharp physical or mental overstrain, overwork appears in an unusually short time. But most often, overwork accompanies long-term survival, when the sum of adverse factors (continuous work, malnutrition, lack of sleep, mental tension, etc.), gradually accumulating, exhausts a person physically and morally.
With the help of proper rest, nutrition, sleep, it is possible to restore strength within a few days, but an emergency situation does not provide such opportunities. Overfatigue increases the impact on a person of adverse weather factors, various diseases. So, in the first hours after the accident, frost of -15 ° C is tolerated much easier than a few days later - temperatures close to zero.
Overfatigue significantly reduces efficiency and motor activity, weakens the will. Even with a slight load, a person may feel weakness, trembling in the legs, tinnitus, dizziness, nausea; it is difficult for him to concentrate on any object or thought, his attention is scattered, actions are often illogical.
In a state of overwork, the rate of reactions, including protective ones, slows down. In a situation where a healthy person reacts in time to danger, for example, bounces off a falling stone, a significantly tired person will be a few moments late.
A developing feeling of fatigue can serve as a signal of overwork. It is very important to listen to him in time.
The best prevention of overwork is timely rest. When a feeling of fatigue occurs, you should take a break in work, during the transition - a small halt. In general, it is better to break the work (if time and circumstances permit) into small even segments, alternating with 5-10 minutes of rest.
If the supply of food is limited, the duration of the rest can be extended. In cold weather, on the contrary, reduce to 3-5 minutes, but rest more often. Work to the point of exhaustion and unjustified physical activity are unacceptable. For example, you can afford to take a leap at the end of a ski trip, when it is known for certain that in an hour there will be a rest at home. In an emergency, it is better to walk less, but also, accordingly, get less tired. What is important is not the momentary result of one day, but a uniform average daily transition, which can only provide a good rest.
Loneliness. Before a person who finds himself face to face with the elements, there are problems both physical and moral. It is difficult to equip a long-term campfire bivouac alone, it is difficult to make a path in the virgin snow, it is difficult to provide yourself with food, it is almost impossible, without special equipment, to organize reliable insurance when overcoming difficult terrain, etc.
A person who finds himself alone in emergency conditions is more susceptible to emotional stress, rapidly developing reactive mental states, and often deep depression.
When isolated from the outside world, people may experience auditory and visual hallucinations. We must strive to fill every minute with useful work that will distract from unnecessary thoughts.
In extreme cases, when loneliness begins to oppress so much that there is an urgent, obsessive need for communication, you can talk to yourself, inanimate objects, nature or distant people, discussing the current situation aloud. Often such a simple trick saved people who made long journeys from insanity.
Fear is a natural human reaction to a real or imagined situation that threatens life or health. It cannot be unequivocally stated that in an emergency, fear only harms or only benefits. It all depends on the specific circumstances in which the person finds himself. The same action, performed under the influence of a feeling of fear, in one case can save a person, in another - hasten his death.
Fear not only accompanies an emergency, but often anticipates it. Any unexpected event - weather deterioration, vehicle breakdown, loss of orientation, etc. - can cause a state of anxiety and anxiety, which, if the outcome of the incident is successful, is forgotten, and with a further increase in the threat, it develops into a stable feeling of fear.
For people who find themselves in an emergency, passive and reactive types of behavior are most characteristic.
Passive type of behavior. When faced with danger, such a person experiences a feeling of complete confusion. Clearly aware of the threat, he nevertheless cannot decide what to do at the moment, so as not to aggravate his situation. Dozens of options for action flash in my mind, but none seems to be the only correct one.
It can make erratic, meaningless movements: it starts to run, but immediately stops, starts talking and falls silent in mid-sentence, often looks around, etc. At such a critical moment, it is quite loud and clear to give a command to a person, indicate his place, explain his task.
Instant fright (as a result of an explosion, an avalanche, a meeting with a snake, etc.) can cause a sharp motor and mental retardation, in which a person freezes in a stupor and is unable to perform a single purposeful action. He cannot run, raise his hand, scream, realistically assess the threat.
Sometimes passive behavior in an emergency can be useful, for example, when meeting with a snake, some predatory animals, but in most cases the reaction of inhibition leads to tragic consequences.
The active type of behavior is characterized by an instant reaction (impulsive behavior). For example, a person bounces off a falling stone, runs from a fire, pushes a dangerous object away from himself. The scheme of action in this case is simplified to an unconditioned reflex - to be as far as possible from the source of danger.
In individual survival, an active type of behavior justifies itself in many cases, but in group survival it exacerbates the emergency situation. A person jumping sharply from a real or imagined danger can cause an avalanche, a rockfall, that is, endanger the entire group. A drowning person often seeks to stay afloat at the expense of his comrades, which complicates his rescue. Often people hurriedly left the ship, dooming themselves to death, instead of trying to keep it afloat. Sharp movements, running at an unexpected meeting with a snake or a predatory animal can provoke their attack on nearby people.
In case of accidents of vehicles (ships, aircraft), during natural disasters in poorly prepared tourist groups, one of the most dangerous manifestations of fear can be observed - mass panic. It is dangerous, first of all, by the uncontrolled growth of collective fear, which excludes the possibility of a rational assessment of the situation.
Panic is caused by:
- a state of anxiety experienced by a group of people for a long time;
- expectation of catastrophic consequences of the accident;
- lack of information about specific sources of danger and plans of group leaders;
- hunger;
- overwork;
- intoxication.
With a long stay in an extreme situation, fear can be expressed in the form of a depressive state or constant tension. In the first case, a person, having lost faith in the possibility of salvation, becomes passive, loses interest in what is happening, reacts sluggishly to threatening situations, often incorrectly; can sit for hours, staring at one point. Under pressure from outside, such a person is able to perform simple work, but without initiative and interest in the final result. With the further development of depression, hysterical reactions and even suicide attempts are likely.
In the event of neuropsychic tension, a person, on the contrary, is extremely concerned about the preservation of his life. He is afraid to drink from unusual sources, to eat unusual foods so as not to get poisoned, to sleep in snowy shelters so as not to freeze. When crossing in the desert, every moment he expects a meeting with poisonous snakes, in the tundra and taiga he fears the pursuit of wolves. In every unfamiliar object, in every natural phenomenon, he is looking for a hidden threat. Such a state practically excludes proper rest, leads to rapid exhaustion of forces, mental breakdowns, and numerous mistakes.
The feeling of fear is a reliable controller of danger. If it were not for him, the risk of making erroneous decisions, as a result of this, the number of victims and injuries in the group would have increased many times over.
People who are professionally and psychologically prepared for actions in emergencies can instantly assess the current situation, single out the main, directly dangerous for life, from a variety of factors, make the most correct decision and immediately implement this decision. It has long been noted that, for example, during natural disasters, the greatest personal organization and endurance are shown by people whose production activities are associated with work in special conditions - firefighters, sailors, etc.
The behavior of professionally trained people can be both passive and active, which reflects an adequate response to an extreme situation that has arisen.
Actions in an emergency. Almost all emergency memos recommend that victims stay at the scene of the accident or in its immediate vicinity, if the situation does not require immediate departure from the scene.
Staying in place, you should organize a camp, build a reliable shelter. This will help protect against bad weather and maintain strength for a long time, which is especially important if there are injured people in the group.
In addition, in parking conditions it is much easier to organize hunting, fishing, picking berries, mushrooms and other wild edible plants.
Such a survival tactic, as a rule, facilitates the actions of the search and rescue service, which has received information about the accident in a particular area. The logic of pedestrian traffic is difficult to predict, and it is sometimes very difficult to find a group of people who have crashed and left the scene of an accident.
Large-scale events to search and rescue people in trouble are not organized so often. In most cases, people, underestimating the dangers that await them on the route, due to their own carelessness, get into an emergency situation and are forced to take care of saving their lives on their own for quite a long time.
Relatives and acquaintances will be able to notice the absence of the missing travelers only after they do not return home by the appointed time, respectively, the rescuers will start the search with a delay. Very often, searches are stretched out for several days and even weeks, since the route of movement of a person or an unorganized group of people is usually known very approximately and only by the travelers themselves. Consequently, in the vast majority of cases, they can only rely on their own strength.
In accordance with two types of human behavioral reactions in an extreme situation (passive and reactive), two different tactics of autonomous survival can be distinguished - passive and active.
In active survival tactics, of particular importance is the ability to quickly and with the least losses to navigate the terrain, for example, to find a path leading from a forest thicket or desert to people. The success of an independent exit to settlements in an emergency largely depends on the ability of a person:
- determine the cardinal directions and navigate the terrain;
- identify areas where meeting with people is most likely;
- correctly organize surveillance in order to detect direct or indirect signs of the presence of people;
- to master the skills of tracking, i.e., to decipher the traces and marks found.
Active survival techniques in the absence of a compass, a map, a small supply of food and the inability to determine the location of the victims. The most important thing is to go to the first river or stream you meet on the way. Even a very small stream, if you follow it downstream, will lead to another, larger stream, which, in turn, will lead to a small river, and that one to a more full-flowing one.
The larger the river, the more likely it is to meet people near it. Settlements, industrial enterprises, forest cordons, rafting sites, fur farms, as a rule, are located close to the water. Near the reservoir it is easier to meet the road or path leading to the settlement.
Navigation is carried out along large rivers and lakes, which means that it is possible to send a fire or any other distress signal to a passing vessel. Shallow rivers are used by the local population for the transport of goods on small-draft boats and boats.
Hunting huts and lodges are also most often built on the banks of rivers and lakes. Therefore, the path down the river will almost always lead to people.
Near the river it is much easier to provide yourself with food. Edible plants grow near the reservoirs, fish live in the water, waterfowl in the coastal thickets, animals constantly go to the river to drink.
Down the river with a calm current, you can raft on a raft tied from dry logs. True, this must be done, observing all precautions, because even on a quiet river there can be dangerous rapids, waterfalls and other obstacles.
Rafting along the river, as well as moving along it on land, carefully inspect the banks: berths, piers, water intake pipes, buoys and buoys, leading signs, bridges, paths descending to the water, stacks of hay, nets drying on poles, boats turned over on the sand , domestic waterfowl are all signs of human presence.
In general, during the transition, pay more attention to the surrounding area. For example, the trees on the trees, the so-called lighthouse trees (trees with one top or trunk, cleared of branches to the middle of the height), will point to a path, road or hunting hut.
In some regions of the country, near a tall tree standing near a hunting lodge, the top is cut off, and around, along the perimeter of a large circle, sometimes over a kilometer in diameter, deep cuts are made on the trunks.
To facilitate orientation, before entering the route, take an interest in the form and principle of the location of marks adopted in the area.
When choosing a route, one should take into account the local seasonal migration of the population, which is typical for many regions of the country. For example, in winter in the Far North, motor transport is carried out along “winter roads”, which are laid in places that are completely deserted or difficult to pass in summer.
In summer, herds of deer graze in areas close to the coast of the Arctic Ocean, since there is less midges there, and in winter, on the contrary, they are driven away to the southern regions of the tundra and forest-tundra, where it is easier to get food for deer and fuel for shepherds. Seasonal cattle drives are also observed in the desert and steppe zones.
Tactics of passive ridicule. Once you decide to stay where you are, be sure to draw up a detailed action plan that includes:
- organization of a temporary camp;
- distribution of responsibilities among group members;
- conducting reconnaissance on the ground to determine its location;
- provision of signaling and communication.
In conditions of autonomous existence, when one has to rely only on one's own strength, it is especially necessary to know the methods of self-help and mutual assistance. Otherwise, people who find themselves in an emergency can worsen the condition of the victim by their actions.
Being able to provide first aid in time means saving the life and health of the victim.
Remember the general rules:
- do not touch or drag the victim to another place if nothing threatens him;
- do not set prolapsed organs;
- do not give water to an unconscious person;
- do not touch the wound with your hands;
- do not remove visible foreign bodies from the abdominal, thoracic or cranial cavity;
- do not leave the victim lying on his back without consciousness, especially with nausea and vomiting;
- do not remove clothes and shoes from the victim (it should be cut or torn);
- do not allow the victim to look at his wound.
When assisting, follow a strict sequence of actions. First of all, the causes that directly threaten people's lives or contribute to a further deterioration in their health should be eliminated. The injured should be taken out of the affected area and immediately begin to provide first aid: stop bleeding, perform artificial respiration, closed heart massage. After positive results are achieved, you can proceed to the following actions: clean the wound, apply a bandage, immobilize the broken limb, administer painkillers, comfortably place and calm the victim.

Knowing the basics of survival is a must for every person. Survival should be understood as active expedient actions aimed at preserving life, health and working capacity in conditions of autonomous existence.

These actions consist in overcoming psychological stress, showing ingenuity, resourcefulness, effective use of equipment and improvised means to protect against the adverse effects of environmental factors and meet the body's needs for food and water.

The capabilities of the human body, like all living things, are limited and are within very narrow limits. Where is the threshold beyond which changes in the functions of organs and systems become irreversible? What time limit can people who find themselves in certain extreme conditions have? How best to protect a person from the adverse effects of numerous and diverse environmental factors?

Experience shows that people are able to endure the most severe natural conditions for a long time. However, a person who is not accustomed to these conditions, who has fallen into them for the first time, turns out to be much less adapted to life in the wild than its permanent inhabitants. Therefore, the harsher the conditions of the external environment, the shorter the period of autonomous existence, the more strictly the rules of conduct must be followed, the higher the price that each mistake is paid for.

The natural environment and its physical and geographical conditions are of great importance for human viability. Actively influencing the human body, it increases or shortens the period of autonomous existence, promotes or hinders the success of survival. The Arctic and the tropics, mountains and deserts, taiga and the ocean - each of these natural zones is characterized by its own peculiarities of climate, topography, flora and fauna. They determine the specifics of human life: the mode of behavior, methods of obtaining water and food, the features of the construction of shelters, the nature of diseases and measures to prevent them, the ability to move around the area, etc.

The favorable outcome of autonomous existence largely depends on the psycho-physiological qualities of a person: will, determination, composure, ingenuity, physical fitness, endurance. The basis of success in the fight against the forces of nature is the ability of a person to survive. But this requires certain theoretical and practical knowledge.

The basis of human survival is his conviction that he can and must preserve health and life in the most severe conditions, that he will be able to use everything that the environment gives to his advantage.

Forced autonomous survival of a person can occur in the following cases:

¦ loss of orientation;

¦ deprivation of the vehicle;

¦ loss of a person who knows the area;

¦ natural disaster. The reasons for these cases may be:

¦ natural disasters, adverse weather conditions;

¦ transport emergency (shipwreck, plane crash);

¦ inability to navigate the terrain;

¦ inattention;

¦ overconfidence.

In any case, a person must know the factors of survival in the wild.

1.2. Human Survival Factors in the Wild

Survival factors are the reasons of an objective and subjective nature that determine the outcome of an autonomous existence (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Survival Factors

Practice has shown that out of the total number of people who find themselves in an extreme situation, up to 75% experience a feeling of depression, up to 25% - a neurotic reaction. Self-control retain no more than 10%. Gradually, over time, people either adapt or worsen.

Which reactions of a person who has fallen into extreme conditions - negative or positive - will prevail depends on the following factors.

The physical condition of a person that is, the absence or presence of chronic diseases, allergic reactions, injuries, injuries, bleeding. The age and sex of the person are important, since the elderly and preschool children, as well as pregnant women, endure the most difficult autonomous survival.

The psychological state of a person. Favorable psychological factors include the ability to make decisions independently, independence and resistance to stress, a sense of humor and the ability to improvise. It is important to be able to cope with pain, loneliness, apathy and powerlessness, overcome hunger, cold and thirst, as well as cope with other survival stressors.

Learning to act in autonomous conditions is a fundamental factor in survival. Much depends on the degree of professional training. A great success for a group that has fallen into autonomous conditions are crew members, professional military, doctors, and rescuers. The chances of survival for such a group increase significantly. However, this situation can create certain problems. The most prepared members of the group immediately become formal leaders, but depending on the specifics of their profession, they are trained to act, having the necessary equipment in their hands, to work in a team of professionals just like themselves. In an emergency situation, there is usually no equipment and special equipment, a professional can be alone, the lives of dozens of people who are in disarray and not ready to act in extreme situations depend on the decisions he makes. Under such conditions, a specialist should be not just a rescuer, a doctor, but also the best specialist in this field, have experience in acting in such situations, and have management skills in a crisis.

We list the main skills and abilities that a person who finds himself in a situation of autonomous survival in nature should possess:

1) the ability to calculate the required minimum amount of food and water;

2) possession of methods for the extraction and purification of drinking water in nature;

3) the ability to navigate the terrain with the help of a map, compass, GPS-navigators, other devices and without them;

4) first aid skills;

5) skills in hunting wild animals, fishing, tracking prey;

6) the ability to make a fire with the help of improvised means;

7) knowledge of the technology of building temporary shelters;

8) the ability to signal one's location with the help of intercom radio stations, tables, visual and gestural code signals.

Survival means is understood as a minimum of survival items that ensure a comfortable stay of a person in the wild under any weather conditions. This is a wearable emergency supply (NAP) with essentials.

Equipment

1) V matches with a sulfur head, previously dipped in wax, - 3 pcs.;

2) cherkash (a sulfur strip applied to the side of a matchbox), in half - 1 pc.;

3) sewing needle - 1 piece;

4) fishing hook - 2 pcs.;

5) fishing line and kapron thread - 5 m each;

6) potassium permanganate, activated carbon tablets - 3 cans;

7) painkiller tablets - 1 currency.

The case of NAZ is in a plastic bag with edges filled with melted wax, which is tied with an elastic band.

Application

¦ Matches and cherkash are means of making fire.

¦ Sewing needle with nylon thread - for repairing clothes, shelters, bags, backpacks, extracting splinters and removing ticks.

¦ Fish hook and fishing line - means of fishing.

¦ Activated carbon tablets and potassium permanganate for the prevention of food poisoning and water disinfection.

Wearable emergency supply in the maximum configuration

1) analgin, acetylsalicylic acid, nitroglycerin, validol, activated charcoal, corvalol, sodium sulfacyl, ammonia solution;

2) hypothermic package, tourniquet, sterile, non-sterile and elastic bandages, bactericidal adhesive plaster, hemostatic wipes, miramistin, adhesive plaster, cotton wool.

¦ Dehydrated dry food and vitamins.

¦ Water supply.

¦ Kettle.

¦ Toiletries.

¦ Petrol and gas lighters, waterproof matches.

¦ 2 flashlights with extra batteries and bulbs.

¦ Strong long rope.

¦ The ax is small.

¦ Tent or raincoat-tent.

¦ Raincoats, canvas suit, socks, hats, gloves, high boots (preferably rubber).

¦ Candles, dry fuel.

¦ Needles, threads.

¦ Fishing rods and fishing line.

Overwhelming Factors of Human Survival in the Wild

Hunger

It is especially important to know the typical symptoms of prolonged fasting. In the initial period, which usually lasts 2-4 days, there is a strong feeling of hunger. Appetite increases sharply. In some cases, burning, pressure and even pain in the epigastric region, nausea may be felt. Dizziness, headaches, stomach cramps are possible. The sense of smell is noticeably sharpened. Drinking plenty of water increases salivation. Man constantly thinks about food. In the first four days, a person's body weight decreases by an average of one kilogram daily, in areas with a hot climate - sometimes up to one and a half kilograms. Then the daily weight loss decreases.

In the future, the feeling of hunger weakens. Appetite disappears, sometimes a person even experiences some cheerfulness. The tongue is often covered with a whitish coating; when inhaled, a faint smell of acetone may be felt in the mouth. Salivation does not increase even at the sight of food. There may be poor sleep, prolonged headaches, increased irritability. With prolonged fasting, a person falls into apathy, lethargy, drowsiness.

And yet, hunger as a cause of human death in the practice of emergency situations is extremely rare. This is not due to the fact that people who are in trouble do not starve. Hunger was, is and always will be the eternal companion of an emergency. Hunger is terrible because it enhances the effect of other factors that affect a person. It undermines the strength of a person from the inside, after which a host of other ailments, no less dangerous than hunger, fall on him, which complete the job.

A hungry person freezes several times faster than a full one. He gets sick more often and suffers from illnesses more severely. With prolonged fasting, reactions slow down, intellectual activity weakens. Performance drops sharply.

Therefore, in the absence of food supplies, if it is impossible to provide for oneself through hunting, fishing, collecting wild edible plants, one should adhere to passive survival tactics, that is, expect help in the immediate vicinity of the accident site. In order to save energy resources without extreme need, you should not leave the shelter, you need to lie more, sleep, any vigorous activity - work inside the camp, transition, etc. - should be minimized, only the most necessary work should be done. Duties, and the duties of the duty officer include arranging firewood, maintaining a fire, repairing a shelter, observing the area, extracting water, should be carried out alternately, breaking day and night time into short 1-2-hour shifts. It is permissible to release from duty only the wounded, sick and young children. All other members of the emergency team must be involved in keeping watch without fail. With a large number of people, two attendants can be assigned at the same time. Such an order, first of all, is necessary to prevent outbreaks of apathy, despondency, pessimistic moods that may arise as a result of prolonged fasting.

Of course, if there is even the slightest possibility of providing oneself with food on the spot, every possible effort should be made to this.

Heat. Thirst

The concept of "heat" in relation to an emergency is the sum of several components: ambient temperature, solar radiation intensity, soil surface temperature, air humidity, presence or absence of wind, that is, it depends on the climatic conditions of the place where the accident occurred.

In addition, there are many special cases when a person, for one reason or another, may feel that he is hot. To do this, it is absolutely not necessary to climb into the inferno of the Central Asian deserts. It is possible to languish from the heat in the Arctic, for example, if the quantity or quality of clothes put on by a person does not correspond to the work he is currently doing. Situations are typical when a person, for fear of freezing, puts on all the clothes at his disposal, after which he begins to bravely brandish an ax, preparing firewood for a fire. Such unnecessary zeal at the moment leads to overheating of the body, increased sweating, and wetting of the layers of clothing adjacent to the body. As a result, a person, having finished work, quickly freezes. In such a case, heat is an ally of frost, as it deprives clothing of its heat-shielding properties. That is why experienced tourists, climbers, hunters prefer to undress when performing hard physical work, and dress warmly during rest.

In these cases, it is very important to constantly monitor your well-being, change clothes in time, and periodically rest.

Of course, the fight against overheating in the conditions described does not present any particular difficulties. And if any violation of the internal thermal balance occurs, then the victim himself is primarily to blame. The Arctic or the highlands are not the places where it is permissible to die from overheating.

It is much more difficult for a person in an emergency situation that happened in a desert or semi-desert zone. And this is explained not by the fact that it is very hot here, but by the fact that the heat enters into an overwhelming alliance with thirst.

Insufficient, as well as excessive, intake of water in the body affects the general physical condition of a person.

Lack of water leads to a decrease in body weight, a significant decline in strength, thickening of the blood and, as a result, an overstrain of cardiac activity. At the same time, the concentration of salts in the blood rises, which serves as a formidable signal that dehydration has begun. Loss of up to 5% of fluid occurs without any consequences for humans. But dehydration of the body, exceeding 15%, can lead to serious consequences and death. A person deprived of food can lose almost the entire supply of fat, almost 50% of protein, and only then approach the dangerous line. However, when it comes to fluid, the loss of "only" 15% of the fluid is fatal! A person can starve for several weeks, without water he dies in a matter of days, and in a hot climate this happens faster.

The need of the human body for water in favorable climatic conditions does not exceed 2.5–3 liters per day. Moreover, this figure is a liquid, not only used in the form of compotes, tea, coffee and other drinks, but also part of solid foods, not to mention soups and gravies. In addition, water is formed in the body itself as a result of chemical reactions occurring in it.

In total it looks like this:

¦ water itself - 0.8–1.0 l;

¦ liquid meals - 0.5–0.6 l;

¦ solid foods (bread, meat, cheese, sausage, etc.) - up to 0.7 l;

¦ water formed in the body itself - 0.3-0.4 liters.

In an emergency, it is especially important to distinguish true water hunger from the apparent one. Very often, the feeling of thirst arises not due to an objective lack of water, but due to improperly organized water consumption.

One of the manifestations of thirst is a decrease in the secretion of saliva in the oral cavity.

The sensation of initial dryness in the mouth is often perceived as a feeling of intense thirst, although dehydration as such is not observed. A person begins to consume a significant amount of water, although there is no real need for this. An excess of water with a simultaneous increase in physical activity leads to subsequent increased sweating. Simultaneously with the abundant excretion of excess fluid, the ability of body cells to retain water is impaired. There is a kind of vicious circle. The more a person drinks, the more he sweats, the more thirsty he feels.

An experiment is known when people who were not accustomed to normal thirst quenching drank 5–6 liters of water in 8 hours, while others in the same conditions managed 0.5 liters.

It is not recommended to drink a lot of water in one gulp. Such a one-time consumption of liquid does not quench thirst, but, on the contrary, leads to swelling and weakness. It must be remembered that the drunk water does not quench thirst immediately, but only after reaching the stomach, it is absorbed into the blood, that is, after 10–15 minutes. It is best to drink water in small portions at short intervals until full. Sometimes, in order not to waste water from a flask or emergency supply, it is enough to rinse your mouth with cool water or suck on sour candy, caramel. The taste of the lollipop will cause a reflex release of saliva, and the feeling of thirst will be greatly reduced. In the absence of a lollipop, it can be replaced with a fruit stone or even a small clean pebble.

With intense sweating, leading to leaching of salts from the body, it is advisable to drink lightly salted water. The dissolution of 0.5–1.0 g of saline water will have almost no effect on its taste. However, this amount of salt is usually enough to restore the salt balance inside the body. The most tragic effect of the heat is manifested in the summer in a desert area. Perhaps, in this zone, the heat leaves a person less chance of salvation than even the cold in the Arctic. In the fight against frost, a person has a considerable arsenal of means. He can build a snow shelter, generate heat by eating high-calorie food, protect himself from the effects of low temperatures with warm clothes, build a fire, keep warm by doing intense physical work. By applying any of these methods, a person can save his life for a day, two or three. Sometimes, using all of the above possibilities, he resists the elements for weeks. In the desert, only water prolongs life. There is no other way available to a person who finds himself in an emergency in the desert!

Cold

According to statistics, from 10 to 15% of people who died on tourist routes became victims of hypothermia.

Cold threatens a person to the greatest extent in the high-latitude zones of the country: in the ice zone, tundra, forest-tundra, - in winter - in the taiga, steppes and adjacent semi-deserts, in the highlands. But these zones are also heterogeneous in terms of temperature characteristics. Even in the same area, at the same time, the thermometer readings can vary by a dozen or more degrees. For example, often in river valleys, gorges and other depressions, the decrease in temperature as a result of the flow of cold air into the lowlands is much more noticeable than at elevated points of the relief. Humidity matters a lot. For example, in the Oymyakon region, which is the cold pole of the Northern Hemisphere, the temperature reaches -70 ° C (the minimum of -77.8 ° C was recorded in 1938), but due to the dryness of the air, it is quite easily tolerated. Conversely, the wet, typical for coastal areas frost, which envelops and literally sticks to the skin, causes more trouble. There, subjectively, the air temperature is always estimated lower than it really is. But perhaps the greatest, and in some cases decisive for human survival in low temperatures, is the wind speed:

¦ at an actual air temperature of –3 °C and a wind speed of 10–11 m/s, their total cooling effect on a person is expressed as a value of –20 °C;

¦ at -10 °C is actually -30 °C;

¦ at -15 °C is actually -35 °C;

¦ at -25 °C is actually -50 °C;

¦ at -45 °C is actually -70 °C.

In areas devoid of natural shelters - thick forests, folds of relief, low air temperatures combined with strong winds can reduce the time of human survival to several hours.

Long-term survival at sub-zero temperatures depends, in addition to the listed climatic factors, on the condition of clothes and shoes at the time of the accident, the quality of the shelter built, the availability of fuel and food supplies, and the moral and physical condition of a person.

In an emergency, clothing is usually able to protect a person from cold injuries (frostbite, general hypothermia) only for a short time, sufficient for the construction of a snow shelter. The heat-shielding properties of clothing depend primarily on the type of fabric. Fine-pored fabric retains heat best. If we take the thermal conductivity of air as a unit, then the thermal conductivity of wool will be 6.1; silk - 19.2; and linen and cotton fabric - 29.9.

Clothing made from synthetic materials and fillers such as synthetic winterizer, nitron, etc. has found wide application. In them, air capsules are enclosed in the thinnest shell of artificial fibers. Perhaps, synthetic clothing loses a little in comparison with fur in terms of heat transfer, but it has a number of other undeniable advantages. It is very light, almost not blown by the wind, snow does not stick to it, it gets wet a little when immersed in water for a short time and, which is very important, dries quickly.

Perhaps one of the best options is the use of multilayer clothing from different fabrics. Special studies have shown that 4-5 layers of clothing retain heat best. For example, a good combination is a tight cotton suit, a few thin, loose-fitting woolen pants and sweaters (2-3 thin sweaters are much more warm than one thick one, as an air gap forms between them) and a suit or overalls made of synthetic fabric.

Shoes play a very important role in emergency winter conditions. Suffice it to say that 8 out of 10 of all frostbites occur in the lower extremities. Therefore, a person who has had an accident in the winter period of time should first of all pay attention to the condition of his legs.

By all available means, you need to keep socks and shoes dry. To do this, shoe covers are made from improvised material, legs are wrapped with a piece of loose fabric, etc. All the material remaining after this is used to warm clothes and protect the face from the wind.

It is important to always remember that clothing, no matter how warm it may be, can protect a person from the cold only for a very short time - hours, rarely days. And if you do not use this time properly to build a warm shelter or to search for the nearest settlement, no clothing will save a person from death.

Very often, in an emergency, people prefer to set up cloth tents, build shelters from the wreckage of a vehicle, logs. They cling to traditional materials as their salvation. Wood and metal seem to be much more reliable than, for example, snow. Meanwhile, this is a mistake, for which you often have to pay with your own life!

When building shelters from traditional materials, it is almost impossible to achieve hermetic sealing of seams and joints of building materials. Shelters are “blown through” by the wind through and through. Warm air escapes through numerous cracks. Therefore, in the absence of stoves, stoves and similar highly efficient heating devices, the temperature in the shelter almost always coincides with the outside. In addition, the construction of such shelters is very laborious, often associated with the risk of increased injury. It is not uncommon for such a makeshift shelter to collapse under wind pressure or due to careless movement and put the group in critical conditions. Meanwhile, an excellent building material is literally under a person’s feet. This is the most common snow. Due to its porous structure, snow has good thermal insulation properties. It is easy to process.

Snow shelters - igloos, caves, houses, lairs, erected in one and a half to two hours, reliably protect a person from the effects of low temperatures and wind, and in the presence of fuel provide thermal comfort. In a properly built snow shelter, the air temperature rises to -5 ... - 10 ° C only due to the heat emitted by a person at 30-40-degree frost outside the shelter. With the help of a candle, the temperature in the shelter can be raised from 0 to +4 ... +5 ° C or more. Many polar explorers, having installed a pair of stoves inside, heated the air up to +30 °C. Thus, the temperature difference inside the shelter and outside can reach 70 °C.

But the main advantage of snow shelters is the ease of construction. Most snow shelters can be built by anyone who has never held a snow shovel or a snow knife in their hands.

The term of resistance to low temperatures to a large extent depends on the mental state of a person. For example, the feeling of fear greatly reduces the life of a person at low temperatures. Panic fear of freezing accelerates freezing. Conversely, the psychological attitude “I am not afraid of the cold. I have real opportunities to protect myself from its impact” noticeably increases the period of survival, allows you to reasonably distribute forces and time, and introduce an element of planning into your actions.

However, it must be remembered that it is almost impossible to win in single combat with the elements without fencing it off with a wall of snow bricks. All recognized polar authorities, including Stefansson himself, unanimously assert that a person who has fallen into a snowstorm can be saved only by a shelter built on time and nothing but a shelter!

The most important commandment in combat with the cold - stop in time!

It is impossible to overcome frost with physical strength alone. In such cases, it is better to play it safe - turn back a little earlier, set up camp, build a shelter, rest, etc.

In any case, in the event of an emergency in the winter, self-rescue of a person or a group of people should begin with the organization of a winter bivouac. Before the construction of a reliable shelter or the cultivation of a fire fire, it is not advisable to engage in other work. Even if there is a tent in the group, the construction of snow shelters must be recognized as mandatory. A tent can protect a person only from wind and rain, but not from frost. Only a person who has an unlimited amount of fuel can afford to wait out the accident in a tent. During the construction of a snow shelter, in addition to the main goal - protecting a person from cold injuries - a number of side effects are achieved, for example, snow building skills are developed. A person builds the next igloo or cave in a shorter time with less expenditure of energy.

Very often, spending the night in a snow shelter is preferable to spending the night near a fire. The construction of a cave or a house requires less effort and time than the preparation of a large amount of firewood, breeding and many hours of maintaining a hot fire.

The confidence that the presence of deep snow or crust guarantees a safe overnight stay, makes it possible even in an emergency to organize a transition, to overcome significant distances. The depletion of forces expended on the transition is to some extent compensated by the accumulation of experience in moving on snow, building snow shelters. The duration of vigorous activity with a normal supply of food can be 8–12 hours per day, respectively, 10 hours will be for sleep and rest, 1–3 hours for setting up a bivouac.

However, it should be taken into account that "passive" survival (waiting for help) at low air temperatures, especially in high latitudes, is always preferable to "active" (self-exit to people). The final choice of survival tactics, of course, depends on the specific situation in which the person finds himself.

The only possibility that guarantees one hundred percent luck not to suffer in an emergency winter situation is to prevent it.

It is known that the vast majority of winter emergencies are provoked not by "intrigues of nature", but by the wrong actions of the victims themselves - a weak level of preparation for the campaign, frivolity, and neglect of elementary security measures.

1.3. Rules of conduct in conditions of autonomous existence

There are a few simple rules that should be observed when going on a winter trip. If you are not completely confident in your abilities, doubt the quality of the equipment or the weather for the next few days, it is better to postpone the trip to a later date.

You can’t go on a risky journey without learning how to make a fire in the most adverse conditions, without building several “training” snow shelters with your own hands, without spending the night in them. Well, and, of course, it is categorically unacceptable to go on an “assault on the polar heights” without checking yourself in two or three easier trips.

In tents, clothes, equipment that you have to take with you, a double supply “for cold” should be structurally laid. Assuming to meet ten-degree frosts on the route, it is necessary to prepare for twenty-degree frosts. Here it is better to err on the big side.

Tents, fuel, food and other vital items of equipment should be evenly distributed among the members of the entire group. It is extremely dangerous to carry two or three tents or the entire food supply in one backpack. The accidental loss of it can put the group in a critical position.

Warm linen, sleeping bags are personal property, they must be carried by everyone in their backpack, not transferring to each other.

Each member of the group should have a small emergency kit with them, which includes: enhanced burning matches (“hunting”, “windproof”, etc.), a piece of candle or other combustible material, a small piece of plastic wrap, some food, in polar regions - a lightweight hacksaw or a long knife. Moreover, if it is permissible to carry large items in a backpack, but in a place where they can be quickly removed if necessary, then matches and a candle should always be carried with you, for example, sewn into the inner pocket of a windbreaker.

During the trip, you must constantly remember and strictly follow the rules for passing difficult sections, organizing a bivouac. It is impossible to change your initial decisions without extreme necessity, it is categorically unacceptable to hope for a chance!

It is also unacceptable to divide the group into two or more independent subgroups. There are few examples when the division of the group justified itself. In the overwhelming majority of cases, this only exacerbated the gravity of the situation.

While traveling, keep an eye on changes in the weather by listening to weather reports or observing the surrounding nature. Find out from the local population signs of approaching bad weather.

It should not be assumed that people freeze only "somewhere out there" - in the far North or on mountain peaks. Nothing of the kind, a considerable number of victims are collected precisely by suburban forests and even parks. Proximity alone does not guarantee safety. The cold is equally merciless everywhere. Minus thirty - minus thirty everywhere! Therefore, one should not neglect extra clothes and turn away from the offered sandwiches or a thermos with hot tea.

You can not build new roads, cut corners, trying to shorten the path, you must remember: the straight road is not always the shortest. If people have laid a ski track, then there are reasons for that.

You can not travel through the forest at dusk. It is necessary to be prepared for the fact that the weather will worsen, and the ski track will skid. Therefore, it is necessary to "tie" your route to "eternal" landmarks - rocks, single trees, blockages, accumulations of stones, etc.

You cannot walk alone. The fact that the city is one or two kilometers away does not save a person who has broken his leg or lost consciousness as a result of a heart attack. It is necessary to return immediately as soon as a person feels unwell or very tired.

In cold weather, especially with strong wind, it is necessary to constantly monitor your condition, avoiding general or local hypothermia. It is necessary to rub open areas of the skin that are directly exposed to low temperatures and wind, and warm the frozen limbs by all available means - rubbing, heating on the body, wide swings, etc.

1.4. Types of means and methods of sending distress signals

Signaling is not as easy as it might seem. Your alarm may go unnoticed. In addition, the inability to properly signal with certain types of personnel tools can cost you your life.

All means of distress signals are divided into service and improvised (type of means), as well as sound, visual and radio signals (the principle of signal transmission). Their main goal is to indicate your exact location for subsequent evacuation and emergency assistance in the form of dropping food, medicine, weapons and ammunition from the aircraft.

Staff funds

Radio distress signal (SOS). SOS distress signal (save our souls) … – … )) was adopted by the International Convention in Berlin on November 3, 1906, for its unimpeded reception every hour for 6 minutes (from 15th to 18th and from 45th to 48th) on "distress frequencies" - 500 and 2182 kHz - all radio stations in the world fall silent; silence sets in on the air, so that everyone who is in trouble can freely go on the air and give a distress signal, indicating the square of their location, or give them the opportunity to find themselves. To send this radio signal, you must have an emergency radio transmitter and know the basic use of this device and Morse code.

Visual signaling aids

Pyrotechnic means of signaling. These include:

¦ signal rockets;

¦ signal checkers;

¦ signal mortars.

These signaling means require the implementation of certain rules for use and storage:

¦ remember that they can shoot, treat these tools like weapons;

¦ do not repair them in case of malfunction;

¦ if a misfire occurs, do not use again;

¦ hold any pyrotechnic in your outstretched hand, turning the nozzle away from you;

¦ stay away from other people and from flammable objects, store these funds in boxes that are protected from shock and precipitation, give a signal from the closest possible distance and only when there is confidence that it will be noticed;

¦ Take the utmost precautions.

signal mirror. This is a polished metal plate with a hole in the middle (5-7 mm) through which you can follow the object.

The "sunbeam" launched by your mirror is detected even from an airplane that flies at an altitude of 2 km at a distance of 2025 km from your location. The mirror is effective even at night, probably, it can be called “letting moonbeams”.

Improvised signaling means

Reflectors. To indicate your location in the absence of a signal mirror, you can use a cosmetic mirror, foil, or a knife blade. The more polished the plate, the farther the light signal is visible.

Spread pieces of crumpled (this will increase the number of reflective planes) foil on the hill. Or attach the foil to a tree or a pole in a clear view area, it will rotate and give signals.

Kite. A kite can also serve you well. Make a frame out of thin boards, pull thin (preferably colored) paper over it, tie pieces of foil and bright ribbons to the tail of the snake.

signal flags. Hang on tall trees near your camp signal "flags" - bright pieces of matter. In order for them to be visible from above, stretch these "flags" along the ground. Tie one side of the fabric to bushes growing near the reservoir, and the other to stakes driven into the bottom of the reservoir.

Signal fire. If you don't have "flags", foil, pyrotechnics, or a flashlight, you can start a fire that is just as good as any other means. A bonfire located in an open area or a high hill is visible from afar. At night, a brightly burning fire is visible from a distance of 20 km when viewed from the sky, 8 km - when viewed from the ground. Even better, if there are several fires, the distance between them in this case should not exceed 20–30 m. However, for the idea to work, it is necessary to maintain a constant small fire near the fires, so you can make your “alarm” blaze in a short time.

Terrestrial code signals

In open areas, you can lay out the signals of the code table. The most banal HELP And SOS. The size of one signal must be at least 3 m. Remember, the larger the signal, the higher the likelihood that it will be noticed. You can make a signal from improvised means: aircraft wreckage, life jackets, clothes, logs.

You can not lay out the signal, but “dig it up”. To do this, remove the sod and deepen the trench. Such signals work both day and night (at night you can make a fire in the recesses). "Scatter" signals around the periphery, the more of them, the better.

Gesture code system for communicating with pilots

¦ "Here landing! We need help!” hands up, palms in, feet together.

¦ "Landing is impossible! We don't need help!" - Left hand up, legs together.

¦ "Straight" - arms raised, bent at the elbows, palms back. Legs shoulder width apart. Swinging the forearms back.

¦ "Back" - hands are raised forward to shoulder level. Palms forward.

¦ “Stop! Stop the engine” - cross your arms, the speed of this action corresponds to the degree of need to stop.

¦ "Hang up!" - arms to the sides, palms down.

¦ "Lower" - swaying down with straight arms, palms down.

¦ "Higher" - swaying up with straight arms, palms up.

¦ "Landing" - cross your arms in front of you below.

Questions for self-control

1. What types of survival factors do you know?

2. What is the role of anthropological factors in ensuring the safety of human life?

3. What is the role of material and technical factors in ensuring the safety of human life?

4. What is the nature of the impact of natural environmental factors on a person with autonomous existence in the natural environment?

5. What is the impact of environmental factors on a person with autonomous existence in the natural environment?

6. What are “survival stressors”? What is their impact on the human condition?

7. What are the first-priority actions for those in distress in a vehicle accident?

8. What are the first-priority actions of those who got into extreme conditions in nature?

9. What do you need to know (determine) in order to correctly assess the situation in order to make a decision on further actions for those who are in an extreme situation?

10. List the rules for safe behavior when leaving the scene.

11. List the rules of safe behavior while waiting for help at the scene.

12. What activities are included in the action plan for organizing a temporary camp?

13. What is the role and tasks of the group leader in conditions of forced autonomous existence?

14. List the basic requirements for temporary shelters.

16. What factors influence the choice of shelter type?

17. What natural shelters can be used to organize an overnight stay in an emergency?

18. What can serve as the simplest shelter in the warm season?

19. How can you spend the night under a canopy at low temperatures?

20. What shelters and how can be built from snow?

Aimed at preserving life, health and working capacity in conditions of autonomous existence.

Before people who find themselves in conditions autonomous existence, from the very first minutes a number of urgent tasks arise, the most important of which are:

• 
  overcoming stress caused by an emergency;
• 
  providing first aid to victims;
• 
  protection from the adverse effects of environmental factors;
• 
  provision of water and food;
• 
  determining your own location;
• 
  establishing communications and preparing means of signaling.

The solution of these and a number of other problems depends on the ingenuity and resourcefulness of a person, his ability to effectively use emergency equipment and available tools.

The main postulate of survival: man can and must preserve health and life in the most severe climatic conditions, if he manages to use everything that the environment gives to his advantage.

But this requires certain knowledge and experience.

The duration of the autonomous period depends on a number of objective and subjective reasons that can promote or hinder human activity.

All factors affecting the ability to survive can be divided into groups:

• 
  anthropological;
• 
  natural and environmental;
• 
  logistical;
• 
  environmental;
• 
  physiological.

Anthropological factors characterize the state of human health, the constancy of its internal environment, the reserve capabilities of the body.

Anthropological factors include:

• 
  psychological readiness;
• 
  moral and volitional qualities;
• 
  active-transformative activity that affects the predominance of positive or negative emotions;
• 
  the ability to act independently.

For an unprepared person, the environment is a source of all kinds of dangers, he is in constant anxiety. This state lasts from several minutes to several days.

Thus, an important task of training is to psychologically prepare a person to overcome a possible emergency, increase his emotional and volitional stability, teach him to correctly perceive and evaluate the current situation and act in accordance with the situation.

Natural and environmental factors - temperature, air humidity, solar radiation, precipitation, atmospheric pressure level, wind, etc.

People are able to endure even the most severe natural conditions for a long time. However, getting into them for the first time, they are poorly adapted to life in an unfamiliar environment. Therefore, the harsher the conditions of the external environment, the greater the effort required by the struggle for survival, the more strictly the rules of conduct must be followed and the more expensive the price paid for each mistake.

Logistical factors provide protective materials in conditions of autonomous existence: clothing, emergency equipment, food and water supplies, improvised means used for various purposes, etc.

Environmental factors risks arise as a result of human interaction with the environment (accidents, injuries, etc.).

Physiological factors risk - illness, natural disasters, heat, cold, hunger, thirst, fear, overwork, loneliness, improper organization of relations within the emergency group.

Lesson 1
Safe Behavior Rules
in conditions of forced autonomous existence

The main reasons for forced autonomous existence

Modern civilization, the technological revolution has surrounded a person with a certain comfort. The appearance of modern designs of ships, aircraft, cars, the creation of effective means of radio communication, television and household appliances changed his life, weaned him from living in the wild. It often happens that a person is torn out of his usual way of life (Scheme 1).

Imagine that this is happening in a deserted area, in the ocean, desert, impenetrable forest, tundra. In this case, the problem of autonomous existence (survival) in natural conditions immediately arises.

What is survival and autonomous existence?

Survival is an active activity aimed at preserving life, health and performance in extreme conditions.

Autonomous existence - finding a person in certain, often difficult, conditions of isolation, when the probability of assistance and the possibility of using technical and other achievements are limited or excluded.

The main condition that determines the success of survival or death is the mood of a person to get out of this situation, his desire to return home, moral obligations to loved ones and society, the consciousness that he still has a lot to do.

An emergency usually occurs suddenly, and its development cannot always be predicted. Therefore, the course of action in such situations depends on the specific situation.

The experience of many people who have been in extreme situations has made it possible to determine the general order of priority actions for those in distress (Scheme 2).

After leaving a dangerous situation that is directly life-threatening, it is necessary to decide what to do: wait for help on the spot or try to get to the nearest settlement.

The decision to remain at the scene of an accident is made when:

A distress call or a message about the scene is transmitted using an emergency radio station;
the scene of the incident has not been precisely determined, the terrain is unfamiliar and difficult to pass (mountains, forests, deep ravines, swamps, a thick layer of snow cover, etc.);
the location of the nearest settlement and the distance to it are unknown;
Most people are unable to move independently because of their injuries.

Having decided to stay at the scene of the accident, it is necessary to adhere to the basic rules of safe behavior that will allow you to survive and wait for the help of rescuers.

The decision to leave the scene of the accident is made if:

The exact location of the nearest settlement is known, the distance to it is small, the state of health of people allows to overcome it;
there was an immediate threat to life: a forest fire, a break in the ice field, a flood, etc.;
people cannot be detected by rescuers at this place due to the dense vegetation surrounding them;
for three days there is no communication and help.

At the scene of the incident, it is necessary to indicate the direction of your departure: lay out an arrow, make notches on trees, tie bunches of grass, etc.

Questions and tasks

1. What are the main reasons for the forced autonomous existence in natural conditions.

2. Give examples (from life, books or films) of people's survival in the natural environment. What qualities help people who are in trouble survive?

3. What are the first steps to be taken by those in distress in a deserted area?

4. In what cases do they decide to stay at the scene of the accident?

5. In what cases is it decided to leave the scene of the accident?

Exercise 1

From the following reasons, select those that can lead to a forced autonomous existence in natural conditions:

a) loss of part of the food;
b) untimely registration of the tourist group before going on the route;
c) loss of orientation on the ground during the campaign;
d) loss of compass;
e) accident of vehicles in the natural environment;
f) major forest fire;
g) lack of means of communication.

Task 2

Survival factors in conditions of forced autonomous existence include: personal factors, psychological factors, material factors, natural factors. There is a missing link in this chain. Find it.

Task 3

The order of actions in various emergency situations in the natural environment is not the same and depends on the specific situation. From the following cases, select those in which the team leader must decide to leave the scene of the accident:

a) the group cannot be found by rescuers due to the dense vegetation surrounding it;
b) the direction to the nearest settlement and its removal are unknown;
c) the scene of the incident is not precisely defined, the terrain is unfamiliar and difficult to pass;
d) there is no communication and assistance for three days;
e) there is an immediate threat to human life;
e) a distress call or a message about the scene is transmitted using an emergency radio station;
g) the exact location of the settlement is known, and the state of health of people allows you to overcome the distance to it.

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Rules of conduct in conditions of forced autonomous existence lesson

The main causes and problems of the forced autonomous existence of man in nature

The main reasons leading a person to a forced autonomous existence in natural conditions are singled out.

Emergency situations (ES) in the natural environment include:

— accidents in air and rail transport;

— accidents on sea and river transport;

- accidents and breakdowns of vehicles.

An emergency situation usually occurs suddenly, and its development cannot always be predicted in advance. In connection with this circumstance, the procedure in such situations depends on the specific situation.

Man, finding himself in conditions of autonomous existence in nature, must solve numerous and complex problems associated with his survival. This situation leaves a certain imprint on the state and behavior of a person. He finds himself in conditions for which he did not specially prepare, his life and health depend only on himself. The safety of a person in these conditions depends entirely on his spiritual and physical qualities, his general preparation for being in the natural environment and the ability to mobilize all his knowledge, life experience and skills to achieve a single goal: to survive and reach people in the natural environment that is familiar to humans. .

There are two groups of survival factors in conditions of autonomous existence (according to A.G. Maslov) - factors that affect the state of human health in an extreme situation of a natural nature:

Natural and environmental: air temperature, O2 content in the air, water sources, precipitation, relief, wind, air humidity, electromagnetic field disturbances, solar radiation, fauna, flora, changes in photoperiodism (polar day and night)

Stressors: overwork, physical pain, cold, heat, fear, loneliness, despondency.

And the factors that ensure survival in an extreme situation of a natural nature:

Anthropological: learning to act in conditions of extreme existence, the will to live, motivation, adaptability to climate conditions, moral and volitional qualities.

Physical condition: physical endurance, body reserves

Mental state: active-transformative activity, psychological readiness.

Logistics: clothing, rescue equipment, improvised means.

Emergency supply: radio communication equipment, signaling equipment, emergency food supply, camp equipment, emergency first aid kit, emergency water supply, emergency swimming facilities

Experience shows that people who, due to various circumstances, find themselves face to face with nature, can maintain their strength for a sufficiently long time, reliably and safely carry out their livelihoods, and protect themselves from adverse factors. When meeting unexpected obstacles along the way, you should not rush, you should try to find the least risky way to overcome them. You can’t panic, you need to conquer fear in yourself, control your emotions and actions. It should be remembered that a person who knows how to maintain self-control is more likely to survive in an extreme situation.

The natural environment and its physical and geographical conditions are also important for human life. Actively influencing the human body, it increases or shortens the period of autonomous existence, promotes or hinders the success of survival. Each of the natural zones determines the specifics of human life: the mode of behavior, methods of obtaining food, the construction of shelters, the nature of diseases and measures to prevent them, etc.

With an autonomous existence, a person has to deal with other stressors: physical pain, thirst, hunger, cold, heat, loneliness, overwork, despondency, etc. When these states occur, it is important to use purposeful actions to prevent the threshold values ​​(limits) of these psychological states from being exceeded. Achieve a training, rather than a destructive effect of stress. Otherwise, the human body, having exhausted its internal capabilities, will begin to collapse.

Physical pain. Physical pain is a reaction of the body that performs a protective function. A person deprived of volitional sensitivity is in serious danger, since he cannot eliminate the threatening factor in a timely manner. But on the other hand, pain causes suffering, irritates, distracts a person, and prolonged, strong, incessant pain affects his behavior, all his activities. Concentrating on solving some very important task, a person is able to “forget” about pain for a while, to cope with even very strong pain sensations, to overcome them.

Cold. By reducing physical activity and working capacity, a cold stressor affects the human psyche. Not only the muscles become numb, the brain, the will become numb, without which any struggle is doomed to defeat. Therefore, in a zone of low temperatures, for example in the Arctic, human activity begins with measures to protect against the cold: building shelters, making fire, cooking hot food and drinking.

Heat. High environmental temperatures, especially direct solar radiation, cause significant changes in the human body, sometimes in a relatively short time. Overheating of the body disrupts the functions of organs and systems, weakens physical and mental activity. Especially dangerous is the effect of high temperatures with a lack of drinking water, because in this case, along with overheating, dehydration of the body develops. The construction of a sunshade, the restriction of physical activity, the economical use of water supplies are measures that greatly alleviate the situation of people in distress in the desert or tropics.

Thirst. Thirst, being a normal signal for a lack of fluid in the body, if it is impossible to satisfy it due to a lack or lack of water, becomes a serious hindrance to human activity in the case of autonomous existence. Thirst takes possession of all his thoughts and desires, they focus on a single goal - to get rid of this painful feeling.

Hunger. The set of sensations associated with the body's need for food can be considered as a typical, albeit somewhat delayed, stress response. It is known that a person can go without food for a long time, while maintaining efficiency, however, many days of fasting, and with a lack of water in particular, weakens the body, reduces its resistance to cold, pain, etc.

Since the emergency food ration is usually designed for only a few days of subcompensated nutrition, the source of food supplies should be the external environment through hunting, fishing and collecting wild edible plants.

Overwork. A peculiar state of the body that occurs after a long (and sometimes short-term) physical or mental stress. Overwork is fraught with potential danger, because it dulls the will of a person, makes him compliant to his own weaknesses. It prepares a person for a psychological attitude: "This work is not urgent, it can be postponed until tomorrow." The consequences of this kind of installation can be very serious. To avoid overwork and quickly restore strength allows the correct, even distribution of physical activity, timely rest, which by all available means should be made as full as possible.

For proper movement in the natural environment, you need to know how to navigate the terrain. To live in natural conditions for at least one day, you need the ability to provide yourself with food and water, build a temporary shelter from the weather, and also take care of personal safety.

The Arctic and the tropics, mountains and deserts, taiga and the ocean - each of these natural areas is characterized by its own characteristics that determine the specifics of human life (rules of conduct, methods of obtaining water and food, building a shelter, the nature of diseases and measures to prevent them, ways of moving around the area ). The more severe the conditions of the external environment, the shorter the period of autonomous existence, the more stress the struggle with nature requires, the more strictly the rules of conduct must be followed, the more expensive the price that each mistake is paid for.

Conclusions on the first chapter

Autonomous existence is the most dangerous extreme or emergency situation, since the situation of a person who finds himself face to face with the natural environment usually arises unexpectedly and involuntarily, and outside help is problematic.

The autonomous existence of man in nature is his independent existence in natural conditions. The results of such a stay of a person in nature depend on his ability for a certain time, without outside help, to provide his vital needs for food, warmth, water, using the available reserves or gifts of nature.

The autonomous existence of a person in natural conditions can be voluntary or forced.

Voluntary autonomy is a situation when a person or a group of people, of their own free will, for a specific purpose, for a certain time, switches to an independent existence in natural conditions.

Forced autonomy is a situation when a person accidentally, due to circumstances beyond his control, finds himself in the natural environment and is forced to independently provide for his life needs in order to survive and return to people.

The main reasons leading a person to a forced autonomous existence in natural conditions are.

1. Natural emergencies (ES) are natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, storms, tornadoes, forest fires).

2. Extreme situations (ES) in the natural environment:

a) a sharp change in natural conditions (sharp cooling, heavy rain, snowstorm, snowstorm, heavy snowfall, frost, drought, etc.);

b) loss of orientation on the ground during a walk, hike, expedition;

c) loss of a group on the route during a walk, hike, expedition.

The favorable outcome of autonomous existence depends on many factors: physical and psychological state, water and food supplies, the effectiveness of emergency equipment, etc. The external environment and climatic conditions are important for ensuring human life in conditions of autonomous existence. The environmental factors affecting a person are very diverse. These are air temperature and humidity, wind, solar radiation and much more. From the psychophysical qualities of a person: will, determination, composure, ingenuity, physical fitness, endurance. But even these important qualities are sometimes not enough for salvation. People die from heat and thirst, not suspecting that a saving source of water is three steps away, freeze in the tundra, unable to build a shelter from snow, die of hunger in a forest teeming with game, become victims of poisonous animals, not knowing how to provide first aid. medical care for a bite.

The basis of success in the fight against the forces of nature is the ability of a person to survive. To survive means to act actively, expediently, applying one's knowledge, experience, ingenuity, using the available equipment and available means with maximum efficiency to protect against the adverse effects of the external environment and meet the body's needs for water and food. The main postulate of survival: a person can and must maintain health and life in the most severe climatic conditions, if he manages to use everything that the surrounding nature gives to his advantage.

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Home > Lesson

Topic: "Rules of conduct in conditions of forced autonomy in natural conditions."

Compiled by: Skotnikov Yu.Yu.

1. Introduce students to extreme survival factors

2. Tell about the body's responses.

3. To study the basic rules of behavior in conditions of forced autonomy.

4. Development of horizons.

5. Raising a sense of mutual assistance, camaraderie.

What is autonomous existence? (6 minutes)

This is the existence of one person or a group of people who, by chance, found themselves in an extreme situation, one on one with nature. It can be voluntary (if in a given situation there are people whose professions involve working in natural conditions, for example, geologists, oil workers, etc.) and forced.

Around unfamiliar, sometimes hostile harsh nature. Where should you focus your efforts to overcome difficulties? How to hold out until help arrives, saving life and health?

But this is not easy, and not only because the supply of water and food is limited, but, most importantly, a person in conditions of autonomous existence is adversely affected by various natural factors, which often turn out to be extreme, that is, extremely strong, causing a violation of the functional activity of the body bringing it to the brink of disaster. The human body responds to the impact of various stimuli with non-specific reactions aimed at maintaining homeostasis: the constancy of the internal environment. Such reactions are called stress. Under conditions of autonomous existence, these changes in the functional activity of organs and systems gradually increase, but remain reversible to a certain limit, i.e. return to normal after the elimination of influencing factors. This period is called the maximum allowable period of autonomous existence.

2. Survival Factors (8 minutes)

The duration of the maximum allowable period of autonomous existence depends on many reasons: subjective and objective, called survival factors. These factors can be conditionally divided into three groups: anthropological, natural and environmental, material and technical.

The first group includes the state of health, the body's reserve capabilities, which ensure its resistance to the effects of heat, cold, deprivation, etc., the constancy of the internal environment - homeostasis. It includes psychological readiness, motivation, volitional qualities, active-transformative activity, on which the predominance of positive or negative emotions will depend. Important elements of this group are learning to act in conditions of autonomous existence and the will to live.

The second group consists of environmental factors that have an adverse effect on the human body: temperature and humidity, solar radiation, wind, low barometric pressure, etc. It includes the physical and geographical features of the region of autonomous existence: flora and fauna, water sources, photoperiodism, etc. .

The third group combines factors that protect a person from environmental influences: clothing, emergency equipment, as well as improvised means used to build a shelter, make fire, give signals, etc.

3. Mental reactions (10 minutes)

Significantly complicates the autonomous existence of the occurrence of mental reactions caused by extreme exposure, the basis of which is fear.

The reaction of anxiety manifests itself either in a passive form - the cessation of vigorous activity, a kind of numbness, immunity to what is happening, a kind of paralysis of the will, or in an active form - panic, the desire to escape from ongoing events.

12-25% have hysterical reactions. They manifest themselves either in a sharp motor excitement, tears, sometimes in senseless actions that are inadequate to the situation, or in a deep stop - indifference to what is happening, complete inactivity.

Since a number of factors - cold, heat, hunger, pain, despondency, fear - lead to the development of stress, they began to be called stressors.

stressors arise as a result of human interaction with the environment: thermal and cold injuries, poisoning caused by the bite of poisonous snakes, arachnids, insects, eating the meat of some fish, mollusks, poisonous plants, contact with poisonous plants, infection with natural focal diseases, altitude sickness etc.

Pain. Injuries, inflammation, exposure to high or low temperatures, acids, alkalis, etc. accompanied by pain, which is a kind of protective reaction of the body. It is no coincidence that even in ancient times pain was called the “watchdog” of the body. Indeed, a person deprived of pain sensitivity can receive severe, sometimes fatal injuries, as he will not be able to timely eliminate the cause that threatens his health. But it is pain that can prevent a person from fighting and acting adequately. Therefore, provide first aid to the injured.

Cold. Heat. Reducing the physical activity and performance of a person, temperature aggressors affect the human psyche. Not only muscles become numb, but also the brain, will, without which any struggle is doomed to defeat.

Therefore, it is necessary to take shelter from cold, heat and wind, to protect the body from hypothermia or overheating, depending on the terrain and weather conditions.

Hunger. A person can go without food for a long time, while maintaining efficiency, but many days of fasting weakens the body, reduces its resistance to cold, pain, etc.

Thirst. Can cause more serious harm to the human body than hunger. Thirst, being a normal signal of a lack of fluid in the body, if it is impossible to satisfy it due to lack or lack of water, becomes a serious hindrance to human activity. Therefore, it is necessary to immediately establish the daily rate of consumption of water and food, and leave the emergency reserve as a last resort. Organize a search for food and water.

Overwork. This is a state of the body that occurs after prolonged physical exertion. It is fraught with potential danger, since the will of a person is dulled, making him compliant to his own weaknesses. To avoid overwork and quickly restore strength allows the correct distribution of physical activity, timely rest, which by all available means should be done as fully as possible.

Loneliness often has a strong impact on the human psyche.

"Complete loneliness is unbearable," said the fearless Alain Bombard, who wrote "Overboard of his own free will."

They struggle with loneliness in different ways - they read poetry aloud, try to remember the most pleasant moments in life, discuss their plans aloud, etc. They try to distract themselves with active physical work on home improvement, etc.

Panic. One of the most powerful emotional forms generated by fear. The word "panic" comes from the name of the ancient god Pan, who inspired people and animals with overwhelming horror. Panic is manifested by confusion and confusion. A person in a panic state always considers the situation mortally dangerous for life, loses control over his actions.

Only decisive action can stop the panic.

The chances of survival depend on the following factors:

The ability to apply existing knowledge and strictly comply with the requirements of staying in a particular area.

Reasonableness and initiative.

The ability to analyze and take into account their mistakes.

To survive means to solve the most important tasks:

Any way to eliminate the panic.

Analyze the situation and plan ways out of it.

Provide possible conditions for survival (be able to hide from cold, heat and wind, protect the body from hypothermia or overheating, set the daily rate of water consumption, and leave emergency supplies as a last resort, if necessary, make a decision on an independent exit to settlements, the tasks of accurately determining one’s own location, orientation on the ground.) The main task of autonomous existence is to survive with the least losses.

To test knowledge with students, a test is conducted (attached)

(Section "The Autonomous Existence of Man.")

1 . Choose indirect signs of edible plants

A) Bright color of fruits;

B) Bird droppings on the branches;

C) The bark is gnawed by animals;

D) Small height of plants;

E) The fruits are pecked by birds;

E) dried plant;

G) Many bones at the base of the tree;

H) The fruits of the plant were found in the nests;

I) The plant at the break secretes milky juice;

C) A plant with an unpleasant odor.

Answer: b, c, e, g, i.

2. By what signs can you determine the sides of the horizon?

A) By the slope of the tree;

B) By melting snow on the slopes of the ravine;

C) On the sloping side of the anthill;

D) By moss on a tree;

D) On mushrooms next to a tree;

E) On the branches on the trees;

G) According to annual rings on stumps;

H) Along the river;

I) In the direction of the animal trail;

K) in the direction of the wind

Answer: b, c, d, e, f, f.

3 . Select survival stressors:

A) physical pain

D) food poisoning;

Answer: a: f, g, h, i, k;

4 . To increase the survival of a person in an extreme situation, it is necessary:

A) To increase the level of training of specialists;

B) Finish high school;

c) Improve the performance of machinery and equipment;

D) Increase the level of mental and physical endurance;

D) know how to swim

E) Learn the right behavior in extreme situations

G) Be disciplined;

C) Know how to use a gas mask.

Answer: a, c, d, e, g

5. An emergency situation is:

A) A situation that helps to find a way out of a difficult situation;

B) A situation where a person experiences a feeling of joy and fun

C) A situation that contains a threat to life, health and property of a person.

6. From the following, select the reasons for forced autonomous existence in natural conditions:

A) loss of part of the food;

B) untimely registration of the tourist group before leaving c) on the route;

D) loss of orientation on the ground during the campaign;

D) loss of a compass;

E) accident of vehicles in the natural environment;

G) major forest fire;

H) lack of means of communication;

7. Going on a hike, you need to pick up clothes. What should she be?

A) Free and in several layers;

B) From synthetic materials;

C) plain or camouflage material;

D) Clean and dry.

8. How to build a fire? Specify the sequence of further actions:

A) Put kindling on the soil;

B) Put branches on the kindling;

C) Light a fire with two or three matches;

D) Prepare kindling and firewood;

D) Put logs and firewood on top of the branches;

E) Comply with fire safety rules;

Answer: d, a, c, b, e, f

9. Which plants can be used to make tea:

10 . Tell me the easiest way of the proposed methods of water disinfection.

A) Cleaning through a filter made of sand and matter;

B) Cleaning through a filter made of sand, cotton wool and matter;

C) boiling water;

D) Adding potassium permanganate to the water.

11. Give the correct answer. When bitten by a venomous snake:

A) Suck the poison out of the wound;

B) Apply a tourniquet; C) Drink more water and tea

D) see a doctor

D) deliver the patient to a medical institution;

E) Limit mobility;

G) Cut the wound;

i) drink alcohol;

K) Sprinkle the wound with earth.

Answer: a, c, d, e, f.

Giving marks with comments for the work on the tests. The teacher determines the degree of assimilation of the material and, if necessary, makes corrections.

Prepare for practical exercises on:

1. Preparation for a hiking trip;

2. Determining the sides of the horizon in various ways (at least 5-7);

Tests: (OBZH, Grade 10)

Rules for safe behavior in conditions of forced autonomous existence

The location of people to rest and spend the night in a natural environment is.

• Voluntary autonomous existence of man in nature

When is the decision to stay at the scene of an accident made?

• A If within 3 days there is no communication and assistance
• B If the location of the incident is not exactly determined
• IN If there is an immediate threat to life
• G If most of the people were seriously injured

• Priority actions for those in distress

The angle between the direction to the north (in the Southern Hemisphere - to the south) and the direction to any given object is called ...

• A Geodesy
• B Azimuth
• IN Odometer
• G Horizon

• Rules of conduct in conditions of forced autonomy in natural conditions

Which of the following is NOT a survival factor in a forced autonomous existence?

• A Personal factors
• B Psychological factors
• IN material factors
• G natural factors

• Factors and stressors of survival in natural conditions

• A hut
• B igloo
• IN wigwam
• G Dugout

• Construction of temporary housing

What is the name of the temporary home shown in the picture?

• A hut
• B igloo
• IN wigwam
• G Dugout

• Construction of temporary housing

What is the name of the temporary home shown in the picture?

• A hut
• B igloo
• IN wigwam
• G Dugout

• Construction of temporary housing

What type of fire is intended for cooking, camp lighting?

• A Signal
• B fiery
• IN Zharovoy
• G The simplest hearth

What type of fire is designed to cook large amounts of food, dry things, and keep people warm.?

• A Signal
• B fiery
• IN Zharovoy
• G The simplest hearth

• Making and using fire

What type of fire is designed for cooking with minimal fuel consumption?

• A Signal
• B fiery
• IN Zharovoy
• G The simplest hearth

• Making and using fire

What type of fire is designed to signal and indicate its location?

• A Signal
• B fiery
• IN Zharovoy
• G The simplest hearth

• Making and using fire

At solar noon in the northern hemisphere, the direction of the shadow indicates:

• A South
• B North
• IN West
• G East

• Orientation by the Sun, Moon, stars

The winter dwelling of the Eskimos from wind-compacted snow or ice blocks is.

• Construction of temporary housing

The simplest light shelter is a structure made using weaving technologies from poles and sticks covered with branches, turf, grass - these are:

• Construction of temporary housing

A conical shelter made of poles, covered with birch bark, felt or deer skins is.

• Construction of temporary housing

What should be the shadow cast by objects in the morning?

• A Long shadow to the east
• B Short shadow to the east
• IN Long shadow to the west
• G Short shadow to the west

• Rules of conduct in conditions of forced autonomy in natural conditions

Which of the following is an extreme situation?

• A Flood
• B Loss of orientation on the ground
• IN Cold snap
• G forest fire

• Rules of conduct in conditions of forced autonomy in natural conditions

You have taken refuge in the snow cave you have equipped. The existing burner illuminates and warms the shelter. Which burner flame color should you not worry about?

• A with yellow
• B with blue
• IN with red
• G for any

• Rules of conduct in conditions of forced autonomy in natural conditions

In the Arctic in winter, water is obtained from snow and ice. For drinking water you will use:

• A young ice
• B dense packed snow
• IN old ice
• G top fresh layer of snow

• Rules of conduct in conditions of forced autonomy in natural conditions

When driving a car along a taiga road in winter conditions, your car engine suddenly stalled. All attempts to launch it are futile. Overnight stay ahead. There is antifreeze in your car's radiator. There is a first aid kit in the cockpit. What will you use to start a fire, given that you do not have the means to make a fire, and the battery is dead?

• A antifreeze and ammonia
• B potassium permanganate (potassium permanganate) and antifreeze
• IN gasoline, antifreeze, ammonia
• G antifreeze, cotton wool, iodine

• Rules of conduct in conditions of forced autonomy in natural conditions

• the task is not related to the specified topic
• wrong answer given
• task was written incorrectly
• other

Rules for safe behavior in conditions of forced autonomous existence

Sections: life safety fundamentals

Educational questions.

The main reasons for forced autonomous existence.

Priority actions for victims of disaster.

repeat the reasons for the forced autonomous existence and the priority actions of those in distress;

to work out the skills of safe behavior in case of getting into conditions of forced autonomous existence.

Lesson type: repetitive generalizing.

- what is autonomy?

- the reasons for falling into conditions of forced autonomy.

Group work:

- multi-level creative tasks

Review the main points by asking students questions about the lesson material:

- What are the basic principles of survival in natural conditions with forced autonomous existence.

- What qualities help people who are in trouble to survive?

- What are the first steps to be taken by those in distress in a deserted area?

- In what cases do they decide to stay at the scene of the accident?

- In what cases do they decide to leave the scene of the accident?

Homework. Find examples of a person falling into forced autonomy in natural conditions from artistic or journalistic sources.

A twelve-year-old boy, resting in the village with his grandmother, went into the forest for berries and got lost. The weather is cloudy, the sun is not visible. The old path is visible ahead. Think and answer what the boy should do.

A group of tourists from five people got into an extreme situation in the summer. One of the tourists sprained his leg, the other had a fever. Both victims are unable to move independently. Help may not arrive earlier than in two or three days. The nearest town is about 200 kilometers away. There is no tent. Think about what you would advise the leader in the group to do.

In the summer, during a flight over the taiga, the helicopter engine failed. The crew managed to land the car in a clearing. The fault cannot be fixed locally. Food and utensils are missing. The search for the crew could take several days. Think and answer what the crew members should do.

A group of tourists got into an extreme situation and are waiting for the arrival of rescuers. Think about and answer how and with what help they can help rescuers locate them and understand the situation.

A group of guys during the trip staged a game of hide and seek. As a result, two guys got lost. Think about what the rest of the guys should do.

During the hike, one of the tourists fell behind the group. His absence was noticed after 1.5 hours. Think about what the whole group and the lagging tourist should do.

Multi-level creative tasks.

Using plasticine, build a “well” fire layout, taking into account all fire safety requirements.

Solve the crossword and write down the keyword:

xn--i1abbnckbmcl9fb.xn--p1ai

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