Roman city on the mountain of healing springs
The beginning of the history of the Hungarian state is closely connected with the history of its capital, Budapest. It was here, on the Buda side, that about two thousand years ago the ancient Romans founded the city of Aquincum, which became the capital of the province of Pannonia, which was part of the Great Roman Empire. The question of why the Romans chose this particular place for their settlement is not difficult to answer. An extremely convenient strategic position on the top of a hill, many mineral springs (by the way, the name of the city of Aquincum comes from the Latin word “aqua” water), a natural border, which became the wide Danube these are, perhaps, the main factors that influenced the choice of the Romans . Aquincum was both a military camp and a civilian city. The ruins of the ancient amphitheater, as well as the remains of the houses of the ancient prototype of Budapest, have survived to this day and are one of the most interesting city attractions. However, internal strife and constant raids by Asian and Germanic tribes gradually led to the collapse of the once powerful empire. Pannonia, as well as its other regions, were in danger.

Tribes from the East
In 430, huge hordes of Huns, led by King Attila, began to rapidly advance across the territory of the once powerful empire, sweeping away Roman troops in their path like specks of dust. Despite the fact that the Roman Empire had to give up a significant part of its territories to Asian tribes, Rome itself managed to survive thanks to a petition for peace from the Pope. However, Attila soon died under very mysterious circumstances, the Huns, having lost their leader, were forced to return to Central Asia, and the powerful empire collapsed.
Following the Huns, many other tribes fought among themselves for the lands that now make up the state of Hungary. Among them were the ancestors of modern Hungarians - the Magyars. The history of this nomadic tribe is as follows. Initially, the Magyars lived in the steppes of the Southern Urals on the territory of modern Bashkiria, from where they, along with seven other tribes and three allied ethnic Khazar clans that deviated from Khazaria and began to be called Kavars, migrated through the territory of Ukraine to the lands of present-day Hungary (the steppes of the Middle Danube). Later, the name of one of the Turkic tribes, Onogurs (lat. hungarus), which, having changed, was fixed in European languages, spread to them. The Magyars were skilled horsemen and often raided the Holy Roman Empire and Central Europe, gradually becoming the scourge of Western Christianity. However, having suffered a number of serious military defeats, they decided to confine themselves to the territory that is now Central Hungary.

State formation
Following the settlement of the territory of Central Hungary, a period of unification of the Magyar tribes into a single nation began. Prince Geza established centralized power in the newly formed state and adopted Christianity. His son Vayk, who received the name Istvan at baptism, was crowned as the first Hungarian king in 1000 and received the signs of royal power from the hands of the legate of Pope Sylvester II. However, it should be noted that in those distant times, Budapest did not yet have the status of a capital, since the royal palace was located in the city of Székesfehérvár, and the main religious center was Esztergom, the residence of the head of the Hungarian Catholic Church.
Istvan had to face the problem of pacifying the newly formed class of nobles and strengthening ties with Rome. Despite these and other actions useful for strengthening statehood, Istvan did not resolve one very important issue - he did not establish the principle of succession to the throne. That is why immediately after the death of the king, a long period of unrest, palace intrigue and struggle for the throne began. Only at the beginning of the 13th century, under King András II, was the law on rights “Golden Bull” issued, on which every Hungarian king subsequently took an oath. This important document finally determined the position of the nobles: firstly, the Golden Bull, like the English Magna Carta, guaranteed representatives of this class personal freedom, exemption from taxes and compulsory military service outside the country, and secondly, for the nobles from now on, the right not to recognize illegal royal decrees was secured. Some time after the publication of the bull, annual congresses of the National Assembly were announced to control and, if necessary, bring to justice the highest royal officials. These assemblies were held in Pest, which contributed to the gradual strengthening of the prestigious status of this part of the city.
Despite all the obvious successes in strengthening Hungary as a single state, in 1241 an event occurred that stopped the further development of the country for a long time - the invasion of the Mongol hordes. Most of the Hungarian cities were devastated and plundered.
The next Hungarian king, Bela IV of the Arpad dynasty, decided that the country needed a strong and reliable fortification and defense system, and therefore ordered the construction of a number of powerful fortified fortresses, one of which was Buda, located on a high hill. During the same period, the development of cities took place, which in the future formed the capital of Hungary. Once small settlements located on opposite sides of the Danube, Buda and Pest, thanks to the influx of traders and artisans from all European countries, gradually began to turn into large cities. The territory of the country itself expanded, which during the reign of King Lajos I the Great turned into a large Slavic power: its southern borders reached Bulgaria, and the Romanian principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia) paid tribute to Hungary. The exorbitant ambitions of the next Hungarian ruler, King Sigismund, who launched an unsuccessful campaign against the Turks in 1396, became one of the reasons for the subsequent Ottoman invasion of Europe. Thanks to the Battle of Nándorfehérvár (now Belgrade) in 1456, in which Hungarian troops under the command of commander János Hunyadi defeated the Turks, the conquest of Hungary by the Ottoman Empire was delayed by almost a hundred years.

King Matthias and the Golden Age of the Hungarian State
In 1458, the 16-year-old son of Janos Hunyadi, who went down in history as Matthias (Matthew) Corvinus, was elected the new king of Hungary. The reign of this king is rightfully considered a golden age in the history of Hungary. It was under Matthias that Buda turned into a major center of the Renaissance: magnificent palaces were built here, the largest royal library on the continent was established, which established the title of a cultural center for the city. Matthias's wife, Queen Beatrice, was Italian, thanks to which many elements of the culture of this country penetrated into Hungary. Very often, in various sources, the years of Matthias’s reign are called a time of justice, progress and all kinds of prosperity. He managed not only to strengthen the monarchy and unite the nobility, but also to create a combat-ready mercenary army, which posed a serious threat to the Ottoman troops. This army was called the “black legion”.
After the death of Matthias, the Polish Jagiellon dynasty established itself on the Hungarian throne and, as has often happened in the history of Hungary, the era of prosperity and well-being was replaced by a period of civil strife. Confusion and vacillation in the central government led to a weakening of the country's military power and the dissolution of the “black legion.” Buda soon lost its high status as a cultural center, and in the first decades of the 16th century, a wave of peasant uprisings swept through almost all of Hungary. The largest of these was the uprising led by György Dozsa. Brutally suppressed by the forces of the nobles, it marked the beginning of a series of harsh measures taken against the peasants. So, for example, in 1222, two new laws appeared in the “Golden Bull”: one of them stated that from now on peasants would be deprived of all civil liberties that they had before, and the second prohibited representatives of this class from having any or weapons. Against the backdrop of the newly begun campaign of the Ottoman Empire's troops against European states, the situation in Hungary was simply catastrophic.

Turkish yoke
On August 29, 1526, one of the most infamous European battles took place, called the “Battle of Mohács.” The Turkish army was led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the Hungarian army was led by King Lajos II. The battle took place in Southern Hungary, on the right bank of the Danube. The Hungarians suffered a crushing defeat, losing most of their troops killed and wounded. Lajos II fled the battlefield and drowned in the Cele River.
After the victory, Turkish troops freely entered Buda, plundered the royal palace and left the city with rich booty, finally setting it on fire. However, despite this, Hungary came under Turkish occupation only 15 years later. In 1541, the Turks occupied both cities, Buda and Pest, and held them under their rule for almost 150 years. Only in 1686, a united army under the leadership of Charles of Lorraine, after a long and difficult siege, managed to liberate the cities, which at that time were small settlements with a very small number of inhabitants. It should be noted that the solemn event was celebrated throughout Europe: fireworks, folk festivities and thanksgiving processions took place in many cities from Rome to Amsterdam and from Venice to Madrid.
However, it was too early to celebrate the victory, because some occupiers were soon replaced by others.

Habsburgs
Generally speaking, long before the expulsion of the Turks from the territory of Hungary, the northern and eastern regions of the country belonged to this most powerful European dynasty. After the liberation of Buda, Pest and other cities captured by the Turks, almost the entire territory of Hungary came under the control of the Habsburgs.
The Habsburgs established a military dictatorship in Hungary, trying to protect themselves from possible unrest among the nobles. Unrest could arise primarily on religious grounds, because after the Hungarian Diet of 1571, Catholics and Protestants in this country were given equal rights, while in most other European countries the struggle between these two movements was still ongoing. The bloody massacre of a mass of Hungarian Protestants, called the “Pryashev Massacre,” caused a wave of protest among the nobility. The situation became more tense every day and eventually resulted in an uprising led by the grandson of the Transylvanian prince György II Ferenc Rákóczi. This uprising lasted five years from 1703 to 1708 and, despite the fact that Rakoczy's army managed to win a number of battles, it ended in the defeat of the Protestants in the final battle of Tencin.
Nevertheless, the Habsburgs learned a lesson from this event, as evidenced by the Peace of Satmar, concluded on April 30, 1711. Under its terms, all rebel nobles, including Rakoczi himself, received a full amnesty and their estates back, provided that they recognized the power of the Habsburgs. Moreover, the Austrian administration promised the Hungarians government "in accordance with their own laws and customs." Ferenc Rakoczi, later called by historians the “stubborn Don Quixote,” did not recognize the Satmar Peace and emigrated to Turkey.
Realizing the important strategic and political importance of Buda and Pest, after the end of the uprising the Habsburgs began to actively invest money in the development of these cities. A period of special prosperity occurred during the reign of Empress Maria Theresa (1740–1780). At the same time, there was a closer rapprochement between the Austrian and Hungarian peoples, especially among the nobility. Gradually, Pest turned into a rich trading city, mainly thanks to the deep Danube, along which merchants from all European countries brought their goods here. The rapid development of the city caused a new wave of emigrants (mostly Serbs and Jews), who contributed to the further economic and cultural development of the city.
For most of the 18th century, the socio-political situation in Hungary was calm. Remaining a predominantly agricultural country, it was a kind of “food basket” of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Well aware of this fact, the Habsburgs sought to secure Hungary's status as one of the important imperial powers. Buda and Pest continued to grow and develop, where extensive redevelopment was carried out: buildings in the imperial spirit appeared, beautiful boulevards appeared, like in Vienna. To be fair, it should be noted that the main reason for such a global restructuring of cities was the severe flood that occurred in 1838, as a result of which the waters of the Danube destroyed a significant part of the buildings, mainly on the flat Pest side.
One of the most outstanding personalities who lived in this era was Count Istvan Széchenyi, who received the title of the greatest Hungarian for his services to the fatherland. A widely educated man, a passionate admirer of the arts and a traveler, Széchenyi dreamed of his country becoming one of the leading European powers. It was he who was the founding father of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, carried out a number of important democratic reforms, and ordered the construction of the first permanent bridge connecting Buda and Pest and which later became the main symbol of the united city. We are talking about the famous Chain Bridge, which is also often called the Széchenyi Bridge.

Hungarian Revolution and War of Independence
Gradually, many Hungarians began to feel deceived, realizing their own lack of rights in their home country. Such sentiments in society and the tense situation in Europe ultimately led to the fact that 1848-1849 became the period of the Hungarian Revolution and the War of Independence. The opposition was led by Lajos Kossuth, a journalist, politician and revolutionary figure. On April 14, 1849, a meeting of the State Assembly was held in the Great Protestant Church of Debrecen, at which Kossuth read the Declaration of Independence and announced the overthrow of the Habsburgs. Executive power passed to Kossuth, who was appointed supreme ruler, and the council of ministers. To suppress the uprising, the Habsburgs resorted to the use of military force. In addition to the Austrian army, a corps of Russian troops sent by Nicholas I to help Emperor Franz Joseph took part in suppressing the uprising. In one of the last battles with the Cossacks of Paskevich at Shegesvar (now this city is called Sighisoara and belongs to the territory of Romania), the Hungarian poet Sandor Petőfi died.
The Hungarian National Army suffered a crushing defeat. Having won, the Habsburgs did not compromise with the Hungarians, but began large-scale repressions against the rebels, during which many prominent government figures were executed. In addition, in order to combat Hungarian separatism, the entire territory of the former Kingdom of Hungary was divided into administrative districts, along with other provinces of the empire. The time has come for absolutism. Despite all this, the country's population continued to maintain opposition sentiments and insist on the restoration of the Hungarian constitution.

Austria-Hungary: progress and prosperity of the new empire
Defeat in the war with Prussia prompted Austria to create dualism, in other words, to grant Hungary (which also included Transylvania, Banat and Croatia) complete autonomy. At a meeting of the State Assembly in February 1867, the restoration of the Hungarian constitution was announced, a special responsible ministry was established headed by Count Gyula Andrássy, and financial relations between the two countries were regulated. Hungary becomes separated from Austria by its own state structure, but united with it by a dynasty and some common departments (in particular, military and foreign affairs). In June 1867, Emperor Franz Joseph was crowned King of Hungary in St. Matthias Cathedral. The period between 1867 and the beginning of the First World War began to be called the golden age of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, one of the most significant events of which was the unification in 1873 of Buda, Pest and Óbuda (the ancient city of queens on the Buda side) into one city Budapest. The population of the newly formed capital grew more and more, and various industries began to develop here. Among other things, Pest became the center of a new railway system, a large network covering the entire empire. Most of the new municipal buildings are located on the Pest side. The same period also saw a special flowering of Hungarian culture, in particular theater and literature. People of art and the intelligentsia loved to gather in numerous coffee houses, which were in no way inferior in their sophistication to those in Vienna.
In 1896, magnificent celebrations took place to mark the millennium of the Hungarians’ “finding their homeland.” The construction of the Földatti metro line (now the First metro line), the underground railway to Heroes' Square, and the founding of the Városliget Central City Park were timed to coincide with these celebrations. By mid-century, Budapest had become one of the favorite destinations among wealthy European travelers, and the city's cultural life had reached its peak. However, the events of subsequent years clearly showed how fragile the greatness of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was.

First World War and its consequences
On June 28, 1914, nineteen-year-old terrorist Gavrilo Princip shot and killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in Sarajevo. This murder became the reason for the outbreak of the First World War. Emperor Charles IV, who ascended the throne, could no longer contain the disintegrating Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Habsburg dynasty lost the reins of power and became a thing of the past. Weakened by four years of war and torn by internal political divisions between the Bolshevik forces supported by the Soviet Republic and the center right, the country was unable to influence subsequent peace negotiations. Plus, Romanian and Czech troops, supported by France, occupied part of the territories of Hungary.
On June 4, 1920, the Entente powers concluded the Treaty of Trianon (named after the palace at Versailles). According to it, Hungary lost 2/3 of its territory, millions of Hungarians remained on the other side of the new state borders. The 1920-30s in Hungary were marked by an increase in pro-Nazi sentiment. Miklos Horthy became the main political figure at this time. Due to the fact that the Entente states categorically objected to the reign of the Habsburg dynasty, before the candidacy of a new king was determined, a new post of regent was established, which went to Horthy. The main desire of this ambitious politician was the return of Hungary to its former borders, which prompted Horthy to decide to enter into an alliance with Germany. Since that time, anti-Semitic sentiments began to intensify in Hungary, especially in Budapest, and with each passing day the rights of the Jewish part of the population are reduced more and more.

The Second World War
Having gone over to the side of Nazi Germany, Hungary found itself drawn into the Second World War that soon broke out. In exchange for a promise to return the lands of Transylvania and Slovakia to Hungary, the Hungarian government agreed to provide assistance to the Germans and made a fatal decision for the country to send troops to the Soviet Union. After brutal battles at Stalingrad, all troops fighting on the side of Nazi Germany were forced to capitulate. By the time Soviet forces arrived on the territory of Eastern Europe, Budapest had already become one of the main targets of the countries allied with the Entente. Seeing that the war was lost, Horthy tried to bring the country out of the current situation by initiating separate negotiations with the Soviet government. However, they were thwarted because Hitler, not trusting his “ally,” brought German troops into Hungary.
The spring of 1944 marked the beginning of Nazi terror in the country: within seven weeks, about 565 thousand Hungarian Jews were killed, including 430 thousand who were sent to concentration camps. From 30 to 70 thousand gypsies shared their fate. One of the embankments of Budapest is lined with boots and women's shoes. This is a monument to Jews who were shot by the Nazis right on the banks of the Danube.
Despite the rapid advance of the Soviet army, the Germans decided to provide last resistance to the enemy forces, choosing Budapest as a stronghold. As a result of heavy fighting that lasted for several months, the city was almost destroyed, many historical buildings turned into ruins. On April 4, 1945, after a fierce battle near the royal palace, German troops finally capitulated. On April 12, hostilities on Hungarian territory were finally stopped.

Post-war period
On January 1, 1946, the Hungarian People's Republic was proclaimed, and two years after this event, the Communist Party merged with the Social Democratic Party, forming the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, which for many years became the only ruling force in the country. The orthodox Stalinist Matthias Rakosi was elected its general secretary. The beginning of the 50s became a period of mass terror and repression against those who were not supporters of the pro-Stalinist Hungarian regime. Only Stalin's death in 1953 gave Hungarians hope for the possibility of democratic change. The initiator of changes in the course of the Hungarian Communist Party was Prime Minister Imre Nagy, who replaced the odious Rakosi in his post. The "revolution of minds" that followed a series of reforms carried out by Nagy led to the Hungarian uprising in October 1956. This revolution prompted the intervention of the Warsaw Pact forces on November 4, 1956. After the uprising was crushed, János Kádár, who led the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, “drove into Budapest on the armor of Soviet tanks” on November 7, 1956, according to Hungarian historians.
During the 70s, Hungary saw a gradual weakening of the communist regime, which was greatly facilitated by economic reforms aimed at reviving the private sector. In 1988, Hungarian communist reformers removed General Secretary János Kádar from his post, believing that he was preventing deeper reforms. A year later, the Hungarian Republic was proclaimed, declared an “independent democratic state of the rule of law,” and in 1990 the Constitution of the newly formed state was adopted. Arpad Genz, a participant in the 1956 uprising, was elected president of the country. In 1995, Gentz ​​was re-elected to the presidency for the second time.
On March 12, 1999, Hungary became a member of NATO. In 2000, the millennium of the founding of the Hungarian state was celebrated, and Ferenc Madl was elected president of the country. On March 1, 2004, Hungary joined the European Union, and on May 1, 2004, it became a member state of the Schengen Agreement (border controls were abolished on December 21, 2007).

At the end of the 9th century, Magyar tribes from Western Siberia moved to the Danube, thus beginning the formation of the state of Hungary. Modern Hungary is visited annually by millions of tourists to see numerous Hungarian historical monuments, visit the famous local balneological resorts, and also swim in the waters of the “Hungarian Sea,” as Lake Balaton is sometimes called.

Geography of Hungary

Hungary is located in Central Europe, bordering Slovakia to the north, Romania and Ukraine to the east, Yugoslavia and Croatia to the south, and Slovenia and Austria to the west. The total area of ​​this country is 93,030 square kilometers, and the total length of the state border is 2,242 km.

A significant part of Hungary's territory is located on the Middle Danube Plain. This means that most of Hungary's territory is flat. In the north of Hungary there is the Mátra mountain range. It is there that tourists can see the highest Hungarian mountain – Kekes, whose height is 1,014 m.

The Danube River flows through the entire territory of Hungary from north to south. Another largest river in Hungary is the Tisza.

Hungary is famous for its lakes, of which there are a lot. The most famous of them is Lake Balaton, whose area is 594 square meters. km, as well as lakes Velence and Ferte.

Capital

The capital of Hungary is Budapest, whose population currently amounts to almost 1.9 million people. The history of Budapest begins in the 1st century. BC. – then there was a Celtic settlement in this place.

Official language of Hungary

In Hungary, the official language is Hungarian, which, according to linguists, belongs to the Ugric group, part of the Uralic language family.

Religion

The main religion in Hungary is Christianity. About 68% of the population of Hungary are Catholics, 21% are Calvinists (a branch of Protestantism), 6% are Lutherans (a branch of Protestantism).

Government system of Hungary

Hungary is a parliamentary republic. Legislative power belongs to a unicameral parliament - the National Assembly, in which 386 deputies sit. Since 2012, a new Constitution has been in force in Hungary.

The head of state is the President, who is elected by the National Assembly.

Hungary consists of 19 regions, as well as Budapest, which is considered a separate administrative region.

Climate and weather

The climate in Hungary is continental with cold, snowy winters and warm summers. In the south of Hungary near the city of Pécs the climate is Mediterranean. The average annual temperature is +9.7C. The average temperature in summer is from +27C to +35C, and in winter - from 0 to -15C.

About 600 mm of precipitation falls annually in Hungary.

Rivers and lakes

The Danube River flows through Hungary for 410 km. The main tributaries of the Danube are the Raba, Drava, Sio and Ipel. Another largest river in Hungary is the Tisza with its tributaries Samos, Krasna, Koros, Maros, Hernad and Sajo.

Hungary is famous for its lakes, of which there are a lot. The most famous of them are Lake Balaton, as well as lakes Velence and Ferte.

The length of the coastline of Lake Balaton, which, by the way, the Hungarians themselves call the “Hungarian Sea”, is 236 km. Balaton is home to 25 species of fish, and storks, swans, ducks and wild geese live near it. Now Lake Balaton is an excellent beach and balneological resort.

We also note another famous Hungarian lake - Heviz. This lake is a popular balneological resort.

History of Hungary

Celtic tribes lived on the territory of modern Hungary BC. In 9 BC. Hungary (Pannonia) became a province of Ancient Rome. Later the Huns, Ostrogoths and Lombards lived here. At the end of the 9th century, the territory of modern Hungary was settled by the Magyars (Hungarians)

Most scientists believe that the homeland of modern Hungarians is somewhere in Western Siberia. This theory is supported by the fact that the Hungarian language belongs to the Ugric group, which is part of the Uralic language family. Those. Hungarian is similar to Finnish and Estonian.

In 895 AD. The Magyars created a federation of tribes, thus forming their own state.

The heyday of medieval Hungary began under King Stephen the Saint (ca. 1000 AD), when the country was officially recognized as a Catholic apostolic kingdom. After some time, Croatia, Slovakia and Transylvania were annexed to Hungary.

The Hungarian king Béla III had an annual income of 23 tons of pure silver. For comparison, at that time the annual income of the French king was 17 tons of silver.

In 1241-1242, the Tatar-Mongols invaded the territory of Hungary, who, however, were unable to conquer the Hungarians.

Since the end of the 14th century, the Hungarians waged constant bloody wars against the Ottoman Empire. In 1526, after the defeat at Mohács, the Hungarian king became a vassal of the Turkish Sultan.

Only in 1687 were the Turks driven out of Hungary, and this country began to belong to Austria, i.e. Habsburgs. In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was formed, in which the Hungarians actually received equal rights with the Austrians.

After the end of the First World War, in 1918, the Hungarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed in Hungary, which existed until August 1919.

During World War II, Hungary fought on the side of Germany. After the end of World War II, the Hungarian People's Republic was proclaimed (this happened in August 1949).

In 1990, the first elections on a multi-party basis were held in Hungary, and the Republic of Hungary appeared on the political map of the world.

Culture

Hungarians are very proud of their culture, which is noticeably different from the cultures of neighboring countries. The fact is that the Hungarians (Magyars) are an alien people in Europe who moved to the territory of modern Hungary from Western Siberia in the 9th century.

The culture of the Hungarians was significantly influenced by the Ottoman Empire, as well as Austria. This is understandable, because Hungary was for a long time actually a province of these empires. However, the Magyars (Hungarians) still remain a distinctive people.

The most famous traditional folk festival in Hungary is Farsang (Maslenitsa), which has been celebrated since the Middle Ages. In Charköz, Maslenitsa is celebrated especially magnificently, because... it is believed that “real” Hungarians live in this region, whose ancestors came to the Danube in the 9th century from Western Siberia. During Maslenitsa, before the onset of Lent, Hungarian youth walk the streets in scary masks and sing humorous songs.

Every February, the Mangalitsa festival is held in Budapest with numerous competitions, exhibitions and tastings of Hungarian cuisine. The fact is that the Mangalitsa is a famous breed of Hungarian pigs.

Hungarian architecture is closely associated with the name of Odon Lechner, who at the end of the 19th century created the national Hungarian architectural style.

Among the Hungarian poets and writers, one should definitely highlight Sándror Petőfi, Sándor Márayi and Péter Esterházy. In 2002, the Hungarian contemporary writer Imre Kertesz received the Nobel Prize in Literature.

The most famous Hungarian composer is Franz Liszt (1811-1886), who created the Weimar school of music. Other Hungarian musicians and composers include Bela Bartók and Zoltán Kodály.

Hungarian cuisine

Hungarian cuisine is as special as the Hungarian culture. The main ingredients of Hungarian dishes are vegetables, meat, fish, sour cream, onions and ground red pepper. In the 1870s, pig farming began to actively develop in Hungary, and now pig meat is traditional in Hungarian cuisine.

Perhaps someone will say that Hungarian cuisine was glorified by the famous goulash, but Hungary still has many traditional, very tasty dishes. In Hungary, we advise tourists to definitely try halasle fish soup, chicken with peppers, potato paprikash, trout with almonds, fried pork with sauerkraut, lecho, salty and sweet dumplings, bean soup and much more.

Hungary is famous for its wines (for example, Tokaj Wine), but this country also produces good beer. By the way, in recent years, for some reason, Hungarians have begun to drink more beer rather than wine.

Sights of Hungary

Hungary is a real “treasure” for tourists who love sightseeing tours. This country has a large number of historical monuments, among which there are about 1 thousand palaces and medieval fortresses. In our opinion, the top ten best attractions in Hungary include the following:

Cities and resorts

Many of the Hungarian cities were formed on the sites of Roman settlements. This is how Pécs and Székesfehérvár appeared, which are now considered the most ancient cities in Hungary.

At the moment, the largest Hungarian cities are Budapest (1.9 million people), Debrecen (210 thousand people), Miskolc (170 thousand people), Szeged (more than 170 thousand people), Pecs (about 170 thousand people) . people), Győr (130 thousand people), Niregyhaza (120 thousand people), Kecskemét (110 thousand people) and Székesfehérvár (about 110 thousand people).

Hungary is famous for its balneological resorts, among which the most popular are Heviz, Hajdúszoboszló, Count Széchenyi Baths, Sárvár on the banks of the Raba River and Balatonfüred. In general, in Hungary there are about 1.3 thousand mineral springs that can be used for medicinal purposes.

A popular beach resort in Hungary is Lake Balaton, although there are also balneological (thermal) resorts located here. On the shores of Balaton there are such popular resorts as Balatonfured, Keszthely and Siófok.

Souvenirs/shopping

• Paprika (ground red pepper);
• Wine;
• Palinka (fruit vodka made from plums, apricots or cherries);
• Embroidery, including tablecloths, bed linens, towels, napkins and clothing;
• Porcelain (the most famous Hungarian porcelain factories are Herend and Zsolnay);
• Dried meats (especially Mangalitsa pork).

Office hours

Store opening hours:
Mon-Fri: from 9.00 to 18.00
Sat: from 9.00 to 13.00

Large supermarkets are open 24 hours a day, and some are open on Sundays.

Bank opening hours:
Mon-Fri: from 08:00 to 15:00
Sat: from 08:00 to 13:00

Visa

To enter Hungary, Ukrainians need to obtain a visa.

Currency of Hungary

The forint is the official currency of Hungary. International symbol for the forint: HUF. One forint is equivalent to 100 fillers, but now the filler is no longer used.

In Hungary, banknotes in the following denominations are used: 100, 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10000 and 20,000 forints. In addition, there are coins in circulation in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 forints.

History of Hungary.

Carpathian basin.

The Carpathian Basin, the homeland of the Hungarians, is where many ancient European cultures originated. Here, sites of people from almost all prehistoric eras have been discovered, starting with the Cro-Magnons (Late Paleolithic period). During the Neolithic period (4000 BC), Mediterranean nomadic people, worshipers of the mother goddess, invaded this basin from the south. They created the northernmost link in a chain of related peoples that stretched from Asia Minor to the upper reaches of the Tisza. At the beginning of the Bronze Age, new invasions from the west and north led to the mixing of peoples. It was only at the end of the Bronze Age that a new cultural center emerged, uniting various influences. This center became the starting point of one of the richest Bronze Age cultures in ancient Europe.

During the 2nd millennium BC. In the steppes stretching from Central Asia to the Carpathians, nomads appeared, among whom the Hungarians later appeared. Soon the number of peoples of the steppes increased, and a settled population appeared. A characteristic feature of this culture was the “garden city”, which had rich orchards along the outer belt. The first of these peoples, whose arrival marked the beginning of the Iron Age in Europe, appeared in the Carpathian Basin around 1250 BC. From this time until the tenth century, the Carpathian Basin was the habitat of various nomadic peoples, incl. Scythians, Sarmatians, Iazygs, Huns, Avars, Bulgars and Hungarians.

However, the Carpathian Basin was not only the homeland of steppe nomads. The Celts, a tribe of western origin, occupied the west of what is now Hungary; Illyrians (remnants of Bronze Age tribes) and some Germanic tribes also lived here. In the 1st century AD the Romans captured part of the basin and incorporated it into the Roman provinces of Pannonia and Dacia. Around 430 AD they ceded these territories to various Germanic tribes, who were driven west by the Huns migrating from Asia. By the middle of the 5th century. the entire territory of the basin was occupied by the Huns and the Germans subordinate to them. Three centuries of Roman rule left traces of strong cultural influence. It was during this period that the first Christian churches were erected.

During the reign of the Hun king Attila (406–453), the basin became the center of an empire that included a friendly nomadic people, the Hungarians (then living in the east). After his death, the Hunnic Empire fell apart and the basin was divided among various Germanic tribes. When the Ostrogoths migrated to Italy, bloody battles took place between two tribes - the Gepids and the Lombards. The Lombards allied with the Avars, a Turkic nomadic people, and defeated the Gepids. Despite this, they moved to Italy, thereby leaving and leaving the Carpathian Basin to the Avars, who ruled here from 567 to 805. At the end of the 9th century. Hungarians appeared here.

In the 3rd millennium BC. Finno-Ugric peoples lived between the Ural Mountains and the Volga River, in the area of ​​the Kama River. Approximately from 2000 to 1500 BC. Ugric tribes, who were fishermen and hunters, slowly moved south. Having reached the border of the steppes, they began to lead a nomadic lifestyle. One group, the Magyars, even dared to move further south (around 600 BC). Here they mixed with the Bulgarian-Turkic people with a similar, but more highly developed nomadic culture. Ethnically, this mixed group probably became more Turkic than Ugric; the highly developed religious ideas, music and social organization of the Turks were mixed with the northern heritage of the Hungarian people. Even their name comes from the Bulgarian-Turkic name used for the Hungarians - "Onogur", meaning "ten tribes" (i.e. seven Hungarian tribes plus three Khazar ones who later settled in the Carpathian Basin); hence the word "Hungary".

Around 680 AD The Hungarians, who settled between the Don and Dnieper rivers, became part of the Jewish Khazar Kaganate. Even under the rule of the Khazars they had their own organization of power and culture. The Hungarians traded with the Arabs and the Byzantine Empire; they believed in one supreme god and in the immortality of the soul, preferred monogamy; were known for their love of freedom and courage in the fight against invaders. Although the Hungarians lived among the Turkic peoples for more than a thousand years, they retained their language.

In 830, the Hungarians broke away from the weakened Khazar Khaganate, but remained in the steppes, which were under the rule of Kyiv from 840 to 878. In the middle of the 9th century. they invaded Central Europe and the Balkans. Around 890, the Pechenegs, a Turkic people, pushed seven Hungarian tribes westward into the territory between the Dniester and the lower Danube. Here the Hungarians united with three Khazar tribes. Under pressure from three powerful neighbors - the Pechenegs, Russians and Danube Bulgarians - ten tribes decided to create a more centralized state. The tribal leaders entrusted supreme leadership to Almos, the leader of the most significant and powerful tribe - the Magyars.

In 892, the Hungarians (Magyars) fought in the Carpathian Basin in alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor Arnulf against the Moravans. In 895 the entire people, led by Arpad, son of Almos, migrated to the Carpathian Basin. By 896 the conquest of the territory, from that time called Hungary, was basically completed. Soon the Hungarians, who numbered approximately half a million at the time, assimilated most of the Slavic and Avar groups scattered throughout the area. In the second half of the tenth century, Transylvania was colonized. In the tenth century, the Szeklers (probably a tribe of Avar origin), who had adopted the Hungarian language, were sent to eastern Transylvania to guard the borders against the Pechenegs and other eastern enemies.

During this period, the Hungarians raided Germany, France, Italy and the Balkans. At the same time they began to build a new state. Hungarian society at that time was based on the cooperation of tribes consisting of free warriors who were all equal and participated in popular assemblies as full members. There were 108 clans, the lowest unit of which was the “large family” headed by an elder. Those who did not belong to them were usually excluded from this political community, although they could be admitted into it for certain merits.

Two events isolated Hungary and contained it within its borders - the defeat in 955 at Lech (near Augsburg) inflicted by Otto the Great, which pushed the Holy Roman Empire to the Hungarian borders, and the collapse of the Khazar Khaganate and its incorporation into Rus' in 969. Géza, Arpad's grandson, together with his wife Charlotte, established centralized power over all tribes and laid the foundation for a pro-Western foreign policy. In 973, at the request of Geza, Holy Roman Emperor Otto II sent missionaries to Hungary to convert the population to Christianity.

Geza's decision to join Western Christianity had serious historical consequences. His plans were carried out by his son István (r. 997–1038), later canonized. Hungary, following the coronation of Stephen in 1000 (or 1001), became a recognized Christian state. He received the crown and both spiritual and temporal power from Pope Sylvester II, but with the consent of Emperor Otto III. He was given the title of Apostle (used by the kings of Hungary until 1920), with power in the hands of the bishops (dioceses), as well as the right to propagate the faith and autonomously govern the church within Hungary. This made it possible for Hungary, unlike Poland and Bohemia, to maintain its independence throughout the Middle Ages.

Stephen's centralized state was modeled after Charlemagne's state. The tribal organization disappeared (although the clans remained), and the king became the supreme monarch. The Royal Council had only advisory functions. Although the clergy had the most privileged position, all “princes, counts and military leaders” (i.e. all the descendants of the conquerors) were also free and represented a single social stratum. They could be appointed to a specific position, did not have to pay taxes and had the right to take part in public meetings. The unfree class consisted of Hungarians whose descendants had lost position in their tribe due to some misfortune or commission of criminal offenses; slaves captured during wars (slavery, however, was gradually eliminated); the remnants of the peoples who lived in the territory that the Hungarians captured; slaves set free (former slaves); immigrants. This last group included, firstly, the Khazars living in the steppes, as well as other steppe peoples, as well as Italian, German and French missionaries and knights and significant groups of townspeople. Members of unfree classes, by royal permission, could become free and members of the Hungarian “nation”.

Stephen revolutionized the life and culture of his people, introducing both Eastern and Western influences and making Hungary part of the European community. He is revered as the patron saint of Hungary.

Many Hungarians opposed István's changes, seeing them as a destruction of the old Hungarian culture. The riots led to a civil war, during which Istvan was overthrown with the help of German knights. However, the troops loyal to Istvan resisted Emperor Conrad II, who invaded in 1030, and won.

Half a century after Istvan's death passed under the sign of repelling the German attack and the struggle of dynasties for power. Order was restored by two strong kings, St. László I (r. 1077–1095) and Kalman the Scribe (r. 1095–1116). A new wave of dynastic struggle in the 12th century. and the weakening of the power led to the attack of the Byzantine Empire. Béla III (r. 1172–1196), one of Europe's most powerful rulers, averted this external threat, and royal power was again consolidated. He ensured Hungary's hegemony in the Balkans, and under him the country's integration into Western European civilization was completed.

Thanks to Béla III's close ties, Hungary strengthened its cultural ties with France. During the century, the monks in most Hungarian monasteries were French, and many Hungarians studied at the University of Paris. The palace of Béla III and the cathedral in Esztergom were built in the French-Romanesque architectural style; later Gothic architecture appeared in Hungary.

Béla III's successors weakened royal power, based primarily on royal estates, by transferring royal lands to their supporters. As a result of these divisions of land, a new social group arose - the barons, who sought to subjugate the free citizens living on their estates. In 1222, an uprising of free citizens against the barons forced András II (r. 1205–1235), who led the fifth crusading campaign in 1217, to dissolve the Royal Council and issue a law on rights known as the “Golden Bull”, on which everyone then swore an oath new Hungarian king. Like the English Magna Carta, it guaranteed nobles and royal servants personal freedom, exemption from taxes and compulsory military service outside the country, and the right not to recognize illegal royal decrees. At the court, annual assemblies and receptions were established, held by the king or the count palatine, where all nobles and royal servants had the right to be present.

Gradually, nobles and free citizens took control of the comitat into their own hands. The comitat assemblies promulgated the laws of the country, and the comitat officials implemented them. The first parliament was convened in 1277. In 1290, annual congresses of the national assembly were announced to control and, if necessary, bring to justice senior royal officials.

Béla IV (r. 1235–1270) was the last strong ruler of the Arpads, the dynasty that transformed Hungary into one of the major powers of medieval Europe. During his reign, Hungary was devastated by the Tatar-Mongol invasion (1241–1242). After the Mongols left, Bela created a system of forts and invited German settlers to guard the country's borders. His activities earned him the name "second founder of the country." During the reign of Laszlo IV (1272–1290), the country again plunged into chaos. In 1301, the last king of the Arpad dynasty, Andras III, died without leaving heirs.

Plan
Introduction
1 Ancient history of Hungary
2 Arrival of the Hungarians (IX-X centuries)
3 Rise of the Kingdom of Hungary
4 Mongol invasion (XIII century) and its consequences
5 Second Bloom
6 Decline of Hungary (1490-1526)
7 Turkish yoke
8 Under Habsburg rule (1687-1867)
9 Hungarian National Revolution
10 Austria-Hungary (1867-1918)
11 Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919)
12 Horthy Regency (1920-1944) and Szalasi Dictatorship (1944-1945)
13 Hungarian People's Republic (1949-1989)
14 Republic of Hungary
Bibliography
History of Hungary

Introduction

1. The ancient history of Hungary

Arrival of the Hungarians (9th-10th centuries)

Ancestors of the Hungarians - Magyars- Ugric people (a number of scientists (Nemeth, Zakiev) consider them to be a union of Turkic and Ugric tribes), nomadic in the Trans-Volga steppes of the southern Urals and on the territory of historical Bashkiria. The Khazarian policy contributed to the resettlement of the Hungarians to the territory of Ukraine, from where they invaded the Middle Danube, contributing to the fall of Great Moravia. In 934, the onslaught of the Hungarians reached Bavaria, but defeat in the Battle of the Lech River (955) contributed to the fact that the Magyars were content with the Middle Danube. Geopolitically, they become the heirs of the Avar Kaganate - a dictatorship of nomads over the Slavic population. The Hungarians hesitate for some time between Catholic Germany and Orthodox Byzantium, but soon make a strategic choice in favor of the first.

3. Rise of the Kingdom of Hungary

In 1000, under Saint Stephen, Hungary became a legitimate European kingdom. As a result of wars with neighbors, its first acquisitions are Slovakia, Srem, Croatia and Transylvania. An attempt to extend his influence to Rus' under Koloman was unsuccessful. The nomadic roots of the Hungarian aristocracy with the Slavic majority of the conquered population led to the fact that the Hungarian kings willingly invited other Asian nomads to settle in the Hungarian steppes: the Cumans, Pechenegs and Alans. In the mountains of Transylvania, land was offered to the Germans. In the 12th century, Byzantium temporarily strengthened and some Balkan lands were torn away from Hungary. At the same time, Hungary became involved in the Crusades. In the 13th century, an internal "feudal" war led to the publication by King András in 1222 Golden bull, which limited the arbitrariness of both the king and the magnates, established the rights of other classes, and ensured the rights and position of small landowners and free people. The small nobility, along with the magnates, began to participate in the state assembly. Finally, the upper class and the Hungarian clergy were given the right to resist the king who acted against the law.

Mongol invasion (13th century) and its consequences

In 1241, a wave of Mongol invasion reached Hungary. On April 11, the Hungarian-Croatian army was defeated in the battle of Chajo, and King Bela IV (1235-1270) fled to Croatia. The Mongol invasion brought new Polovtsian (Cuman) hordes of refugees to the territory of Hungary, and also contributed to the strengthening of ties with Catholic Europe. In 1301, the last king of the Arpad dynasty dies. The vacant Hungarian throne was occupied by Charles Robert of Naples. Under him, Hungarian knighthood was established.

5. Second bloom

Under Louis, the power of the Hungarian king extended over vast territories of Eastern Europe from the Balkan Peninsula to the Baltic Sea, from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. In the east, Wallachia and Moldavia recognized her power. Having established Hungarian power in Croatia, Louis took Dalmatia from Venice, which it had taken possession of in the beginning. XIII century On the Danube, Louis, having driven back the Turks, who began moving north after the capture of Adrianople, temporarily annexed Bdyn Bulgaria to Hungary and extended his influence to Serbia and Bosnia (Steph. Firmly), although, however, the Bosnian bans and kings had previously been assistants to the Hungarian kings. As the son of Elizabeth, the sister of the childless King of Poland Casimir III, Louis in 1370 received the Polish crown, and together with Galich, because of which there was then a war between Lithuania and Poland.

Louis, having no son, bequeathed Hungary to his eldest daughter Mary, who, by agreement with Charles IV, became the bride of his son Sigismund, thus destined to become king of Hungary. As the brother of the Czech king (Wenceslaus, or Wenceslaus), Sigismund had many followers, specifically in Slovakia. Mother Elizabeth of Bosnia ruled for Mary. Having abandoned Hungary, Poland summoned Louis's other daughter, Jadwiga, in 1384. Unrest began in Hungary itself. In Croatia, and then in Hungary, they chose Charles of Naples (from the Angevin dynasty), who, upon arrival in Hungary, was killed, at the instigation of Elizabeth, in 1386, for which she and Maria were captured by the Croats, and Elizabeth was killed. Maria was freed by Sigismund, who finally appeared and assumed his rights.

On September 25, 1396, the Turks in the Battle of Nikopol destroy the 70 thousand knightly army of the Hungarian king Sigismund. The Czech Hussites annoyed the Hungarian king a lot. Dalmatia again fell under Venetian rule. Under Sigismund, the first Serbian settlements arose in Hungary. Sigismund's son-in-law and heir Albrecht, first sovereign of Hungary from the House of Habsburg,† already in 1439, leaving his son Ladislaus Postumus. But the Hungarians, fearing regency, chose the Polish king Vladislav, who soon died in the war with the Turks in the Battle of Varna in 1444. Northern, Slovak Hungary defended the rights of Ladislav Postum against him, with the Czech commander Jan Iskra, who subjugated all the northern regions and relied on Hussite Czech Republic (1440-62).

In 1458, Matthew Corvinus was elected king, under whom Hungary reached a certain prosperity. He successfully repelled the Turks, Hussites and Habsburgs.

Decline of Hungary (1490-1526)

After the death of Matthew Corvinus, decline began in Hungary. The kingdom shrank under the pressure of its prosperous neighbors: the Austrian Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire. During this period, Hungary was ruled by the Polish Jagiellon dynasty. Internal contradictions intensified: magnates raised their heads, peasants rebelled.

7. Turkish yoke

In 1526, the Turks under Mohács inflicted a brutal defeat on the Hungarians, which became fatal for Hungary, its integrity and independence. The new Hungarian king Janos Zapolyai becomes a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. In 1541 the Turks captured Buda and Pest. Most of the Hungarian lands fell under Ottoman rule and were administratively organized into the Budin Pashalik, which was divided into several sanjaks (districts). The triumphant Ottoman Empire occupied the Middle Danube Plain, incorporating into its possession the very heart of Europe, which the Turks planned to turn into a springboard for the conquest of new territories and the further spread of Islam.

But resistance from the Austrian Habsburgs led to the actual division of the Hungarian lands into Turkish and Austrian parts. At the same time, under the treaty of 1547, lands with a mixed Hungarian-Slavic population went to the Austrians, and the Hungarian and Hungarian-Romanian regions proper went to the Turks. Administratively, Ottoman rule in central Hungary lasted until 1699, although a number of the southernmost Hungarian lands were liberated only by 1718. Resistance to Turkish rule came from both the Hungarian Haiduk partisans and the Austrians, who were interested in annexing Hungary as a raw material appendage of the Austrian Empire.

Under Habsburg rule (1687-1867)

In 1687, Austria ousted the Turks from the territory of Hungary and Transylvania. At the same time, the Habsburgs carried out a bloody massacre of the mass of Hungarian Protestants (Pryashev massacre). In the same 1687, at the Diet in Pozsony (now Bratislava), Hungary, at the suggestion of Leopold, recognized the hereditary rights to the Hungarian crown for the male tribe of the Habsburgs.

In Hungary, the oppression of Protestants and attacks on the constitution and civil freedom (Cardinal Kolonic's project) caused the Rakoczi Rebellion (1703-1711), as a result of which Protestants were given a general amnesty, religious freedom was granted, and positions in Hungary were promised to be filled by Hungarians. Queen Maria Theresa (1740-1780) patronized the Hungarians for their support in her War of the Austrian Succession. Croatia became increasingly dependent on Hungary and gradually turned into a Hungarian province. In 1794, the conspiracy of the “Hungarian Jacobins” was discovered, and the leaders of the conspiracy were executed.

The Magyar opposition, defending a liberal program, also pursued national-Hungarian goals, achieved the introduction of the Hungarian language in office work and the founding of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1825). Under Ferdinand I (1835-1848), new political trends became more and more pronounced and parties (three) were formed, waging a struggle among themselves, in which national self-awareness and Magyarism strengthened and developed. The government relied on the conservative party, consisting of a significant part of the higher nobility and a minority of the lower, with Dessewffy at its head. The strongest was the liberal party, representing the opposition, with Count Battyany and Kossuth at its head. In addition to part of the higher nobility, who were ready to give up their privileges for the good of the nation, the majority of the lower nobility and the people belonged to the opposition. They demanded rights for the non-noble classes, equality before the law, freedom of the press, etc., and managed to achieve something (in the 1840s). Liberal-Conservative Moderate Party, with Art. Széchenyi at the head did not have much power. Metternich's government system caused more and more discontent in Hungary, tempered only by the popularity of the Archduke Palatine in 1796-1847. Joseph of Austria. The Hungarian language decisively became the official language instead of the former neutral Latin.

9. Hungarian National Revolution

The February Revolution of 1848 in France electrified the political situation throughout Europe. Hungary was no exception. On March 15, 1848, in Pest, crowds of townspeople demanded the liberation of Hungarians from the rule of the Habsburgs, freedom of the press and religion, the creation of a national army and the abolition of serfdom. The Emperor agreed to grant the Hungarians relative autonomy, but the growth of interethnic contradictions, outright separatism and anti-monarchism of the opposition forced Austria to call in Russian troops led by Field Marshal Ivan Paskevich to suppress the rebellion, who suppressed the Hungarian uprising by August 1849.

The territory of Hungary was inhabited by people already in ancient times. Scientists have found here, near the village of Vertessellos, the remains of a prehistoric man who lived 350 thousand years ago. For thousands of years, many peoples settled in the expanses of the fertile Middle Danube Plain: Cimmerians, Scythians, Celts, Illyrians, Getae, Germans, Slavs, Avars. At the end of the 1st century. BC. Transdanubia was inhabited by Celtic tribes, one of which, the Eravisci, lived in the area of ​​​​present-day Budapest. Their main city, Aquincum, was located on the southern slope of Mount Gellert, almost in the center of the modern Hungarian capital.

The turn of the ancient and modern eras was marked by the onslaught of the Romans on the lands of the eastern Celts. During two wars (35-33 BC and 13-9 AD), Roman legions were able to conquer most of Transdanubia. The vast Roman province of Pannonia was created here. For almost 400 years, it was of enormous military and strategic importance for the Roman Empire, and Rome spared neither effort nor means to strengthen it. So, in 19 AD. on the site of the former Aquincum, the fortified Roman camp of Aquincum arose, and a powerful line of border fortifications stretched along the Danube, separating the Roman world from the “barbarian” one.

From the second half of the 3rd century. The situation in the eastern Roman provinces became more complicated. Waves of barbarian peoples rolled over the borders of the empire time after time, threatening to completely destroy Roman civilization. For several decades, Pannonia was ravaged by the Quadi, Marcomanni, Iazyges, Sarmatians, Goths, Carps, Bastarni, Vandals, Alans... The population fled in fear before the barbarians, once flourishing cities were destroyed and overgrown with grass. Only a few fortresses, surrounded by powerful walls and towers, still served as protection for the legionnaires and the remnants of Roman citizens. But the devastating invasion of the Huns, unprecedented in strength and swiftness, finally erased all traces of Roman presence.

The Huns were soon replaced by other peoples. The Germans were replaced by the Slavs, the Slavs by the Avars, who for a short time managed to create a strong state entity - the Avar Kaganate. His power extended over the entire territory of modern Hungary; the Avars controlled vast lands from the Black Sea to the Alps and from the Elbe to the Adriatic. In 796, the Avar Kaganate fell under the blows of the Franks, and the remnants of the Avars gradually dissolved among the Slavic and German settlers who poured into Transdanubia.

Finding a homeland

A group of Hungarian (Magyar) tribes separated from the main body of Finno-Ugric peoples living at the foot of the Ural Mountains between 1000 and 500 BC. BC. The self-name of the Hungarians is Magyars (“Magyar” means “person”). Seven Magyar tribes came to the Carpathian Basin led by their leader Arpad in 896, becoming one of the last waves of the Great Migration. The process of development of the territory of the Middle Danube by the Magyars, which lasted throughout the entire 10th century, is designated in Hungarian history by a special term - honfbgalas, “finding a homeland.”

By the time the Hungarians arrived, the vast spaces between the arc of the Carpathian Mountains and Transdanubia were, according to contemporary testimony, “the deserts of the Avars and Pannonians.” After the fall of the Avar Kaganate, small groups of the Avar population remained here; Slavs lived in Transylvania and on the right bank of the Danube. There could also be remnants of other peoples brought here by the winds of the Great Migration. In general, the entire space was occupied by scattered groups of people of different tribes, and the Hungarians did not have any difficulty in mastering these territories.

The Magyar prince Geza, a descendant of Arpad, was the first to begin the process of gradual integration of the Hungarians into the family of European nations. His son Istvan (997-1038) converted the Hungarians to Christianity and was baptized himself. He married a German princess, and Pope Sylvester II sent him a crown, which has since become the national symbol of the country (Rome later canonized Stephen and several other Hungarian kings from the Arpad dynasty). On December 25, 1000, on Christmas Eve, the papal legate Asherik (Astrik) solemnly crowned Istvan as King of Hungary. Since then, this date has been considered the official date of birth of the Hungarian state.

King Stephen I the Saint was a great ruler. He clearly understood that in order for the Hungarians to firmly settle in the center of Europe, it was necessary to create a Christian state of the European model. He sought to curb the Magyar tribal leaders, live in peace with his neighbors, and willingly allowed foreigners to settle within his country. He left a covenant to respect foreign-speaking peoples to his son, Prince Imre: “Receive strangers cordially, because a monolingual country is weak and short-lived.” In an effort to establish close dynastic relations with European monarchs, Stephen took as his wife Gisella of Bavaria, sister of Tenrich II, Holy Roman Emperor.

Stephen the Saint established a strong, centralized royal power. He abolished the tribal division of the country and introduced an administrative-territorial division into royal districts - comitat, the borders of which almost coincided with the modern borders of the Hungarian regions. He contributed in every possible way to the spread and rooting of Christianity among the pagan Hungarians, the Hungarian ruler invited Italian and German missionaries to his kingdom and issued a special decree that every 10 villages should build one church together.

Over the three hundred years of rule of the Arpad dynasty, the Kingdom of Hungary fully adopted the social model and value system adopted in medieval Western Europe. The semi-nomadic people, who came from the steppes of the Urals, in a relatively short time moved from transhumance cattle breeding to settled life and cultivation of the land. Every year the country became more and more prosperous. Its limits were expanding; in 1102 Croatia joined the Kingdom of Hungary on the basis of a personal union. The Hungarian king now became simultaneously the king of the Croatian lands.

Following the behests of Stephen the Saint, the Hungarian rulers sought to attract foreigners to populate the empty lands in the east and southeast of the country. This policy has been especially active since the time of King Geza II (1142-1162). At this time, many immigrants from Germany and Flanders moved to Transylvania; for some time, the knights of the Teutonic Order, expelled from Palestine, even settled here. The German population of Transylvania, known as the Saxons, enjoyed significant privileges: the Hungarian kings provided them with land, trade benefits and wide autonomy. In return, they had to defend the southern and southeastern borders of the kingdom, which were threatened by the raids of the Turkic peoples who settled in the steppes between the Danube and the Carpathians.

The first - in the 11th century. - the Pechenegs, well known from Russian history, came to these lands. They were forced to move here from the southern Russian steppes by another, no less famous nomadic people - the Cumans (Cumans; in Hungary they were called Kuns, and many Hungarians still bear the surname Kun). 150 years later, the Polovtsians themselves were forced to seek protection in the Danube steppes: a new, even more formidable enemy appeared in the east - the Mongols. A significant part of the Polovtsians converted to Christianity and became the subjects of the Hungarian king; King Stephen V married the Polovtsian princess Erzsebet in 1254.

The first serious test for Hungary was the Tatar-Mongol invasion of 1241 -1242. They defeated the forces of the Hungarian king Béla IV and ravaged Transylvania and central Hungary. Having reached the shores of the Adriatic, the Mongols turned back, passing through the Danube steppes on the way back.

Hungary managed to recover from the Tatar pogrom quite quickly, and already in the 14th century. this rich and populous country was considered one of the most important markets in European trade. At the same time, it was one of the most stable states in Europe. Under the kings of the Angevin dynasty (1308 -1387), the country's borders were significantly expanded - right up to Dalmatia; The flowering of art and architecture is associated with the same period. XIV century called the "golden age" of medieval Hungary. However, at the same time, a serious danger loomed over Europe.

Shield of Europe

After 1354 The Ottoman Turks began their rapid conquest of the Balkan Peninsula. In 1389, Serbia was defeated. The united anti-Turkish campaign of knights from a number of European countries, which was led by the Hungarian king Sisigmund (Zsigmond) I of Luxembourg (1387-1437), ended in a crushing defeat in 1396. near the walls of Nikopol (Bulgaria), King Sigismund barely escaped the battlefield.

The Turkish threat has moved close to the Hungarian borders. From now on, for almost a century and a half, Hungary was to serve as the shield of Europe, protecting Christian civilization from the threat of Ottoman enslavement. Meanwhile, after the death of Sigismund (1437), feudal civil strife began in the country. In the continuous struggle against the rebellious feudal lords and Turkish raids, the military leadership talent of Janos Hunyadi, an outstanding military leader and statesman of medieval Hungary, was formed and strengthened.

Under King Matthias Corvinus, known for his justice (reigned 1458 - 1490), Hungary again experienced a short period of stability and prosperity. Supported by the people, King Matthias significantly strengthened the southern borders of the country and led a successful struggle against the feudal lords. However, under his successor Vladislav II, the country plunged into anarchy. Protracted internecine wars began.

The situation of the peasantry in Hungary at that time was better than in other countries. But, having greater freedom, the peasants perceived serfdom more acutely. Continuous wars exhausted the country, the population suffered more and more. Reaching despair, the peasants rebelled to force the nobility to make a series of concessions.

On July 15, 1513, Pope Leo X announced the start of a crusade against the Turks. In March 1514, the Hungarian Royal Council decided to join the campaign. The post of commander of the militia was offered to György Dože (1475 - 1514), a professional soldier who came from the common people, in March 1514. received the title of nobility for his distinction in battles with the Turks. Within twenty days, Dozsa had assembled a people's militia numbering 60,000. However, the campaign against the Turks did not take place.

The people, relying on their unity and numbers, like a bridled horse throwing off its rider, turned the weapons prepared for the war with the Turks against their masters.” The royal authorities, faced with disobedience, canceled the campaign and ordered the crusaders to disperse. However, it was already too late. The crusader militia has already turned into an army of rebel peasants...

Peasants rose up throughout Hungary. A fierce war began with the feudal barons. Many priests from the lower strata of the clergy, hating the highest church dignitaries, joined the uprising and even stood at the head of peasant detachments (the names of 14 priests who participated in the uprising are known). A noble army under the command of the Transylvanian magnate Janos Zapolyai opposed György Dozsa. July 15, 1514 The people's militia suffered a brutal defeat at the walls of Temesvar. The enticed Gyorgy Dozsa was captured. By order of Janos Zapolyai, he was subjected to sophisticated torture. The leader of the peasants was seated on a red-hot iron throne, a red-hot iron crown was placed on his head, and a red-hot iron scepter was placed in his hand.

In 1526, the armies of the Turkish Sultan Suleiman I and the Hungarian king Lajos (Louis) II clashed head to head in the decisive battle of Mohács. The defeat of the Hungarians was complete. King Lajos died, the Turks occupied the entire southern part of the country, and the Hungarian Kingdom collapsed. Some of the Hungarian magnates proclaimed the Transylvanian prince Janos Zapolyai king, while the other part elected the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand Habsburg as their overlord. Both parties began a fierce struggle, into which the Turks were not slow to intervene. Croatia and a number of western regions, seeking salvation, accepted the patronage of the Habsburgs, while Transylvania, led by Janos Zapolyai, chose to come under the hand of the Turkish Sultan, maintaining autonomy, but pledging to pay tribute to the Sultan and provide him with military assistance if necessary. The central regions of the former Kingdom of Hungary were occupied by the Turks; in 1541 the capital of the country, Buda (now Budapest), passed into their hands.

150 years of Turkish occupation have become a real disaster for the country. Vast areas were depopulated; The once flourishing lands were overgrown with weeds. Having captured the central regions of Hungary, the Turks did not stop their raids on neighboring lands that were formerly part of the Hungarian Kingdom.

In 1566, all of Europe was amazed at the unprecedented heroic defense of the Hungarian fortress of Szigetvár (Sziget). Two thousand Hungarian and Croatian soldiers led by Miklos Zrinyi (Nikola Zrinsky, a Hungarian military leader of Croatian origin) for a month repelled the attacks of the 100,000-strong army of the Turkish Sultan Suleiman I. Each defender of Sshet was opposed by 50 enemy soldiers!

Suleiman's army approached the walls of Sshetvar on August 7, 1566, having 300 artillery pieces. On August 9, the city’s defenders burned the suburb (New Town) and retreated beyond the walls of the Old Town. On August 19, the Turks broke into the Old Town, but the city citadel still remained in the hands of Miklos Zrinyi. From August 26 to September 1, the defenders of the fortress repelled seven fierce Turkish attacks. The decisive assault began on September 4, but even on this day the Turks suffered a severe defeat. Sultan Suleiman, unable to bear the shame, died in his camp tent on the night of September 4-5.

Fearing that the death of the Sultan would cause panic, the Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha Sokolovic (a Slav by origin, a native of Bosnia) hid this news from the army. The battles near the walls of the citadel began to boil with renewed vigor. Having exhausted all possibilities for further defense and not receiving reinforcements, the remnants of the Sshet garrison tried to break out of the encirclement. On the morning of September 8, the detachment of Milos Zrinya - only 600 people! - Coming out of the gate, he attacked the Turks. However, the forces were too unequal, and every single one of the city’s defenders died in a brutal battle. The siege of Szigetvar cost the Turkish army 25 thousand lives.

Kingdom Shard

After the collapse of the Kingdom of Hungary, the eastern region of the country - Transylvania - turned into a separate semi-autonomous principality. Transylvanian voivode Janos Zapolyai (1487-1540) in 1529. recognized the supreme power of the Turkish Sultan. Janos Zapolya's successor, Janos Zsigmond, undertook to pay an annual tribute to the Sultan, subject to recognition of his right to Transylvania. The principality also included the eastern regions of Hungary, cut off by the Turkish invasion from the main Hungarian lands - the regions of Bekes, Csanad, Csongrad, Krasna, Outer Szolnok, Bihar, Temes, Zarand, Maramaros and Arad. Thus, the Principality of Transylvania became the direct successor of the medieval Hungarian state. From the beginning of 1542, the capital of this “splinter of Hungary” became the city of Gyulafehérvár.

From the middle of the 16th century. There is a noticeable turn in the policy of the Transylvanian rulers: they begin to advocate a joint struggle against the Turks across all the lands of the former Kingdom of Hungary, united under the rule of the Habsburgs. August 16, 1570 An agreement was concluded between Austria and Transylvania in Speyer (Germany). It actually marked the appearance on the map of Europe of an independent state - the Principality of Transylvania.

The peak of the Turkish invasion occurred during the years when the waves of the Reformation were raging throughout Europe. Transylvania was one of the main strongholds of Protestantism. Most Transylvanian Germans converted to Lutheranism, and many Hungarians converted to Calvinism. In 1571, the Legislative Assembly of Transylvania passed a law guaranteeing freedom of religion and equal rights for representatives of the country's four main faiths: Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists and Unitarians. It was. one of the first laws of its kind in Europe.

The reigns of princes Gabor Bethlen (1613 -1629) and Gyorgy I Rakoczi (1630-1640) are called the “golden age” of Transylvania. These rulers did a lot for the development of education and culture. They consistently defended Protestantism and actively opposed the Austrian Habsburgs, in whom they saw both a threat to the independence of Transylvania, and an obstacle to the restoration of the independence of Hungary, and a support for the Counter-Reformation. It broke out in 1604-1606. a powerful anti-Habsburg movement was led by the Transylvanian magnate Istvan Bocskai (1557-1606), who on April 20, 1605. was elected Prince of Hungary and Transylvania. Under Gabor Bethlen, the Principality of Transylvania entered the Thirty Years' War (1618 -1648) on the side of the Protestant anti-Habsburg coalition and achieved significant success. Gabor Bethlen viewed military action against the Habsburgs as a means to achieve the main goal - the liberation of all of Hungary from foreign rule.

The Rise and Fall of György Rakoczi

Under Prince Fjord Rakoczi II (1648-1660), Transylvania reached the zenith of its power. The protectorate of the Transylvanian prince was recognized by Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1656, György Rakoczi, seeking to take possession of the Polish crown, entered into an agreement with the Ukrainian rebels led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky. His plan was this: under the threat of a joint action of Transylvania, the Moldavian and Wallachian principalities and Ukraine, to force the Polish nobles to elect him as their king. To be more convincing, he entered into an alliance with Sweden, which since 1655 had been at war with Poland. However, the Poles refused to recognize Rakoczy as their king. In 1656, the army of the Transylvanian governor, together with his allies - 23 thousand Transylvanians, 6 thousand Vlachs and Moldovans, 20 thousand Ukrainian Cossacks - invaded Poland. Rakogsch managed to occupy Warsaw. But the whole people rose up against him and the Swedes, the Turkish Sultan supported the Poles, and the Ukrainian Cossacks left Rakoczi. On July 22, 1656, Rakoczi was forced to make peace with Poland. The prince himself managed to return home safely, but his entire army on the way back was ambushed by a Tatar and was captured.

By order of Sultan Rakoczi was overthrown from the throne of Transylvania. However, in 1658 he regained the throne by force. Rakoczi managed to defeat the Turkish army thrown against him and conclude a new alliance between Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. However, he no longer had enough strength, and on May 2, 1660. In the decisive battle of Sasfenes, the Turks inflicted a severe defeat on György Rakoczi.

The protracted struggle on two fronts and military defeats exhausted the strength of the Transylvanian Principality. After the death of Rakoczi, the Turks completely subjugated Transylvania. And only during the expulsion of the Turks from Hungary, which began in 1683, was Transylvania freed from the rule of the Sultan. Ironically, the role of liberators was played by the Poles and Austrians - that is, precisely those whom the Transylvanian princes put so much effort into fighting...

Under the rule of the Austrian emperors

In January 1683, the Polish king John III Sobieski crushed the Turks under the walls of Vienna. This event marked the decline of the Ottoman Empire. In 1686, the Turks were expelled from Central Hungary, and a year later a new battle took place on the historical field near Mohács, in which the Sultan’s army was defeated by Austrian troops.

In 1687 The Legislative Assembly of Transylvania swore an oath to the Austrian Emperor Leopold I. Eleven years later, the Porte officially recognized Austrian sovereignty over Transylvania. The autonomy of the principality was gradually eliminated, and Austrian governors began to rule Transylvania. Two decades earlier, the central regions of Hungary fell under Austrian rule.

The uprising of Ferenc Rakoczi II in 1703 - 1711. was the first attempt to restore the country's independence.

In the spring of 1703, the whole of Hungary was flooded with Rakoczi's appeals to his compatriots. The uprising has begun. Summer of 1794 The State Assembly of Transylvania elected Rakoczy as Grand Duke. Kurut troops liberated almost the entire territory of the country from the Austrians. Rakoczi established diplomatic relations with the French king Louis XIV, the Russian Tsar Peter I, and there were ambassadors of many European powers at his court. It seemed that the complete independence of Hungary was just around the corner. And then a turning point occurred in the uprising.

While the main forces of the Austrian army were distracted in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), the Kurucians managed to win victories with relative ease. Rakoczi's army numbered 70 thousand people, to whom the emperor could oppose no more than 12 thousand soldiers. But the situation has changed radically. The Austrians and their allies inflicted a series of crushing defeats on the French. This allowed the emperor to free up a number of units and use them to suppress the Rakoczi rebellion. The Kurut army suffered defeat after defeat. In February 1711, Rakoczy was forced to leave for Poland in search of foreign help. In his absence, the Kuruc military leaders made peace with Austria, the humiliating conditions of which bordered on capitulation. Rakoczi could no longer return to his homeland: he became an exile.

In May 1711 Rakoczi first met with the Russian Tsar Peter I, who offered the Hungarian prince a plot of land in Ukraine, where he could spend the rest of his days calmly and without worries. However, Rakoczi refused - he still dreamed of freedom for his country.

After the Austro-Turkish War of 1683 -1699. and the suppression of the national liberation movement of 1703 -1711. all of Hungary came under Habsburg rule. The new owners of the country very actively took up its restoration. Vast empty territories in the south and lands confiscated from the Rakoczi family were settled by settlers from other regions of the vast empire - Germans, Slovaks, Serbs, Romanians. However, unlike other countries of Western Europe, remnants of the Middle Ages remained for a long time in Hungary - serfdom, various noble privileges - which hindered the modernization of the country.

Until 1848, Hungary retained partial autonomy within the Austrian Empire. However, despite the fact that the Hungarian parliament and government functioned in Pest - with very limited powers - all vital decisions were made in Vienna, where Hungary was regarded only as an eastern province of the empire. Both the Hungarian political elite, consisting of several dozen aristocratic families, and the poorest circles of the population were well aware of the illusory nature of “autonomy” and the decorative nature of the Pest government with its meager powers. Therefore, it is not surprising that the revolution that broke out in March 1848 swept through all layers of Hungarian society without exception.

Hungarian Revolution 1848 -1849 became an extraordinary event even against the backdrop of other revolutionary events in Europe at that time. Under pressure from the revolting masses, the Hungarian parliament passed laws on the emancipation of peasants, universal equality before the law, freedom of the press and the formation of a Hungarian government independent in its decisions from Vienna. The ideological inspirers of the revolution were the famous politician Lajos Kossuth, Count Istvan Széchenyi and the poet Sandor Petőfi.

Starting with demands for political freedoms, the revolutionaries moved on to demands for complete independence of the country. Kossuth and his comrades were warmly supported by the widest sections of Hungarian society. The Hungarian cavalry and infantry regiments that were part of the Austrian Imperial Army went over to the side of the revolutionaries. Their ranks were filled by many hundreds of volunteers.

In September 1848, clashes began between Hungarian rebels and Austrian troops. In battles with the Austrians, the Hungarian rebels won a series of brilliant victories, and it seemed that the country's independence was just around the corner. However, the Viennese imperial court turned to the Russian Tsar Nicholas I for help.

In January 1849, Russian troops entered Hungary under the command of His Serene Highness Prince of Warsaw Ivan Fedorovich Paskevich (1782 - 1856). August 9, 1849 The main forces of the Hungarian army were crushed in the battle of Temesvar (now Timisoara, Romania), after which the remnants of the Hungarian revolutionary troops capitulated. The poet Sándor Petőfi fell in battle, the fiery orator Lajos Kossuth fled the country, and Count Széchenyi, while in exile, committed suicide. The Austrians staged a real hunt for the rebels; captured Hungarian generals and officers were shot. Until now, October 6 is a day of national mourning in Hungary: on this day the Hungarian people honor the memory of the executed heroes of the revolution and liberation struggle of 1848 - 1849.

After the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution, the Austrian government began to look for ways to achieve internal stability and prevent similar upheavals in the future. The result of these searches was the Agreement of 1867 (the so-called Ausgleich), according to which the Austrian Empire was turned into a two-united (“dualistic”) monarchy - Austria-Hungary. Austria and Hungary, within the framework of the formula “Austria is an empire, Hungary is a kingdom,” acquired equal rights. The general affairs of the dual monarchy - the maintenance of the imperial-royal court, foreign policy, foreign trade and defense - were decided by delegations from the parliaments of both parts of the state.

The era of dualism became the second “golden age” of Hungary. During this period, the country experienced an economic, cultural and intellectual renaissance. Although vestiges of feudalism still remained, the country's economy was booming. A flow of foreign capital rushed to Hungary. The country quickly reached the level of the most developed regions of what was then Europe. The technical capabilities of the industry made it possible to launch the production of the latest products at that time and even create entire new industries. In 1905, the first steam turbine was built in Hungary. At the same time, the first Hungarian passenger car was created, designed by engineer Istvan Csonka. Three years later, serial production of these cars began, and from 1912 - trucks. Shortly before the start of the First World War, Hungarian engineers created the first aircraft of their own design.

Birth of independent Hungary

The First World War (1914-1918) was a real disaster for Hungary. As part of the dual Austro-Hungarian monarchy, the country sided with the Central Powers. Following defeat in the war, the Habsburg monarchy disintegrated. On November 16, 1918, the Hungarian National Council proclaimed Hungary a people's republic. A few days later, Romanian troops, with the tacit consent of the leading Entente powers, began the occupation of Transylvania.

March 21, 1919 In the conditions of an acute internal political crisis, the weakness of Hungarian state institutions and the very real threat of foreign intervention, the Hungarian Social Democrats and Communists signed an agreement to unite both parties and proclaim the Hungarian Soviet Republic. On the evening of March 21, power in Budapest completely passed into the hands of the Revolutionary Government Council. A Soviet government was formed, headed by the Social Democrat Sandor Garbai; The leader of the Hungarian communists, Bela Kun, joined it as the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs.

On April 16, Romanian military forces launched a surprise invasion of Hungary. On April 27, Czechoslovak troops joined them. For three and a half months, the Hungarian Red Army desperately fought against the superior forces of the interventionists, at times launching counter-offensives. The period of victories was May 1919. During these days, Hungarian units liberated most of the territory of Slovakia, where the Slovak Soviet Republic was proclaimed on June 16.

Following the period of success, a period of failure began. On August 1, under the influence of defeats at the front and increasing pressure from the Entente countries, the Soviet government of Hungary resigned. The so-called trade union government came to power, and on August 4 Budapest was occupied by Romanian troops. Soon after their withdrawal, on November 23, 1919, a new coalition government of Hungary was formed, relying on the armed forces of Admiral Horthy. January 25, 1920 Elections to the national parliament were held for the first time, and on February 13, the royal form of government was restored in Hungary. Due to the lack of real candidates for the Hungarian throne, Admiral Miklos Horthy was appointed regent of the country.

Hungary in World War II

On September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland. The Second World War began. In an effort to turn Hungary into its ally, Nazi Germany provided it with significant territorial concessions. According to the first Vienna Arbitration of November 2, 1938, the southern regions of Czechoslovakia populated by Hungarians were transferred to Hungary. In the fall of 1939, when Slovakia declared its independence, Miklos Horthy sent Hungarian troops into the territory of Transcarpathian Ukraine. According to the second Vienna Arbitration of August 30, 1940. Northern Transylvania went to Hungary. All these concessions were Hitler’s “gift” to Budapest and deliberately doomed to failure the attempts of some Hungarian statesmen, including the then Prime Minister Pal Teleki, to pursue a foreign policy independent of Germany.

In April 1941, during the days of Hitler's aggression against Yugoslavia and Greece, Hungary, despite the resistance of Pal Teleki, sided with Germany. Realizing that this policy was leading the country to disaster, the head of the Hungarian government committed suicide. After Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, Budapest declared war on Moscow. This is how Hungarian troops ended up on the Soviet front as Hitler’s satellites.

In January 1943, the Hungarian army suffered heavy losses in the battles on the Don, where more than 100 thousand people died. Under the influence of the victories of the Red Army, the regime of Miklos Horthy began to lean toward a break with Nazi Germany. On his orders, Prime Minister Miklos Kállai began secret negotiations with the Western allies. However, Hitler became aware of these negotiations, and on March 19, 1944, German troops occupied Hungary. Miklos Kallai was arrested.

At the end of September 1944, the war was already approaching the borders of Hungary. On October 15, Miklos Horthy issued a statement about the country's withdrawal from the war. However, Hitler did not want to lose such an important strategic bridgehead from his hands. With the direct participation of the Nazis, a coup d'état took place in Budapest. Horthy was removed from power, and his place was taken by the puppet ruler Ferenc Szalasi, the leader of the Hungarian pro-fascist Arrow Cross group.

During the period of dominance of the fascist regime, which lasted for several months, the most severe terror was established in the country. Mass deportation of Hungarian Jews to death camps began (in total, about 500,000 people were deported). Soldier deserters, soldiers who had been captured, members of the Resistance and other “unreliable elements” were arrested and shot without trial. The entire population of the country between the ages of 12 and 70 was declared mobilized into the army or for forced labor.

Hungarian resistance

Already in March 1944, the partisan anti-fascist movement began to operate in Hungary. It became especially active in the fall of 1944. Hungarian partisans, together with Soviet units, took part in the liberation of the city of Miskolc. The voluntary transition of Hungarian soldiers and officers to the side of the Soviet army became widespread. Both scattered groups and entire units and subunits crossed over - often fully armed - and often up to 98% of the soldiers expressed their desire to fight against the Nazis. The formation of Hungarian volunteer units began. 20 volunteer companies (about 2,500 people) together with Soviet troops took part in the battles for the liberation of Budapest.

On October 16, 1944, in the sector of the 4th Ukrainian Front, the commander of the 1st Hungarian Army, General Bela Miklos, along with his entire headquarters (his army then disintegrated, most of the soldiers went over to the side of the Soviet troops) went over to the Soviet side. Another general, Janos Kiss, headed the military organization of the underground Liberation Committee, created in Budapest by representatives of various political forces. The committee was preparing an uprising against the Salais regime and the German occupiers, but almost all of its members were killed on November 22, 1944. betrayed by an agent provocateur and executed.

On December 21, the first meeting of the Provisional National Council of Hungary opened in the liberated territory of the country, in Debrecen. An appeal to the people was adopted - the Declaration of Debrecen, and a Provisional National Government was formed, headed by General Béla Miklós. On December 28, the Provisional National Government declared war on Germany.

Meanwhile, fighting continued in the capital Budapest. During the three-month siege, the capital of Hungary was completely destroyed. The Nazis blew up all the Budapest bridges over the Danube, and the ancient Buda Fortress completely burned down. Everything that could be taken was exported to Germany: livestock, food, industrial equipment, values ​​of a rational bank, cultural values ​​and the symbol of Hungarian statehood - the crown of St. Stephen.

The fighting in Hungary ended in early April 1945. The damage was colossal; Hungary had not seen anything like it since the Turkish invasion. Almost the entire country lay in ruins.

Modern Hungary

On October 23, 1989, the Hungarian Republic was proclaimed. Hungary has embarked on the path of creating a democratic, rule-of-law state based on free competition of political parties and movements. In the spring of 1990, the first free elections in 45 years took place. The country has begun a difficult process of transition to a market economy. The policy of market reforms in Hungary has been carried out at an accelerated pace since 1989, but shock therapy was rejected. In 1994, the Hungarian economy passed the low point of recession, after which strong economic growth began.