Initially, the American continent was inhabited by tribes that arrived from Asia. However, in the 13-15th century, with the active development of culture and industry, civilized Europe set out to search for and develop new lands. What happened to America at the end of the 15th century?

Christopher Columbus is a famous Spanish navigator. It was his first expedition that marked the beginning of active travel to the “New World” and the development of this territory. The “New World” was then considered to be the lands that are now called South and North America.

In 1488, Portugal had a monopoly on the waters of the Atlantic coast of Africa. Spain was forced to find another sea route to trade with India and gain access to gold, silver and spices. This is what prompted the rulers of Spain to agree to Columbus's expedition.

Columbus is looking for a new route to India

Columbus made only four expeditions to the shores of the so-called “India”. However, by the fourth expedition he knew that he had not found India. So, let's go back to Columbus's first voyage.

Columbus's first voyage to America

The first expedition consisted of only three ships. Columbus had to get two ships himself. The first ship was given by his fellow navigator Pinson. He also lent Columbus money so that Christopher could equip a second ship. About a hundred crew members also went on the trip.

The voyage lasted from August 1492 to March 1493. In October, they sailed to a land that was mistakenly considered to be the surrounding islands of Asia, that is, it could be the western territories of China, India or Japan. In reality, it was the European discovery of the Bahamas, Haiti and Cuba. Here, on these islands, local residents presented Columbus with dry leaves, i.e. tobacco, as a gift. The locals also walked naked around the island and wore various gold jewelry. Columbus tried to find out from them where they got the gold and only after he took several natives prisoner did he find out the route where they got it. So Columbus attempted to find gold, but found only more and more new lands. He was happy that he had opened a new route to “Western India,” but there were no developed cities and untold riches there. When returning home, Christopher took with him local residents (whom he called Indians) as proof of success.

When did the colonization of America begin?

Soon after returning to Spain with gifts and "Indians", the Spaniards soon decide to send the sailor on his way again. Thus began Columbus's second expedition.

Columbus's second voyage

September 1493 - June 1496 The purpose of this journey was to organize new colonies, so the flotilla included as many as 17 ships. Among the sailors there were priests, nobles, officials and courtiers. They brought domestic animals, raw materials, and food with them. As a result of the expedition, Columbus paved a more convenient route to “Western India”, the island of Hispaniola (Haiti) was completely conquered, and the extermination of the local population began.

Columbus still believed that he was in Western India. On the second trip, they also discovered islands, including Jamaica and Puerto Rico. On Hispaniola, the Spaniards found gold deposits in the depths of the island and began mining it, with the help of enslaving the local residents. Worker uprisings arose, but unarmed local residents were doomed. They died as a result of the suppression of riots, diseases brought from Europe, and hunger. The rest of the local population was subject to tribute and enslaved.
The Spanish rulers were not satisfied with the income that the new lands brought, and therefore allowed everyone to move to the new lands, and broke the agreement with Columbus, that is, they deprived him of the right to rule the new lands. As a result, Columbus decides to travel to Spain, where he negotiates with the kings to return his privileges, and that prisoners will live in the new lands, who will work and develop the territories; moreover, Spain will be freed from undesirable elements of society.

Third journey

Columbus set out on the third expedition with six ships, 600 people also included prisoners from Spanish prisons. Columbus this time decided to pave the way closer to the equator in order to find new lands rich in gold, since the current colonies provided modest incomes, which did not suit the Spanish kings. But due to illness, Columbus was forced to go to Hispaniola (Haiti). There, a rebellion awaited him again. To suppress the rebellion, Columbus had to allocate land to the local residents and give slaves to help each rebel.

Then, unexpectedly, news came - the famous navigator Vasco da Gama discovered the real route to India. He arrived from there with treats, spices, and declared Columbus a deceiver. As a result, the Spanish kings ordered the arrest of the deceiver and returned him to Spain. But soon, the charges against him are dropped and he is sent on the last expedition.

Fourth expedition

Columbus believed that there was a path from new lands to a source of spices. And he wanted to find him. As a result of the last expedition, he discovered islands off South America, Costa Rica and others, but never reached the Pacific Ocean, as he learned from local residents that Europeans were already here. Columbus returned to Spain.

Since Columbus no longer had a monopoly on the discovery of new lands, other Spanish travelers set out to explore and colonize new territories. An era began when impoverished Spanish or Portuguese knights (conquistadors) traveled away from their native lands in search of adventure and wealth.

Who was the first to colonize America?

The Spanish conquistadors initially tried to develop new lands in North Africa, but the local population showed strong resistance, so the discovery of the New World came in handy. It was thanks to the discovery of new colonies in North and South America that Spain was considered the main superpower of Europe and the mistress of the seas.

In history and literature, the period of the conquest of American lands is perceived differently. On the one hand, the Spaniards are viewed as educators who brought culture, religion, and art with them. On the other hand, it was brutal enslavement and destruction of the local population. In fact, it was both. Modern countries have different assessments of the contribution of the Spaniards to the history of their country. For example, in Venezuela in 2004, a monument to Columbus was demolished because he was considered the founder of the extermination of the local indigenous population.

The difference between the change of natural zones on the plains and in the mountains. Name the most dangerous fish. Who discovered America. Population density. Lama. Brazilian plateau. Mainland. South America. Where did the names come from? Amount of precipitation. Why was A. Humboldt called the “second Columbus”. One of the most unusual and paradoxical dry zones on the globe. Population of South America. Cultivated plants. Name the highest point of the Andes mountains.

“Characteristics of South America” - Gallinas. The history of the discovery of America. Travelers. Geographical location of South America. History of the exploration of South America. Location of South America. History of the study of South America. Researchers. Caribbean Sea. Russian botanist. Present. Geographical location and history of exploration of the continent of South America. Climatic zones. Geographical position. Alexander Humboldt.

“Journey to South America” - The highest point in South America. Knowledge on the topic. Russian botanist. Geographical object. Ecological tournament. Travel to South America. Indigenous people of South America. My own game. The tallest waterfall in the world. Emotions. Why was the New Part of the World called America? Geographical position. International community. Meeting the teams. Descendants of European settlers. Three in one. Warm-up “Call me.”

"South America" ​​game - The largest city by population in Brazil. Paraguayan tea. Western Cape. A bird that flies tail first. A grain crop native to South America. Plants. In which country do earthquakes often occur? Toucan, howler condor, macaw, llama armadillo, sloth. Northernmost point. The tallest tree in the jungle. Tree - “break the axe.” Hoatzin is a bird “with hands”.

"Position of South America" ​​- The wettest continent on Earth. Features of the geographical location. Strait. Bay Similarities and differences in the SOEs of South America and Africa. Channel. Physical map of the world. The wealth of nature. Features of the South American GP. Similarities and differences in GP. Problem-based learning. The widest strait on Earth. Name. Who owns the discovery of the continent? Football players Maradona and Pele. Natives. South America. Why is the continent called America?

"History of South America" ​​- Maracaibo. Pre-classical period. Extreme points. Black River. Patagonia. Paraguay. Uruguay. Climatic zones. Temperature fluctuation. Expedition of Francisco Orellana. Geography. Vegetation on fertile reddish-black soils. Geology. Atacama Desert. Composition of South America. Steppe in southeastern South America. El Niño. Economy. Countries and territories. Temperature. Southern continent in America.

Christopher Columbus was a medieval navigator who discovered the Sargasso and Caribbean Seas, the Antilles, the Bahamas and the American continent for Europeans, and was the first known traveler to cross the Atlantic Ocean.

According to various sources, Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 in Genoa, in what is now Corsica. Six Italian and Spanish cities claim the right to be called his homeland. Almost nothing is known for certain about the navigator’s childhood and youth, and the origins of the Columbus family are also vague.

Some researchers call Columbus an Italian, others believe that his parents were baptized Jews, Marranos. This assumption explains the incredible level of education for those times that Christopher, who came from the family of an ordinary weaver and housewife, received.

According to some historians and biographers, Columbus studied at home until the age of 14, but had excellent knowledge of mathematics and knew several languages, including Latin. The boy had three younger brothers and a sister, all of whom were taught by visiting teachers. One of the brothers, Giovanni, died in childhood, sister Bianchella grew up and got married, and Bartolomeo and Giacomo accompanied Columbus on his travels.

Most likely, Columbus was given all possible assistance by his fellow believers, wealthy Genoese financiers from the Marranos. With their help, a young man from a poor family entered the University of Padua.

Being an educated man, Columbus was familiar with the teachings of ancient Greek philosophers and thinkers, who depicted the Earth as a ball, and not a flat pancake, as was believed in the Middle Ages. However, such thoughts, like Jewish origin during the Inquisition, which was raging in Europe, had to be carefully hidden.

At the university, Columbus became friends with students and teachers. One of his close friends was the astronomer Toscanelli. According to his calculations, it turned out that to the treasured India, full of untold riches, it was much closer to sail in a western direction, and not in an eastern direction, skirting Africa. Later, Christopher carried out his own calculations, which, although incorrect, confirmed Toscanelli's hypothesis. Thus was born the dream of a western journey, and Columbus devoted his whole life to it.

Even before entering university as a fourteen-year-old teenager, Christopher Columbus experienced the hardships of sea travel. The father arranged for his son to work on one of the trading schooners to learn the art of navigation and trade skills, and from that moment the biography of Columbus the navigator began.

Columbus made his first voyages as a cabin boy in the Mediterranean Sea, where trade and economic routes between Europe and Asia intersected. At the same time, European merchants knew about the riches and gold deposits of Asia and India from the words of the Arabs, who resold them wonderful silks and spices from these countries.

The young man listened to extraordinary stories from the lips of eastern merchants and was inflamed with a dream of reaching the shores of India in order to find its treasures and get rich.

Expeditions

In the 70s of the 15th century, Columbus married Felipe Moniz from a wealthy Italian-Portuguese family. The father-in-law of Christopher, who settled in Lisbon and sailed under the Portuguese flag, was also a navigator. After his death, he left nautical charts, diaries and other documents, which were inherited by Columbus. Using them, the traveler continued to study geography, while simultaneously studying the works of Piccolomini, Pierre de Ailly,.

Christopher Columbus took part in the so-called northern expedition, as part of which his route passed through the British Isles and Iceland. Presumably, there the navigator heard Scandinavian sagas and stories about the Vikings, Erik the Red and Leiv Eriksson, who reached the coast of the “Mainland” by sailing across the Atlantic Ocean.

Columbus drew up a route that allowed him to reach India by the western route back in 1475. He presented an ambitious plan to conquer a new land to the court of the Genoese merchants, but did not meet with support.

A few years later, in 1483, Christopher made a similar proposal to the Portuguese King João II. The king assembled a scientific council, which reviewed the Genoese’s project and found his calculations incorrect. Frustrated, but resilient, Columbus left Portugal and moved to Castile.

In 1485, the navigator requested an audience with the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile. The couple received him favorably, listened to Columbus, who enticed them with the treasures of India, and, just like the Portuguese ruler, called the scientists to a council. The commission did not support the navigator, since the possibility of a western route implied the sphericity of the Earth, which contradicted the teachings of the church. Columbus was almost declared a heretic, but the king and queen relented and decided to postpone the final decision until the end of the war with the Moors.

Columbus, who was driven not so much by a thirst for discovery as by a desire to get rich, carefully concealing the details of his planned journey, sent messages to the English and French monarchs. Charles and Henry did not respond to the letters, being too busy with domestic politics, but the Portuguese king sent the navigator an invitation to continue discussing the expedition.

When Christopher announced this in Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella agreed to equip a squadron of ships to search for a western route to India, although the poor Spanish treasury did not have the funds for this enterprise. The monarchs promised Columbus a title of nobility, the titles of admiral and viceroy of all the lands that he would discover, and he had to borrow money from Andalusian bankers and merchants.

Four Expeditions of Columbus

1. Christopher Columbus's first expedition took place in 1492-1493. On three ships, the caravels "Pinta" (owned by Martin Alonso Pinzon) and "Nina" and the four-masted sailing ship "Santa Maria", the navigator passed through the Canary Islands, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, discovering the Sargasso Sea along the way, and reached the Bahamas. On October 12, 1492, Columbus set foot on the island of Saman, which he named San Salvador. This date is considered the day of the discovery of America.
2. Columbus's second expedition took place in 1493-1496. During this campaign, the Lesser Antilles, Dominica, Haiti, Cuba, and Jamaica were discovered.
3. The third expedition dates from 1498 to 1500. The flotilla of six ships reached the islands of Trinidad and Margarita, marking the beginning of the discovery of South America, and ended in Haiti.
4. During the fourth expedition, Christopher Columbus sailed to Martinique, visited the Gulf of Honduras and explored the coast of Central America along the Caribbean Sea.

Discovery of America

The process of discovering the New World lasted for many years. The most amazing thing is that Columbus, being a convinced discoverer and experienced navigator, believed until the end of his days that he had discovered the way to Asia. He considered the Bahamas, discovered in the first expedition, to be part of Japan, followed by the discovery of wonderful China, and behind it the treasured India.

What did Columbus discover and why did the new continent receive the name of another traveler? The list of discoveries made by the great traveler and navigator includes San Salvador, Cuba and Haiti, belonging to the Bahamas archipelago, and the Sargasso Sea.

Seventeen ships headed by the flagship Maria Galante set off on the second expedition. This type of ship with a displacement of two hundred tons and other ships carried not only sailors, but also colonialists, livestock, and supplies. All this time, Columbus was convinced that he had discovered Western India. At the same time, the Antilles, Dominica and Guadeloupe were discovered.

The third expedition brought Columbus's ships to the continent, but the navigator was disappointed: he never found India with its gold deposits. Columbus returned from this trip in shackles, accused of false denunciation. Before entering the port, the shackles were removed from him, but the navigator lost the promised titles and ranks.

The last voyage of Christopher Columbus ended with a shipwreck off the coast of Jamaica and a serious illness of the leader of the expedition. He returned home sick, unhappy and broken by failures. Amerigo Vespucci was a close comrade and follower of Columbus, who undertook four voyages to the New World. An entire continent is named after him, and one country in South America is named after Columbus, who never reached India.

Personal life

If you believe the biographers of Christopher Columbus, the first of whom was his own son, the navigator was married twice. The first marriage with Felipe Moniz was legal. The wife gave birth to a son, Diego. In 1488, Columbus had a second son, Fernando, from a relationship with a woman named Beatriz Enriquez de Arana.

The navigator took equal care of both sons, and even took the younger one with him on an expedition when the boy was thirteen years old. Fernando became the first to write a biography of the famous traveler.

Christopher Columbus with his wife Felipe Moniz

Subsequently, both sons of Columbus became influential people and took high positions. Diego was the fourth Viceroy of New Spain and Admiral of the Indies, and his descendants were titled Marquesses of Jamaica and Dukes of Veragua.

Fernando Columbus, who became a writer and scientist, enjoyed the favor of the Spanish emperor, lived in a marble palace and had an annual income of up to 200,000 francs. These titles and wealth went to the descendants of Columbus as a sign of recognition by the Spanish monarchs of his services to the crown.

Death

After the discovery of America from his last expedition, Columbus returned to Spain as a terminally ill, aged man. In 1506, the discoverer of the New World died in poverty in a small house in Valladolid. Columbus spent his savings to pay off the debts of the participants of the last expedition.

Tomb of Christopher Columbus

Soon after the death of Christopher Columbus, the first ships began to arrive from America, loaded with gold, which the navigator so dreamed of. Many historians agree that Columbus knew that he had discovered not Asia or India, but a new, unexplored continent, but did not want to share with anyone the glory and treasures, which were one step away.

The appearance of the enterprising discoverer of America is known from photographs in history textbooks. Several films have been made about Columbus, the latest being a film co-produced by France, England, Spain and the USA, “1492: The Conquest of Paradise.” Monuments to this great man were erected in Barcelona and Granada, and his ashes were transported from Seville to Haiti.

Biography of Columbus - a history of riddles without answers

Christopher Columbus is one of the most mysterious personalities of the Age of Great Geographical Discovery in particular, and among historical figures in general.

There is so little factual material about his birth, origin, education, professional activities before the first expedition to the West Indies that this allowed Columbus’s biographers and historians to write more than a hundred books about him, introducing into their writings a lot of adjectives, guesses and unverified statements. Even the main document of the first expedition to the New World - the original ship's log - has not been preserved, let alone the period when Columbus was still, in fact, a nobody.

Therefore, the history of Columbus is a history of continuous mysteries without answers - versions, assumptions and doubts... Almost everything is subject to doubt: the date and place of birth, origin and social status, education and field of activity. Suffice it to say that more than two dozen cities in different European countries have claimed and continue to claim the title of the birthplace of Christopher Columbus.

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)" face="Georgia">Everything connected with the name of this legendary navigator is shrouded in a veil of mystery and mysticism. Therefore, on the pages devoted to H. Columbus, both generally accepted versions of events, as well as various hypotheses and, of course, a few facts will be presented.

So:

Date of birth of Columbus

Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 sometime between August 25th and October 31st. This is the main generally accepted version listed in the encyclopedia. The controversial version is in 1446.

Place of Birth

Genoa is a coastal city-state-republic. ", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)"> This is the main version. A number of other cities in Italy and Spain dispute the honor of being the small homeland of Columbus. There is no reinforced concrete evidence of the great traveler’s birthplace. In those days there were no passports or registration.

Parents

Father - Domenico Columbus (Italian: Domenico Colombo). Mother - Susanna Fontanarossa (Italian: Susanna Fontanarossa) This information is not disputed by anyone.

Social status

At this point, only one thing is clear - the Columbuses were not nobles. And not from the merchants. And not from bankers. And not even from seafarers. ", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)"> With equal probability, researchers claim that Columbus the Elder was a poor weaver, wool carder, wine and cheese merchant, city gate guard, innkeeper, etc. In a word, from those who earned their living by their own labor. Most likely, Christopher started working early. It is possible that he became a cabin boy or a lower rank on ships and became acquainted with the sea from childhood.

Surname

For some reason, the very name “Columbus” raises numerous doubts among researchers. I don’t know what they doubt, but I have no doubt at all. ", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)"> In Italian Colombo- pigeon. In Latin, (the direct ancestor of Italian) dove - columbus. In our opinion, it turns out - Golubev. Just everything. What is there to doubt? And this indirectly confirms the Genoese-Italian origin of Senor Cristoforo Colombo. (For information: in Spanish, dove is paloma, in Portuguese - pombo.) Still, the official version that Columbus was from Genoa outweighs all others: Portuguese, Spanish, German and Slavic versions of his origin.

Childhood. Adolescence. Youth.

How Christopher Columbus spent his childhood, adolescence and youth is unknown. One can only speculate.

Education

The main version is that he studied at the University of Pavia (that is, at the University of Padua). But there is no documentary evidence of this.

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)" face="Georgia"> Options: received home education or attended some educational institution. Indirect evidence of this statement is that Columbus knew navigation well, and it included knowledge of mathematics, geometry, cosmography (astronomy) and geography. Then he worked as a cartographer. Then to the printing house. All these occupations required a certain level of education.

In addition, Columbus spoke Italian, Portuguese and Spanish. He knew some Latin. There is evidence that he could also write in Hebrew.

I believe that Christopher Columbus did receive some kind of basic systematic primary education. And on its basis I improved all my life. There is no doubt that Columbus had a broad outlook.

Nationality

There are as many ambiguities here as in the previous paragraphs. Genoese is not a nationality. It's more like citizenship. There are a number of studies showing the Jewish origins of Christopher Columbus, for there is several indirect evidence for this assumption. However, one does not interfere with the other. Versions of the Spanish, Portuguese or German origin of Columbus are more reminiscent of the “wishlist” of researchers, pulling the great man by the ears to his nationality.

Religion

Columbus's official religion was undoubtedly Catholic. Otherwise, he simply would not have been allowed into the door either in Portugal, or even less so in Spain. The assertion that Christopher Columbus was a Marano (baptized Jew) did not bother him at all. He just disguised himself very well so as not to fall under the millstone of Catholic obscurantists. Indirect evidence that Columbus was one of his own is the fact that his undertaking was supported by major financial tycoons in Castile and Aragon, who were all from the same environment.

Family status

Columbus was a prominent man, although poor. While serving in Portugal, apparently in one of the Genoese trading houses, he met his future wife Dona Felipe Moniz de Palestrello, whom he married in 1478. ", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)"> Soon their son Diego was born. This happened near Madeira on the small island of Porto Santo, where Columbus was serving at that time. The Moniz de Palestrello family was not rich, but the noble origin of his wife allowed Christopher Domenikovich to establish contacts and connections in the circles of the Portuguese nobility.

Occupation

The main occupation that at least fed Columbus was related to the sea and maritime trade. Trade representative, captain, pilot-navigator, cartographer... Most likely, Columbus took on any business that could feed him and his family. In Portugal he was involved in drawing maps, was a cartographer or close to that. In those days it was a prestigious occupation, cards were a secret and hot commodity. That is, something like working at a prestigious secret enterprise. In principle, swimming and cartography are very interrelated activities.

Columbus's place(s) of residence

Until 1472 he lived in Genoa. Columbus settled in Lisbon around 1473-1476. There is no exact date. In 1485 he moved to Andalusia, lived for some time in the Rabida monastery near the port of Palos, I've been to Seville, of course, then he traveled a lot around Castile and Aragon following the royal court, earning a living whatever he had to do: cartography, work in a printing house, etc. Columbus can be considered a Spanish subject, because he never changed his country of residence again, despite rather difficult relations with the royal court.

Stay Portugal

The reason why Christopher Columbus ended up in Portugal is simple - looking for work. After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Genoa lost huge markets in the East. Its citizens scattered throughout Europe in search of a piece of bread. At first, Columbus in Portugal was, in our language, a guest worker. Then it took root. I've gotten used to it. Got married. He continued to engage in maritime trade and navigation. He sailed along the African coast, and went to northern latitudes, to England and Iceland. In Portugal, he began to compile sea charts. Most likely, the idea of ​​​​searching for a western route to India took possession of Columbus at this time. Several factors coincided - the need for an outlet. Plus Columbus's maritime experience, vital energy, desire to escape from poverty and become a significant person thanks to his knowledge and experience as a navigator and cartographer.

", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)"> For what reason Columbus left Portugal in 1485 is not known for sure. One of the possible reasons is the futility of realizing the main work of his life - an expedition to the West in search of.

The Portuguese court relied on. Africa was already paying dividends, and the western direction was “pie in the sky.” Another possible reason is that Columbus got into debt and was simply hiding from creditors. Third: a chance to realize your idea by receiving support from Catholic kings. Isabella and Ferdinand at that time were still young, energetic, aggressive, building a new state and actively looking for new sources of income.

Stay in Spain

So, from 1485 to the last days of his stay on earth in 1506, Christopher Columbus was in Spain (Andalusia, Castile, Leon, Aragon). ", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)"> He lived here, was in the royal service and was actually a Spanish subject. Although there was no country with that name yet. A separate book could be devoted to Columbus’s escapades in Spain. Wherever he had been, wherever he had lived... His main occupation here was to get through to the Catholic kings, find influential people, and interest them in his project. Which is what he finally achieved. Columbus not only discovered the New World for the Spanish crown, he made three more trips to the West Indies, discovering more and more new lands.

Columbus's first expedition to the New World

Consisting of three ships, “Pinta”, “Nina”, “Santa Maria” started from the port of Palos. As a result of the expedition, the Bahamas, Cuba and Haiti were discovered. Read more here about the first expedition of Christopher Columbus.

Columbus's second expedition

Columbus's second flotilla already consisted of 17 ships. According to various sources, from 1,500 to 2,500 people took part in it, among whom were not only adventurers, but also intentional colonists who decided to seek their happiness in new lands. In addition to people, the ships were loaded with livestock, seeds, equipment and everything necessary for organizing a permanent settlement. The colonists completely conquered Hispaniola and founded the city of Santo Domingo. The expedition started from the port of Cadiz. The Lesser Antilles, Virgin Islands, the islands of Puerto Rico, and Jamaica were discovered, and the southern coast of Cuba was further explored. At the same time, Columbus remained of the opinion that he had discovered western India, and not a new land.

Columbus's third expedition

Only six ships and 300 crew went west. As a result, the island of Trinidad, the Orinoco River delta and a number of other territories were discovered. During this expedition, Columbus was arrested by his ill-wishers and sent in chains to Castile. Only the intervention of influential financiers made it possible to remove his disgrace.

Columbus's fourth expedition

Columbus discovered the mainland coast of Central America: Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama. The first meetings with the Mayan Indians took place. Columbus persistently searched for a strait into the South Sea (Pacific Ocean), but never found it. Christopher Columbus returned to Castile without eating too much.

Christopher Columbus moved to a better world

Like many great people, Christopher Columbus was not appreciated by his contemporaries. ", BGCOLOR, "#ffffff", FONTCOLOR, "#333333", BORDERCOLOR, "Silver", WIDTH, "100%", FADEIN, 100, FADEOUT, 100)"> His death went completely unnoticed. He lost all his rights and privileges and spent his savings on his travel companions. This is what the official version says.

No one knows for sure where the ashes of the great traveler are now. And only Zurab Tsereteli sculpted Columbus in a size worthy of his achievements. The fate of the statue, as well as the fate of the remains of the navigator, are unknown.

Historical significance of Columbus's discoveries

The enormous significance of Columbus's discoveries for Spain and for the whole world was appreciated only half a century later, when galleons with gold and silver arrived from Mexico and Peru, colonized by the Spaniards. Suffice it to say that the royal treasury, in terms of gold, spent only ten kilograms of the precious yellow metal on the preparation of Columbus’s first expedition. And according to the most conservative estimates, during the 300 years of its rule in the New World, Spain mined and exported gold, silver and other valuables there in an amount equivalent to 3 million kilograms of pure gold!

Travelers of the Age of Great Geographical Discovery

Russian travelers and pioneers

Was showered with courtesies from the queen and king. He went to Seville to make preparations for a new expedition. Isabel And Ferdinand showed complete confidence in him. Columbus was confirmed in the rank of viceroy of the lands that he had discovered or would discover; he was given all the power in them, the appointment of all regional rulers and judges. But a commission was established in Seville to manage the affairs of India (that is, in the current expression of the West Indies). Juan Fonseca was appointed its president (who later received the rank of Bishop of Badajoz), a power-hungry man who cared exclusively about the interests of the Spanish government, sacrificing for them the good of American possessions, managing affairs despotically, according to his personal sympathies and antipathies towards the people. This commission, called the Chamber of Contracts, Casa de Contratacion, the chairman of which Fonseca remained for a very long time, was the supreme court in all matters of the colonies, established duties and trade rules for them, and was in charge of equipping expeditions to America. Fonseca's assistants were Francisco Pinelo and Juan Soria, who were in charge of specially different areas of financial management.

Portrait of Christopher Columbus. Artist S. del Piombo, 1519

The government carefully helped Columbus equip his second voyage. Sailors and soldiers willingly joined the expedition. The government convinced artisans, mining masters and people experienced in agriculture to sail to the newly discovered lands; gave Columbus large supplies of ammunition and food; supplied the expedition with horses, other domestic animals, poultry, selenium for the fields, plants for plantations, gave a lot of manufactured goods, small mirrors, bells and all sorts of trinkets for barter trade with the natives. Isabella also took care of the salvation of their souls. The savages brought by Columbus were baptized, taught the Christian faith and now went home to be missionaries, to help the twelve monks sent to baptize their fellow tribesmen. The management of the work of preaching and baptizing the natives was entrusted to Benedictine Bernarde Boyl, considered a saint, but at the same time a very clever diplomat. He was appointed papal vicar in the newly discovered lands. The Queen commanded that the missionaries should convert the natives to Christianity in a gentle way, without violence; but this command, of course, was not carried out. To prevent a dispute with Portugal over new possessions, Isabella asked the pope for a bull granting the Castilian kingdom ownership of the lands of the western Atlantic Ocean.

This bull given Pope Alexander VI May 4, 1493, called demarcation. She drew a line along a meridian located 100 nautical miles west of the Azores, and decreed that all the islands and lands that would be discovered to the west of this line should belong to Spain, and all those located to the east should be granted to Portugal.

The Spaniards referred to the papal bull, appropriating all of America as their exclusive property. The Spanish government decreed that only Spaniards could trade with the newly discovered lands in the west, and that it was prohibited for citizens of all other states. King John II of Portugal protested against the demarcation bull; according to the treaty concluded with him in Tordesillas on June 7, 1494, the demarcation line was moved to a meridian located 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands.

The government intended to send 1,200 people to the new expedition; the number of people wishing to sail exceeded this figure, and it was increased to 1,500. Among the volunteers were noble people, attracted by the hope of getting rich in lands about which rumor said that there was a lot of gold in the sand of the rivers, a lot of gold and silver and expensive stones in the mountains, and a lot of pearls along the seashore. The most important of the people who went with Columbus on his second voyage were Alonso Ojeda, a handsome knight of extraordinary physical strength, Juan Ponce de Leon (later discovered Florida), Diego Velazquez (later appointed ruler of Cuba).

Discovery of the Caribbean Islands by Columbus

Columbus's arrival in Hispaniola (Haiti)

Columbus continued his second voyage without stopping; he hurried to that fortification on Hispaniola, in which he left some of his companions on his first journey. On the shore of Samana Bay he saw four corpses; one of the dead had a beard. Columbus assumed from this sign that he was a Spaniard. The admiral feared for the fate of others remaining on Hispaniola. It intensified when the squadron sailed to the place on the coast where Columbus expected to find many people and hundreds of boats. Now this coast was completely deserted. Columbus came to earth. After some time, an ambassador from the cacique of Guanacagari appeared; his vague answers confirmed Columbus in the idea that trouble had befallen the Spaniards remaining on Hispaniola. The next day (November 28), Columbus went ashore at the place where the fortification was located and saw that a disaster had really happened: the buildings were burned, the ospreys were destroyed; Broken boxes, scattered belongings of the Spaniards, and scraps of their clothing were scattered around. In several places there were small mounds already overgrown with grass; these were the graves of slain Spaniards. The natives were peeking out from behind the trees. Leaving his companions in the fortification, Columbus told them that in case of danger they should bury their treasures in the ground or hide them in wells. Now nothing was found in the wells, and nothing was buried in the ground.

Columbus managed to enter into relations with the natives, regain their trust, and they told him how the white people who remained with them died. The Spaniards left by Columbus in the fortification belonged for the most part to the lower class. Columbus told them to treat the natives friendly. They did not listen to him, began to take away gold jewelry from the natives, beat them, seduced their wives and daughters, and quarreled among themselves. Gutierrez and Escovedo refused to obey the senior commander, Diego Arana, and with several soldiers went into the interior of the island to rob the natives. The Hispaniol people's former reverence for the Spaniards disappeared, replaced by hatred and contempt. Gutierrez and Escovedo came to the land of Caonabo, a strong cacique. He attacked them by surprise; cut off their entire detachment, united with another cacique and went to the Spanish fortification. Arana and his soldiers lived there carefree; the natives unexpectedly attacked the fortification at night and set fire to the huts; the Spaniards fled, the natives killed them. Arana and five soldiers ran to the shore, got into a boat, sailed out to sea and drowned. Guacanagari wanted, as the natives of his tribe said, to protect the Spaniards, but was defeated and wounded. Columbus and a detachment of horsemen rode to his village, saw traces of destruction there, and found Guacanagari lying with a bandaged leg and complaining of the pain of his wound. But when the surgeon who was with Columbus removed the bandage, it turned out that there was no wound. Columbus's companions said that it was necessary to take the deceiver into custody; but the admiral chose to remain on friendly terms with him. He came to the Spaniards on the shore. Columbus took him on his ship and showed him how much power he now had. Horses seemed especially scary to Guacanagari. There were captive Caribs on the ships. Guacanagari marveled at the power of Christopher Columbus, who defeated such strong enemies. But having returned home, he went to live further from the coast, into the mountains. From this the Spaniards realized that he did not trust them.

Construction of the city of Isabella

Columbus understood that the position of the Spaniards in Hispaniola was dangerous. The area where the previous fortification was located did not have stones to build a new, stronger one, so Columbus sailed from this harbor and came ashore a few miles east of Monte Cristi at the mouth of the river. There was a fertile plain protected by a rocky ridge and impenetrable forest. Columbus began to build a new fortification at the mouth of the river. He had good craftsmen, he built a church, shops, houses; the buildings were arranged in regular streets, so that the settlement resembled a European city. Columbus named it the city of Isabella in honor of the queen. But life on Hispaniola turned out to be not at all what Columbus’s companions expected. True, the island was fertile and beautiful, but instead of the expected wealth, the colonists faced labor, hardship, and danger. Most of the Spaniards lost heart; the unusual way of life caused illness among them. Columbus himself fell ill with a fever and lay there for several weeks. The time came when he had to send part of the squadron to Spain; he understood that if his companions returned empty-handed and with sad news, he would lose the trust and help of the government. Ojeda, who went with some brave companions to Cibao, the land of the cacique Caonabo, learned that there was a lot of gold sand in this part of the island, and brought back a lot of gold. Thus, Columbus, sending 12 ships to Europe under the command of Antonio Torres in February 1494, sent Isabella, along with a report on the events of his second voyage, a fairly large amount of gold; He also sent plants and fruits found in the Cibao region, and several captive Caribs. The government could see that the newly discovered lands would provide great income. But now Columbus still had to not enrich the government, but ask it for benefits. The supplies taken from Spain at the beginning of the voyage were almost all depleted; new ones were needed; their costs could not be covered by the gold that Columbus sent. He proposed sending the Caribs to Spain to be sold into slavery and covered up this project with the explanation that by selling the Caribs into slavery, the peace-loving natives would be freed from robbers, and many of those taken to Europe would become Christians and gain spiritual salvation. But Isabella did not agree to trade in slaves.

Soon after Torres sailed, the displeasure of the Spaniards remaining on Hispaniola intensified to such an extent that a conspiracy was formed against Columbus. Treasurer Vernal Pisa and some others planned to take possession of the ships that remained off the coast of Hispaniola and sail to Spain. The conspiracy was discovered, a note was found prepared to justify the arbitrariness before the Spanish government; it was filled with accusations against Columbus. He arrested Vernal Pisa and said that he would send him to Spain with evidence of the falsehood of the accusations. This irritated many. The national pride of the Spaniards was offended by the obligation to obey the foreigner Columbus.

Gold in Cibao

Having recovered, Columbus embarked on a trip to Cibao in March. With a large detachment, which included many horsemen, he crossed the steep ridge separating the seaside from the middle part of the island. He entrusted the leadership of the ships and the city to his brother Diego, a modest and efficient man. Cutting a path through forests in the mountains, Columbus's detachment reached the top of the ridge, from which they saw a vast plain, irrigated by rivers, covered with luxurious vegetation. Villages stood between magnificent palm groves. Columbus named this area the Royal Plain, Vega Real. At the sight of horsemen, the residents hid in their huts and covered their entrances with reeds. The Spaniards did not forcefully enter the huts and behaved friendly. The natives calmed down and began to bring them food supplies. Having crossed the plain, the Spaniards came to the highlands; its inhabitants had grains of gold collected from the sand of rivers; they gave this gold to the Spaniards in exchange for trinkets. Columbus suggested that there should be mines rich in gold in the neighborhood. The warriors whom he sent to find out about the areas lying further in the depths of the island confirmed his thought. He built a fortification near the Yapike River, which he called Fort St. Thomas, left Pedro Margarita there with 56 soldiers and went back to Isabella, encouraged by the results of his expedition.

But the Spaniards' displeasure with Isabella increased. Food supplies brought from Europe were depleted, and the Spaniards could not get used to the food of the natives. From the lack of familiar food, from the hot, damp climate and from debauchery, diseases appeared among the Spaniards. The Hidalgos refused to work and were indignant at the foreigner, who strictly demanded discipline. Vicar Apostolic Boyle was angry that, in the absence of food, he was given the same small share of food as everyone else; intrigued against Columbus. Many died, cursing the day on which they left their homeland. Columbus thought that he could best restore the good spirits of his companions with new campaigns. From Fort St. Thomas received news that Kaonabo was preparing to attack. Columbus sent Ojeda with a detachment of troops to this fort, instructing him to remain in command there and send Margarita with most of the soldiers on an expedition to Cibao and neighboring areas. The admiral advised Ojeda and other commanders to behave carefully, peacefully and honestly with the natives. The native porters left with the belongings of Ojeda's warriors; he ordered the arrest of the cacique of this tribe, the son and nephew of the cacique, and, cutting off their ears, sent them to Isabella. Columbus announced to them that they would be executed; they asked for mercy. Another cacique guaranteed that there would be no more theft, and Columbus returned their freedom. Residents of a large village captured five Spaniards; but when the horseman approached the village, they were so frightened that they all ran away from him alone.

Columbus' voyage to Jamaica (1494)

While Ojeda and his comrades were sailing through the middle parts of Hispaniola, Columbus continued his second voyage further, hoping to reach the eastern coast of Asia. He landed on the coast of Cuba and in early May entered the bay now called Guantanamo. When he came ashore, the inhabitants fled to the forests and mountains. But with Columbus there was a translator, a native, taken to Guanagani during his first voyage, taken to Spain, baptized there and learned to speak Spanish. He assured the hidden natives of Cuba that the Spaniards had peaceful intentions, and learned from them that in the south there was a large island on which there was a lot of gold. Columbus sailed there and on the third day (May 3, 1494) reached the coast of Jamaica. The natives, in boats ranging from 70 to 90 feet in length, approached Columbus's ships and showed hostile intentions; but the Spaniards, undaunted by them, entered a beautiful bay, which Columbus named Santa Gloria (now called Santa Anna). Many natives gathered on the shore. Their bodies were painted, they wore a belt made of palm leaves. These large crowds wanted to prevent the Spaniards from coming ashore. Columbus found it necessary to use force. The Spaniards began shooting with arrows and released the dogs onto the shore. The natives fled. The next morning, ambassadors from the caciques appeared with assurances of friendship and brought a lot of food supplies. The Spaniards gave them several trinkets. They were delighted and offered a lot of food in exchange for several other similar trinkets. The island was covered with luxurious vegetation. But even on it there were no such piles of gold as the Spaniards had hoped. A few days later, Columbus sailed back to Cuba, taking with him a young native who wanted to go with the Spaniards to see the amazing land from which the white people sailed.

Columbus' voyage along the coast of Cuba

On May 18, 1494, Columbus landed on the coast of Cuba at Cape Santa Cruz and sailed along the coast to the south to find out whether this land was an island or the mainland of East Asia. The voyage was difficult: Columbus encountered shoals, underwater rocks, and was exposed to tropical storms. A few days later he saw a group of small islands on which lived peace-loving natives who subsisted on fishing and turtles. The islands were covered with beautiful grass and aromatic shrubs, the fragrance of which spread far across the sea. Large flocks of brightly colored birds walked along the outskirts of the banks. Columbus named these islands "The Queen's Gardens". He went ashore to Cuba to stock up on water. The natives told him that this area is called Ornofai, and their land is so large that no one has yet walked around it, that it is hardly possible to reach the end of it in 40 months, that in the west lies the land of Magon or Mangon, in which people live with tails and wear clothes to cover up such disgrace. The name "Mangon" reminded Columbus of the Chinese region of Magni or Manji, which Mandeville speaks of, and strengthened his conviction that he was located near the eastern coast of Asia. In joyful anticipation of reaching Asia, Columbus sailed along the coast of Cuba from the area he called Trinidad to Batabano. Every evening the aromas of fragrant plants wafted onto the ships. The natives who gathered on the shore sang songs in praise of the white people, the sons of heaven. Now this part of the Cuban coast is desert; the natives died; In some places they find dishes and other things reminiscent of them.

Columbus's ships sailed to a part of the sea that had many reefs and sandbanks. The sailors were timid as they sailed between them, and were very frightened when they saw one day that the sea had become white as milk. (This color was created by the excitement, raising whitish silt from shallow places in the sea). When the Spaniards went ashore to take a supply of water, the shooter, who had gone hunting, returned with the news that he had seen people in long white clothes, such as Christian priests wear. Columbus found in this new confirmation of his idea that he had sailed to the lands in which civilized people live. The Spaniards carefully examined the area, but did not find people in white clothes. The hunter was deceived by his imagination. He probably mistook for white clothes the glimpses of white that flashed in the dense bushes along which large white cranes walked.

But Columbus remained convinced that he was located next to the kingdom of the priest John, about whom medieval travels filled with fairy tales spoke. He hoped that he would soon sail to India, from there he wanted to sail to the Red Sea, cross the Isthmus of Suez and return to Spain by the Mediterranean Sea. The companions shared with him the opinion that they were near the Asian coast, but did not have the same courage as he did, and demanded a return because the ships were damaged and food supplies were depleted. Seeing himself in the need to give in to them, Columbus drew up a formal act on June 12, saying that, in the opinion of all participants in his voyage, the land along which the expedition sailed for 335 nautical miles, and which, according to the natives, extends to an unknown distance - coast of Asia. All those present said that they really thought so, and confirmed with an oath the sincerity of their words. The notary witnessed this and sealed the deed with his signature. Columbus sailed back. The return voyage through the Queen's Gardens archipelago was very difficult. Columbus went to the coast of Cuba in some places and erected wooden crosses there. Washington Irving says: "If Columbus had sailed two or three days more beyond the point from which he returned, he would have rounded the end of Cuba, and his next voyages would have taken a different direction." But until the end of his life he remained convinced that Cuba was not an island, but part of the eastern edge of the Asian continent.

Arrival of Columbus's brother, Bartolommeo, from Europe

One Sunday, the Spaniards went ashore at the mouth of the river and celebrated liturgy in the open air; The cacique and the crowd of natives of that area marveled at this solemn rite. An eighty-year-old man, who enjoyed great respect from his tribe and the cacique himself, gave Columbus a speech in which he expressed his desire to visit the country of the white people. Columbus had difficulty convincing him to abandon this intention. The same desire was expressed by one of the caciques of Jamaica when Columbus stopped off the coast of this island. The cacique and his entire family sailed onto his ship to set sail with him to the country of the white people, about which he had heard amazing stories from the translator. Columbus promised him the protection of the queen and king of Spain, but did not take him with him. He was very upset by the refusal. In August, Columbus sailed along the southern coast of Hispaniola, was exposed to storms several times, anchored in Saona Bay to rest from the labors of a five-month voyage and sailed past the island of Mona to Isabella, sick, exhausted by worries, deprivations, sleepless nights, which he spent observing the progress of ships. He had fainting spells; friends did not hope that he would survive. At the end of September, the squadron sailed to Isabella Bay, where Columbus's brother Bartolommeo, who had previously lived in England, had recently sailed from Spain with three caravels. Having learned about Columbus's discoveries, he went to Spain; the queen received him graciously. From Spain he sailed to the New World. He was an experienced sailor, a man of strong character, strong mind, but he was not such an enthusiast as his brother and knew better than him how to maintain his own interests. The admiral was very pleased with the arrival of Bartolommeo and appointed him as his viceroy (adelantado).

The deceit of Margarita and Boyle

A thunderstorm was gathering over Columbus's head, which he did not foresee. Pedro Margarita, whom he sent to collect information about the central part of Hispaniola, did not follow the instructions given by the admiral. Columbus told him to act friendly with the natives, but to behave carefully, not to allow the soldiers to go far in separate small detachments. Margarita acted completely differently. He stopped in the fertile Royal Plain, oppressed the natives, allowed soldiers to rob them, take away their wives and daughters. Diego Columbus reminded him of his brother’s orders, but Margarita ignored them: he was a noble man, had strong connections at court and, relying on them, did not want to obey a foreigner. He made a plan with Boyle and other dissatisfied people to secretly leave for Spain. The arrival of Bartolommeo helped fulfill this intention. Marguerite, Boyle and their accomplices boarded Bartolommeo's ships and sailed to Europe. They hoped to justify their unauthorized departure by slandering Columbus.

Columbus's struggle with the natives

The example of disobedience shown by Margarita and his accomplices reduced the discipline of the Spanish soldiers; they went to rob the natives and insulted them in every possible way. For all their fear of the weapons and horses of the Europeans, the natives began to attack the soldiers who wandered separately; They killed several and became bolder. Guatiguano, one of the minor caciques, subject to Guarionech, the cacique of the Royal Plain, killed ten Spaniards who entered his village on the Yague River, and set fire to a house in which 40 sick Spaniards lay. But the most dangerous enemy of the Europeans was the cunning and brave Kaonabo, who mortally hated white people. Columbus told Margarita to arrest him; it remained unfulfilled. Caonabo attacked the fort of St. Thomas, in which there were 50 Spaniards under the command of Alonso Ojeda, and kept this fortification under siege for a whole month. But his warriors began to disperse; he was forced to retreat and decided to resume the business on a larger scale, entered into relations with four other strongest caciques of neighboring regions, convinced them to unite to expel the foreigners and attack the city of Isabella; three of them entered into an alliance with him. But Guacanagari rejected his proposal, went to Columbus, who was then ill, and told him everything.

Columbus saw that it was necessary to take Kaonabo into custody. It was a very difficult task, but Ojeda took it up and rode with 10 horsemen to Caonabo, dispelled the cacique’s mistrust with his pleasantries and invited him to try riding. Caonabo sat behind Ojeda; Ojeda's companions immediately tied the cacique to Ojeda. The natives did not dare to approach the horses, which the Spaniards reared. Ojeda, with the cacique tied to him, and other horsemen galloped towards Isabella and, after a 50-hour ride, arrived in the city. Columbus ordered Caonabo to be chained and guarded. But even in custody, the Caribbean cacique behaved proudly. When Columbus entered and everyone stood up, Kaonabo continued to sit and pretended not to notice Columbus. He stood only in front of Ojeda, whom he respected for his courageous act.

The natives were annoyed that Kaonabo had been captured. Manicoateh, Caonabo's brother, took his place and prepared to take revenge on the Spaniards. Anacoana, the beloved wife of the captive cacique, a famous beauty, persuaded her brother Beguecio, the cacique of Jaragui, the most extensive and populous of the neighboring regions, to join her husband's brother. They also won over Guacanagari to their side, but he remained faithful to Columbus and revealed to him all the plans of his enemies. The tribe subject to Guacanagari was not warlike, and therefore could not provide strong support to the Spaniards, but the important thing was that the natives did not all unite against them. Columbus recovered. Four ships arrived from Spain with soldiers and food supplies; they brought Columbus a kind letter from Isabella and Ferdinand. The admiral took heart. He sent his brother Diego to Spain with a cargo of West Indian products and 500 captive natives to be sold into slavery (Isabella did not allow them to be enslaved). In the spring of 1495, Columbus, with 200 foot soldiers dressed in armor and 20 horsemen, went through the mountains along his former road to the Royal Plain, on which a large army of natives had gathered. Their spies found out about the approach and the number of white people. (They denoted the number by the number of maize grains taken in a handful.) The caciques believed that they could easily defeat the enemies, of whom there were so few. But the natives were naked, had only maces, wooden spears and arrows as their weapons, so they could not resist the warriors, dressed in armor and carrying firearms. The victory of the Spaniards was greatly helped by large dogs, trained at the cry of their owners to rush at the natives, knock them to the ground and torment them. Columbus, on the advice of his brother, divided his soldiers into several detachments and ordered them to attack the natives from different sides; they walked with the beating of drums and the sound of trumpets. The natives became afraid when the infantry fired a volley, and Ojeda and his horsemen galloped right into the middle of them. The entire army of caciques fled and scattered in different directions. This battle between the Spaniards and the natives took place on the site where the city of Santiago was later built.

The first victory of the Spaniards decided the fate of Hispaniola and all of America. The vanquished begged for mercy and promised to obey Columbus. He imposed a tax on them: every adult native was obliged to give every three months as much gold sand as could fit in a small bell (this was worth about 50 francs), and if he did not have gold sand, then bring an arroba (25 pounds) of cotton. Those who paid the tribute received a Spanish copper coin, which they had to wear around their neck; Those who did not have this receipt were punished. The tribute imposed on the caciques was incomparably greater. Manicoateh, Kaonabo's brother, undertook to give every three months a cup of gourd filled with gold dust; this amounted to about a pound and a half of gold. Guarionech, the cacique of the Royal Plain, whose population did not have much gold, volunteered to cultivate a large plot of land and give grain from it as tribute; but Columbus demanded tribute in gold, because it was the only thing valued by the Spanish government. Convinced that Guarionech really had little gold, Columbus reduced by half the tribute that he had originally imposed on him. Even Guacanagari had to pay tribute. To collect it, Columbus built new fortifications; the most important of them were Fort Magdalena and Fort Concepcion on the Royal Plain. The natives were now forced to exhaust themselves with work in order to raise funds to pay the tribute; they were not accustomed to work and longed for their former carefree, happy life. For quite a long time they consoled themselves with the hope that the white people would return to their heavenly homeland, “Turei,” as they called it. Seeing that the Spaniards were making their homes even stronger than before, the natives wanted to force them to leave with hunger, abandoned cultivating the land, destroyed what grew in the fields, and went into the mountains and forests. But by doing this they only increased their misfortunes. The Spaniards had food supplies and began to sow abandoned fields, and the natives, who had gone to the mountains, died of hunger and disease. The survivors returned to their original places and submitted to their inevitable fate. Their dancing stopped, they sang plaintive songs about happy times when white people had not yet appeared.

The misfortunes of the natives were aggravated by a terrible hurricane, the likes of which the old people did not remember; it brought terrible devastation. Guacanagari went to the mountains from the hatred of his people and from Spanish oppression, and died in poverty.

Arrival of the Commissioner of the Spanish Queen Aguado

The Spanish government's confidence in Columbus wavered. Margaret and Boyle, upon arrival in Spain, presented the situation of the colony in the most gloomy way, accused Columbus of mistakes and injustices, said that it was impossible to expect such income from the new lands that would compensate for the costs of the expeditions, that a settlement based on Hispaniola would be unprofitable for Spain. The queen at first did not attach any importance to their words, but they had strong friends at court, who little by little inspired her to distrust Columbus. Isabella decided to send a commissioner to Hispaniola to study the state of affairs and appointed Juan Aguado for this trip, whom Columbus himself had previously recommended to her as an intelligent and reliable person. At the same time, Columbus's powers were limited: Isabella decided that the number of those settlers on Hispaniola who were in the royal service should not exceed 500 people, because maintaining a larger colony was too difficult for the government. But she allowed everyone to go to new lands without special permission, if they were satisfied with receiving food for one year, would not demand any other salary and would undertake to give to the treasury a third of the gold they mined and a tenth of all other products. Under these conditions the settlers could sail on royal ships; and the right to send their ships was granted to all who wished, subject to the supervision of two royal officials and with the obligation to give a tenth share of the profits to the treasury.

Aguado arrived in the city of Isabella in October 1495. The charter given to him announced to “all those in Indian service” that he would enter into relations with them. Thus, the nature of his assignment was not precisely defined. He was an arrogant man and began to speak in a commanding tone. When he arrived, the admiral was not in Isabella. Bartolommeo quarreled with him. He behaved like a supreme ruler, entered into direct relations with the caciques, and accepted complaints against Columbus. Rumor began to say that a new admiral had been sent to replace the previous one, that this new admiral was now the ruler of the colony. Upon Columbus's return to Isabella, it was explained that he remained the ruler, but Aguado continued to interfere in affairs and collect accusations against Columbus from the natives. When Aguado was getting ready to go to Spain, Columbus decided to go with him in order to justify himself to the government. The hurricane we were talking about caused great damage to all the ships except the Niña, so sailing was slowed down until spring.

Discovery of gold mines

This delay had the benefit for Columbus that he went to Spain with the news of the discovery of rich gold mines. A young man, a native of Aragon, Miguel Diaz, inflicted a wound on his comrade and, fearing punishment, fled with several other Spaniards into the mountains. The fugitives wandered for a long time through empty places, came to the Osama River, and saw a village (in the place where the city of San Domingo now stands). The residents received them friendly, the owner of that region fell in love with Miguel Diaz, and persuaded him to stay with her. He found an area near Gaina richer in gold than all others known to the Spaniards on Hispaniola, and reported this to Columbus. The people sent by Columbus found that there was indeed a lot of gold in the soil of that valley, they built a fortification there, began to mine gold, and found passages dug in the ground that seemed similar to the shafts of abandoned mines. Columbus saw in this discovery confirmation of his thought that the land he found was part of Asia, and suggested that the area where the mines were located was Ophir, from which Solomon's ships brought gold.

Return of Columbus and Aguado to Spain (1496)

Having appointed his brother Bartolommeo as viceroy (adelantado), Columbus sailed to Spain on March 10, 1496. On another caravel sailed Aguado; with them returned 225 Spaniards, who had sailed three years ago from Cadiz with the hope of enriching themselves in new lands and were disappointed in this. Columbus took with him 30 natives, including Caonabo, his brother and nephew; Kaonabo carried himself with the same pride. Columbus landed on the coast of Guadeloupe to stock up on firewood and food supplies; The Caribs met the Spaniards with arrows and darts, but were driven away by rifle shots. The Spaniards captured the cacique's wife, a very strong woman who fought skillfully; Columbus took her to Spain. Swimming was difficult. The trade wind delayed him; food supplies were depleted; the sailors were worried; The pilots could not determine where the ships were. Only Columbus retained, as always, firmness of spirit, and his definition of the path turned out to be correct. After a tiring three-month voyage, the ships entered the Bay of Cadiz on July 11 (1496). Kaonabo died during the voyage.