The history of the creation of the political map of the world. The main stages in the formation of the political map of the world from ancient times to the present. Main events of the XX

1. A POLITICAL MAP OF THE WORLD

The process of forming the political map of the world spans several millennia, starting from the era of the social division of labor, the emergence of private property and the division of society into social groups. In its development, the political map of the world has gone through many historical epochs, which allows us to speak about the existence of special stages in its formation (see the corresponding section), which are closely related to the periodization of world history. The early stages of the formation of the political map of the world state the formation and existence of only a small part of the most famous states and empires. A powerful impulse of territorial change on all continents began with the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, which marked the beginning of European colonial expansion and the spread of international economic ties throughout the world. This was facilitated by the birth, rise and approval of capitalist relations, and the emergence of new vehicles. By 1900 there were only 55 sovereign states on the globe. At the same time, there was a huge British colonial empire and a smaller French one. They retained their possessions after the First World War. Other states also had colonies - Japan, the USA, the Netherlands, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, Spain. The collapse of the colonial system of imperialism after the Second World War, the rapid growth of national liberation movements - the struggle of peoples for independence - radically changed the political map of the world. Thus, on the eve of World War II, there were 71 sovereign states in the world, in 1947 there were 81 of them, and by 1998, 193 states already had sovereignty.

The political map of the world reflects the place of countries in the modern world, their political and administrative structure, the evolution of forms of government. The study of its aspects in dynamics, in historical sequence is of particular interest to geographers. It is especially important to know the qualitative and quantitative changes taking place on the political map of the world. Qualitative changes mean changes in the forms of government, forms of government, changes in political status, changes in the location and names of capitals, names of countries, the formation of various interstate entities, with the aim of integration or cooperation. Such international organizations or alliances can largely change the balance of power (political, economic, etc.) in the international arena. Quantitative changes mean the unification or disintegration of states, voluntary concessions (or exchange) by countries of land or territorial waters, reconquest of land from the sea (alluvium), etc. All that entails a change in the area of state territory.

· colonies officially included in the UN list. This list lists the territories specifically covered by the UN requirement for independence. For example, Hong Kong (Xianggang) has already become an administrative unit of the PRC with a special political regime since July 1, 1997. And Portugal's possession of Aomyn (Macau) should come under the jurisdiction of China in 1999;

· island territories, in fact colonies, not included in the UN list, since, according to the states administering them, they are overseas departments , freely associated states, etc.;

Almost all colonies are small in territory and population. The only exception is the US possession of Puerto Rico (3.7 million people). The issue of granting independence to all colonies is complicated: many of them are important for the mother countries as military-strategic objects or are of other interest. For example, dozens of US air and naval bases are located on colony islands in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

Qualitative changes mean changes in the forms of government, forms of government, changes in political status, changes in the location and names of capitals, names of countries, the formation of various interstate entities, with the aim of integration or cooperation. Such international organizations or alliances can largely change the balance of power (political, economic, etc.) in the international arena. Quantitative changes mean the unification or disintegration of states, voluntary concessions (or exchange) by countries of land or territorial waters, reconquest of land from the sea (alluvium), etc. All that entails a change in the area of state territory.

The main objects of the political map are the countries of the world. The political map of the world is a motley mosaic. The entire inhabited part of the land (that is, all the continents except Antarctica) and the vast sea spaces adjacent to it are, as it were, streaked with political boundaries. The formation and development of states is a complex historical process determined by many internal and external factors: political, social, economic, ethnic. Specialists in international problems count about 300 points on the globe on which there are disputes: territorial, ethnic, border, including more than 100 such where there is an acute conflict situation. Although the political climate on Earth after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact and the CMEA and, in general, the bipolar system of the world order got warmer , isolated pockets of tension still remain on our planet. Some of them last for decades. An ongoing dispute between Spain and the UK over sovereignty over Gibraltar. There was an armed conflict (1982) between Great Britain and Argentina over the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands. This is Israel's opposition to the Arab world in the Middle East. Israel did not comply with UN General Assembly Resolution 181 of 29 November 1947 and subsequent UN decisions.

It does not return to the Arab states the territories it seized during the Arab-Israeli war of 1948-1948. and six day war 1967 v. Egypt, Syria and Jordan: Entire West Bank Jordan, East Jerusalem, Gaza Strip, Syrian Golan Heights. Lands annexed by Israel (14.3 thousand km.2) make up half of its actual territory. Israel thus has no internationally recognized borders. There is still no full-fledged State of Palestine with the capital East (Arab) Jerusalem, proclaimed in 1988.

the UN General Assembly. Its territory should consist of the West Bank of the river. Jordan and the Gaza Strip, which are currently home to over 100,000 Israeli settlers and over 2 million Arab Palestinians. In addition, up to 4 million Arab Palestinians are in neighboring Arab states and other countries of the world. The Palestinian self-government created in the Gaza Strip and the Jericho region does not suit the Arab Palestinians. The intransigence of the new Israeli government aggravates the country's relations with the Palestinians and does not allow moving forward the process of creating the State of Palestine. The political situation is also unstable in a number of African countries: Lebanon, Liberia, Sudan, Somalia, Togo, and Chad. In these countries, the issues of confrontation on a political, intertribal and interethnic basis remain unsettled. As a result of the long-term unstable situation in these countries, the economy is practically in crisis. The question of self-determination of the people of Western Sahara (independence or integration with Morocco) has not yet been resolved. Although in 1976 the Polisario Front (People's Front for the Liberation of Seguiet el Hamra Rio de Oro) of Western Sahara unilaterally proclaimed the creation of the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic, it is still under the administrative control of Morocco.

The focus of destabilization in Asia for a long time has been: the unresolved dispute between Pakistan and India over the ownership of the territory of Kashmir (the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir), the struggle for power between religious groups in Afghanistan (a civil war has practically unfolded), the struggle of the Kurds for their statehood (Kurds are settled compactly at the junction of Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq - more than 20 million people). The internal political situation in Sri Lanka remains rather complicated. Since the late 1970s, the political situation here has been determined by a permanent military-political confrontation between the two leading ethnic groups - Sinhalese and Tamils.

The tense political situation continues in Iraq. Europe has also become politically unstable. So far, hotbeds of tension remain in the territory of the former Yugoslavia. In the Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia, these are the problems of the Autonomous Province of Kosovo, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as in Croatia, inter-ethnic relations sometimes escalate (between Muslims, Serbs and Croats in BiH; between Croats and Serbs in Croatia), which develops into armed conflicts. From time to time there are separatist movements in Northern Ireland in Great Britain about its accession to the Republic of Ireland. Although the Republic of Ireland has lately shown a noticeable tendency to reach an agreement with the British ruling circles on the Northern Ireland problem. In 1993, a joint Declaration on Ulster was signed, which laid the foundation for the settlement of differences exclusively by peaceful means. A new international political phenomenon is the formation of states unrecognized by the world community, and often by no one but themselves. founders . Formally, in particular from the point of view of the UN, they do not exist, since they are illegal under international law, but they really exist.

This, for example, is the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC was proclaimed in 1983, although Cyprus actually split into two separate parts in 1974). The international community is making active efforts to resolve the Cyprus problem. The fundamental principle of a settlement mediated by the UN remains the existence of a single state that includes two politically equal communities. The TRNC is recognized only by Turkey and in foreign relations focuses mainly on Muslim countries, seeking international recognition TRNC . It is also the Republic of Somaliland (proclaimed in 1991) with the capital city of Hargeisa in the north of Somalia. Somaliland is not recognized by anyone, that is, by the international community, although there is a government, a president, its own currency, and a new constitution is being developed.

The political map of the world is characterized by high dynamism. According to experts, in the coming decades the number of independent states may increase to 260 or more. For the world community, the trend of fragmentation of states along ethnic lines is fraught with negative consequences. It contributes to the intensification of the conflict in international relations and comes into ever greater conflict with the new global realities (internationalization and integration of social relations) and is capable of plunging the entire international system into a state of chaos. The irreversible globalism of the emerging ecological, demographic, energy, raw materials, food and other situations urgently requires the coordination of national egoism and global interests. Its territory should consist of the West Bank of the river. Jordan and the Gaza Strip, which are currently home to over 100,000 Israeli settlers and over 2 million Arab Palestinians. In addition, up to 4 million Arab Palestinians are in neighboring Arab states and other countries of the world. The Palestinian self-government created in the Gaza Strip and the Jericho region does not suit the Arab Palestinians. The intransigence of the new Israeli government aggravates the country's relations with the Palestinians and does not allow moving forward the process of creating the State of Palestine. The political situation is also unstable in a number of African countries: Lebanon, Liberia, Sudan, Somalia, Togo, and Chad. In these countries, the issues of confrontation on a political, intertribal and interethnic basis remain unsettled.

As a result of the long-term unstable situation in these countries, the economy is practically in crisis. The political map of the world is characterized by high dynamism. According to experts, in the coming decades the number of independent states may increase to 260 or more. For the world community, the trend of fragmentation of states along ethnic lines is fraught with negative consequences. It contributes to the strengthening of the conflict nature of international relations and comes into ever greater conflict with the new global realities (internationalization and integration of social relations) and is capable of plunging the entire international system into a state of chaos. The irreversible globalism of the emerging ecological, demographic, energy, raw materials, food and other situations urgently requires the coordination of national egoism and global interests. The question of self-determination of the people of Western Sahara (independence or integration with Morocco) has not yet been resolved. Although in 1976 the Polisario Front (People's Front for the Liberation of Seguiet el Hamra Rio de Oro) of Western Sahara unilaterally proclaimed the creation of the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic, it is still under the administrative control of Morocco. The focus of destabilization in Asia for a long time has been: the unresolved dispute between Pakistan and India over the ownership of the territory of Kashmir (the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir), the struggle for power between religious groups in Afghanistan (a civil war has practically unfolded), the struggle of the Kurds for their statehood (Kurds are settled compactly at the junction of Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq - more than 20 million people). The internal political situation in Sri Lanka remains rather complicated. Since the late 1970s, the political situation here has been determined by a permanent military-political confrontation between the two leading ethnic groups - Sinhalese and Tamils.

2. STAGES FORMING A POLITICAL MAP OF THE WORLD

The process of forming the political map of the world has several millennia. Many historical eras have passed, so we can talk about the existence of periods in the formation of the political map of the world. It is possible to allocate: ancient, medieval, new and newest periods.

The ancient period (from the era of the emergence of the first forms of the state to the 5th century AD) covers the era of the slave system. It is characterized by the development and collapse of the first states on Earth: Ancient Egypt, Carthage, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, etc. These states have made a great contribution to the development of world civilization. At the same time, even then the main means of territorial changes were military actions.

The medieval period (V-XV centuries) is associated with the era of feudalism. The political functions of the feudal state were more complex and varied than those of the states under the slave system. The internal market was formed, the isolation of the regions was overcome. The desire of states to distant territorial conquests was manifested, since Europe, for example, was already completely divided between them. During this period, there were states: Byzantium, the Holy Roman Empire, England, Spain, Portugal, Kievan Rus, etc. The map of the world was greatly changed by the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries at the junction of feudal and capitalist socio-economic formations. There was a need for markets and new rich lands and, in connection with this, the idea of circumnavigating the world.

From the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. allocate a New period of history (up to World War I in the 20th century). This is the era of the birth, rise and assertion of capitalist relations. It marked the beginning of European colonial expansion and the spread of international economic relations throughout the world.

E gg. - the first colonial conquests of Portugal: Madeira, Azores. Slave Coast (Africa).

g. - the fall of Constantinople (the dominance of the Turks in the southeast direction. The Ottoman Empire controls the land routes to Asia).

1502 - discovery of America for Europeans (4 travels of Columbus to Central America and the northern part of South America). The beginning of the Spanish colonization of America.

g. - Treaty of Tordesillas - division of the world between Portugal and Spain.

g. - swimming Vasco da Gama (path around Africa).

1504 - Amerigo Vespucci travels to South America.

1519-1522 - circumnavigation of the world by Magellan and his companions.

d. - Semyon Dezhnev's journey (Russia - Siberia). 1740s - travels of V. Bering and P. Chirikov (Siberia). 1771-1773 - J-Cook's travels (Australia, Oceania).

During the Age of Discovery, the largest colonial powers were Spain and Portugal. With the development of manufacturing capitalism, England, France, the Netherlands, Germany, and later the United States came to the forefront of history. This period of history was also characterized by colonial conquests. The political map of the world became especially unstable at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, when the struggle for the territorial division of the world sharply intensified between the leading countries. So, in 1876, only 10% of the territory of Africa belonged to Western European countries, while in 1900 - already 90%. And by the beginning of the 20th century, in fact, the division of the world turned out to be completely completed, i.e. only its forcible redistribution became possible. The entire globe was drawn into the sphere of influence of this or that imperialist power (see Tables 1 and 2).

In total, in 1900, the colonial possessions of all the imperialist powers covered an area of 73 million km2 (55% of the land area) with a population of 530 million people (35% of the world's population). The beginning of the newest period in the formation of the political map of the world is associated with the end of World War I. The next milestones were World War II and the turn of the 80-90s, which is characterized by major changes on the political map of Eastern Europe (the collapse of the USSR, Yugoslavia, etc.).

The first stage was marked by the appearance on the world map of the first socialist state (USSR) and noticeable territorial shifts, and not only in Europe. Austria-Hungary collapsed, the borders of many states changed, sovereign countries were formed: Poland, Finland, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, etc. The colonial possessions of Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Japan expanded.

The second stage (after World War II), in addition to changes in the political map of Europe, is associated primarily with the collapse of the colonial system and the formation of a large number of independent states in Asia, Africa, Oceania, Latin America (in the Caribbean).

The third stage continues to this day. To qualitatively new changes<#"justify">3. POLITICAL MAP OF EUROPE

Europe is part of the world, which, together with Asia, makes up the single continent of Eurasia. Currently, there are more than 40 states in Europe, different in area, population, state structure and level of socio-economic development. Most of them are republics, but there are 12 countries with a monarchical form of government (the disputed territory: Andorra is considered a monarchy, in fact it is a republic). The European region plays an important role in the world economy and the political life of the entire planet.

Sub-regions can be distinguished - the countries of Western, Central and Eastern Europe. In Western Europe there are economically developed countries, and 4 of them are included in the so-called big seven : these are Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy. Small states with a population of about 10 million people predominate. There are five dwarf countries - Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, Liechtenstein, Vatican City (papal state - theocratic monarchy). Gibraltar is a British possession (disputed territory with Spain).

The countries of Western Europe are united not only by geographical location, but also by close economic and political ties. Suffice it to recall the European Union (EU), which until 1995 united 12 European countries and accepted into its ranks three more European states (Austria, Sweden, Finland). In the future, we are talking about the creation of the Common European Economic Space. The countries of Central and Eastern Europe include the former socialist states - Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Albania, the republics formed after the collapse of Yugoslavia (Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia - as part of Serbia and Montenegro), the Baltic states - Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, as well as independent states - the republics of Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Russia, which are part of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The modern political map of Europe was formed mainly in the 20th century, and the results of two world wars had a very great influence on its formation. The political map of Europe is undergoing significant changes at the present stage. Suffice it to recall just a few of them: the collapse of the USSR, the formation of the CIS, the unification of two German states, velvet revolutions in the countries of Eastern Europe, the division of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the civil war in Yugoslavia and its disintegration into several states, etc. Hotbeds of tension remain in other regions of Europe: in Ulster (Northern Ireland), in Albania, in Eastern Europe, in including in the CIS.

3.1 World War I (1914-1918)

An imperialist war between two coalitions of capitalist powers: the Entente (France, Great Britain, Russia) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire), caused by the extreme aggravation of contradictions in the course of the struggle for spheres of influence, sources of raw materials, world domination. The most acute were the contradictions between Great Britain and economically strengthened Germany. 38 states took part in the war.

Chronology:

On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary (under direct pressure from Germany) declared war on Serbia. July 19 Germany declared war on Russia, July 21 - France. Britain declared war on Germany on July 22.

In August 1914, Japan entered the war on the side of the Entente; in May 1915 Italy joined the Entente, in August 1916 - Romania. In October 1914, Turkey (Ottoman Empire) entered the war on the side of the German-Austrian bloc, and in November 1915 - Bulgaria. In April 1917, the United States entered the war.

In October 1917, a socialist revolution took place in Russia and the Soviet government turned to all the warring powers with a proposal to conclude peace without annexations and indemnities, which was rejected.

In March 1918, the Soviet government makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey (Brest peace) - the German annexation of Poland, the Baltic states, parts of Belarus and Transcaucasia. But Russia withdrew from the war. The treaty was annulled by the Soviet government in November 1918. In the autumn of 1918, hostilities in Europe ended in the complete defeat of Germany and its allies (the capitulation of Bulgaria, Turkey, Austria-Hungary).

November 1918 revolution began in Germany. On November 11, Germany capitulated. The final terms of the peace treaties with Germany and its allies were worked out at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-20); agreements were prepared with Germany (Versailles), Austria (Saint-Germain), Bulgaria (Neuil), Hungary (Trianon). At the same conference, the charter of the League of Nations was approved.

3.2 Territorial changes after World War I

Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany transferred:

· - returned Alsace-Lorraine to France (within the borders of 1870).

· Belgium - districts of Malmedy and Eupen;

· Poland - Poznan, parts of Pomerania and other territories of East Prussia; southern part of Upper Silesia (in 1921); (at the same time: the original Polish lands on the right bank of the Oder, Lower Silesia, most of Upper Silesia - remained with Germany);

· the city of Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a free city;

· the city of Memel (Klaipeda) was transferred to the jurisdiction of the victorious powers (in 1923 it was annexed to Lithuania);

· Denmark - the northern part of Schleswig (in 1920);

· Czechoslovakia - a small section of Upper Silesia;

· The Saar region passed for 15 years under the control of the League of Nations;

· the German part of the left bank of the Rhine and a strip of the right bank 50 km wide. were subject to demilitarization.

The colonies of Germany were divided among the main victorious powers - mandated territories - transferred under the mandate of the League of Nations under the control of: German East Africa - Tanganyika (Great Britain), Togoland and Cameroon (divided between Great Britain and France); German South-West Africa - Namibia (South African Union); Rwanda-Urundi (Belgium); German part of New Guinea (Australia); Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands (Japan), Nauru, Samoa (New Zealand, Great Britain, Australia), Bismarck Archipelago (Australia), possessions on the Solomon Islands (Great Britain and Australia). After the 2nd World War, the mandate system of the League of Nations will be replaced by the system of trusteeship of the United Nations.

The Saint-Germain Peace Treaty (1919) and the Trianon Peace Treaty (1920) between the victorious countries and Austria and Hungary confirmed the collapse of Austria-Hungary (new states were formed: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes Part of the territories were transferred to Poland - Galicia, Romania - Transylvania and the eastern part of the Banat, Yugoslavia - Croatia, Bačka and the western part of the Banat, Czechoslovakia - Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine). According to the Neuilly Peace Treaty (1919), Bulgaria lost a significant territory, partly ceded to Yugoslavia, partly to the victorious countries.

As a result of the revolution of 1917, the world's first socialist state of the RSFSR (later the USSR) was formed in Russia. Formed and gained independence: Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland. The Spitsbergen Islands became the territory of Norway, the islands of Franz Josef Land - the territory of the RSFSR. Territorial changes also occurred in Asia: the Ottoman Empire (an ally of the German-Austrian bloc) collapsed - Turkey stood out, independent states were formed on the Arabian Peninsula - Hijaz, Asir, Yemen. The former possessions of the Ottoman Empire were transferred under the mandates of the League of Nations under the control of Great Britain - Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan; and France - Lebanon and Syria.

3.3 World War II (1939-1945)

It was unleashed by the most aggressive states - Nazi Germany, fascist Italy and militaristic Japan with the aim of a new redivision of the world. It began as a war between two coalitions of imperialist powers. In the future, it began to accept from all the states that fought against the countries of the fascist bloc, the character of a just, anti-fascist war. 72 states were involved in World War II. Chronology: In August 1939, the USSR and Germany signed a non-aggression pact and secret additional protocols to it on the division of influence in Eastern Europe (the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact).

September 1939 - Germany attacked Poland. The Second World War began. September 3 England and France declare war on Germany. On September 17, 1939, units of the Red Army entered Western Ukraine and Western Belarus (previously torn away after the defeat in the Polish-Soviet war of 1921), and soon the accession of these territories to the USSR was formalized. In the same weeks on the territory of Mongolia (near the Khalkhin-Gol River) there were battles with Japanese troops. In the winter of 1939-1940. the Soviet-Finnish war took place, as a result, a new border was established between the two states, basically repeating the one that existed before 1809 (before Finland joined the Russian Empire). Finland ceded to the Soviet Union the entire Karelian Isthmus with Vyborg, the border areas west of the Kandalaksha Bay and near the city of Murmansk, and also provided its naval base on Khanko for 30 years. It was a short but costly war for the Soviet troops (50 thousand killed, more than 150 thousand wounded and missing).

In the summer of 1940, there was a new change in the borders of the Soviet Union - it was replenished with three new socialist republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia). At the same time, the USSR demanded from Romania the return of Bessarabia, which had been part of Russia since the beginning of the 19th century. until January 1918, and Northern Bukovina, which never belonged to Russia. Soviet troops were brought there; in July 1940, Bukovina and part of Bessarabia were attached to the Ukrainian SSR, and the other part of Bessarabia - to the Moldavian SSR, formed in August 1940. At this time, Nazi Germany was finishing preparations for an attack on the USSR. Confidence was explained by previous successes in Western Europe. In April-May 1940, fascist German troops occupied Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, invaded Luxembourg and France; in April 1941, Germany captured the territory of Greece and Yugoslavia. (Germany occupied Norway in 63 days, France in 44, Poland in 35, Belgium in 19, Holland in 5, Denmark in 1 day). On June 10, 1940, Italy entered the war on the side of Germany. On June 22, 1941, Germany attacked the USSR without declaring war - the Great Patriotic War began, which lasted until May 9, 1945. Hungary, Finland, Romania, and Italy took the side of Germany. The governments of Britain and the USA, taking into account the sharply increased threat to the security of their own countries, issued statements of support for the just struggle of the peoples of the USSR. On July 12, 1941, a Soviet-British agreement was concluded in Moscow on joint actions in the war against Germany and its allies. This agreement was the first step towards the creation of an anti-Hitler coalition, legally formalized in January 1942 after signing in Washington by representatives of 26 states Declaration of the United Nations about the fight against the aggressor. During the war, more than 20 countries joined the declaration. On December 7, 1941, by attacking Pearl Harbor, Japan launched a war against the United States. On December 8, the United States, Great Britain and other countries declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. At the beginning of 1942, Japan captured Malaya, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Burma.

72 states were involved in World War II. Military operations were conducted on the territory of Europe, Africa, Asia and the Pacific Ocean (Oceania). The war ended with the defeat of Germany and its allies.

After the surrender of Germany (May 1945), in accordance with the agreement at the Yalta Conference (February 1945), the Soviet government on August 8, 1945 declared war on militaristic Japan. On September 2, under the blows of the armed forces of the Allies, Japan capitulated (the defeat of the Kwantung Army). It was the final event of the Second World War.

3.4 Territorial changes after World War II

The main directions of the post-war peace settlement were outlined by the leading powers of the anti-Hitler coalition. At conferences in Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam, the main issues were agreed upon; on territorial changes, on the punishment of war criminals, on the creation of a special international organization to maintain international peace and security. The Allied Powers decided to occupy Germany and Japan in order to eradicate militarism and fascism. The territorial seizures of Germany, Italy, Japan and their allies were cancelled. The allies agreed to draw the border between Germany and Poland along the line of the Oder and Neisse (Odra and Nissa) rivers. The eastern border of Poland was to run along the Curzon Line. The city of Koenigsberg and the surrounding areas were transferred to the USSR.

One of the issues of the post-war settlement was the conclusion of peace treaties. Since Germany did not have a government, the victorious powers primarily concluded treaties with Germany's European allies - Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria and Finland.

Italy recognized the sovereignty of Albania and Ethiopia. The Dodecanese Islands occupied by Italy were returned to Greece. The Julian extreme, with the exception of Trieste, was transferred to Yugoslavia. Trieste with a small area adjacent to it was declared free territory . (In 1954, under an agreement between Italy and Yugoslavia, the western part free territory together with the city of Trieste, it went to Italy, and the eastern one - to Yugoslavia).

Italy lost its colonies in Africa - Libya, Eritrea and Italian Somalia. Under the terms of the armistice with Romania and Hungary, the peace treaties secured the return of part of Transylvania to Romania.

Finland returned to the USSR the region of Petsamo (Pechenga), ceded to it in 1920 by the Soviet state, and provided the territory of Porkkala-Udd on the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland (near Helsinki) on a lease for a period of 50 years to create a Soviet naval base there (in 1955, the USSR gave up its rights to the lease ahead of schedule). At the Yalta and Postdam conferences, the USSR, the USA and Great Britain agreed that after the surrender Germany would be subjected to a long occupation. The Post-Ladies Conference called for the preservation of Germany as a whole , but at the same time its territory was divided into four zones of occupation: Soviet, British, French and American. The capital - Berlin, located on the territory of the Soviet zone, was also divided into four sectors of occupation. The occupation regime was also established in Austria, which in 1938-1945. was part of Germany.

Later there was a turn in the policy of the USA, Britain and France from an alliance with the USSR to a struggle against it. As a result, these states set out to revise the Potsdam agreements and restore the economic and military potential of Germany. In 1946, the USA and England united their zones of occupation into the so-called Bizonia (double zone). In 1948, the French zone joined them - Trizonia was formed. The occupation authorities gradually transferred control functions to the hands of the German administration. In August 1949, elections were held for the parliament of West Germany, and on September 7, the creation of a new German state, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), was announced. On October 7, 1949 (in the Soviet zone of occupation) the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was founded. Two states with different social and political systems arose on German soil. The defeat of Germany and its allies, with the decisive participation of the armed forces of the USSR, created favorable conditions for the victory of people's democratic and socialist revolutions in a number of Eastern European countries. A bloc of socialist states was formed (the Polish People's Republic, the Czechoslovak Soviet Socialist Republic, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and others). Disagreements between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain after the end of World War II also affected the preparation of a peace treaty with Japan. It was supposed to limit Japanese sovereignty to the four main islands. Korea was promised independence. Northeast China (Manchuria), the island of Taiwan (Formosa) and other Chinese islands captured by Japan were supposed to be returned to China. South Sakhalin was returned to the Soviet Union and the Kuril Islands, which once belonged to Russia, were transferred.

During the hostilities, the Americans occupied all the Japanese islands, as well as the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean, which were under Japanese rule (therefore, in Japan, unlike Germany and Austria, there were no various zones of occupation). South Korea also entered the zone of American occupation (up to the 38th parallel), and North Korea (where the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was subsequently formed) was occupied by Soviet troops. In 1947, the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands were transferred under the trusteeship of the UN (on behalf of the UN, the trusteeship was carried out by the United States). The USSR, USA and Great Britain failed to reach an agreement on a peace treaty with Japan (San Francisco conference, 1951). The United States of America concluded a so-called security treaty with Japan, which gave them the right to maintain their armed forces there.

An important event in international life was the creation of the United Nations (UN). The founding conference took place in April 1945 in San Francisco. According to the Charter, the governing bodies of the UN are the General Assembly and the Security Council. The UN has an Economic and Social Council. Guardian Council. The International Court of Justice and the Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General, elected for a term of 5 years.

The day the Charter of the United Nations came into force - October 24, 1945 - is annually celebrated as the day of the United Nations. In 1945, 51 states joined the UN, at present there are already about 180. Gradually, the UN has become the most authoritative international organization playing a significant role in maintaining peace, preventing nuclear war, fighting colonialism, and protecting human rights.

4. POLITICAL MAP OF AMERICA

Part of the world America consists of two continents - North and South America, connected by the Isthmus of Panama.

There are two economically developed states in North America - the USA and Canada. In fact, the island of Greenland also belongs to this mainland - this is part of the territory of the European state of Denmark, which has internal autonomy. All other states of the part of the world America are located in the so-called Latin America. There are more than 40 of them, among them 33 politically independent states and 12 colonies. There is also one socialist country, Cuba, in this region. Latin America is the region of the Western Hemisphere between the United States and Antarctica. It includes Mexico, the countries of Central America, the West Indies and South America. Moreover, Mexico, Central America and the West Indies are often combined into a sub-region of the Caribbean countries. In South America, there are two subregions: Andean (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile) and La Plata countries (Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Brazil). Name Latin America comes from the historically prevailing influence of the language, culture and customs of the Romanesque (Latin) peoples of the Iberian Peninsula - the Spaniards and the Portuguese, who in the 15th-17th centuries. conquered this part of America and colonized it. Colonial seizures of other European states - Great Britain, France, the Netherlands - in this region began later and were relatively small. Almost a thousand years ago, the Vikings were the first Europeans to reach the shores of North America (Island of Newfaunland, the mouth of the St. Lawrence River). But information about this event was lost in the mists of time. Only towards the end of the XV-beginning of the XVI centuries. the European feudal states began to have a desire to search for new sea routes to the resource-rich countries of South and Southeast Asia (since the land routes were controlled by the powerful Ottoman Empire). For this purpose, sea expeditions were undertaken, in which Spain and Portugal played the main role.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus, a Genoese by origin, led a Spanish expedition to find the shortest western route to India. October 12, 1492 is considered the official date of the discovery of America. Columbus discovered the islands: Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, Antilles, as well as part of the coast of Central and South America, declared the lands of Spain. Long before the discovery of America by Europeans, developed states existed there: the Aztecs - on the territory of modern Mexico in the Mexican Highlands with the capital in Tenochtitlan, the Mayans - on the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico) and the Incas - on the west coast of South America (Peru, Ecuador) with the capital in Cusco. All these civilizations were destroyed with the advent of European colonialists.

Most of the modern states of Latin America are former colonies of Spain, and Brazil is a former Portuguese colony. In 1494, the Tordesillas Treaty was concluded between Spain and Portugal, delimiting the spheres of their colonial expansion in the world (the border ran along the meridian 270 miles west of the Azores - to the east of it was the zone of colonial conquests of Portugal, and to the west - Spain) .

Other European states also took part in the colonization of America. John Cabot, who was in the service of the English monarch in 1497-98. reached the shores of North America. Immigrants from European countries settled on the Atlantic coast of North America. The first 13 British colonies subsequently became core struggle for independence (from the rule of Great Britain) - in 1776 the United States of America was formed. At present, the USA and Canada are two highly developed capitalist states on the American continent, which have a huge influence on their Latin American neighbors.

There is one socialist state in this part of the world. Back in 1898, Cuba was formally declared independent, but in fact it was occupied by the United States. In accordance with the unequal treaty of 1903, the United States received on lease for an unlimited period the naval base of Guantanamo Bay (on the island of Cuba). In 1959, the liberation war against the dictatorial regime of Batista ended in victory and, since then, Fidel Castro Ruz (head of state, chairman of the State Council and Council of Ministers) has been ruling the country for more than 30 years.

Confirming the goal of building a communist society, the Cuban constitution of 1992 brings to the fore national liberation ideals, the principles of independence, sovereignty and identity as an ideological basis. Elements of a market economy are being introduced into the economic complex of the country.

The countries of Latin America are united by a common historical destinies and many problems of socio-economic development. By typology, they belong to the group of developing states. Most of the former Spanish colonies won independence in the last century in the national liberation war of 1810-1825. At the beginning of the XIX century. gained independence: Haiti (1804 - the first independent state in Latin America), Ecuador (1809), Mexico, Chile (1810), Paraguay, Colombia, Venezuela (1811), Argentina (1816) , Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Peru, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala (1821), Brazil (1822), Uruguay, Bolivia (1825). Dominican Republic (1844). A republican system was established in all states, only in Brazil until 1899 the monarchy was preserved. From the period of their inception to the present, these countries have been in strong economic and financial dependence (on European states and the United States). In the regions of North and South America, there are several economic unions and groupings (NAFTA, LAAI, OTSAG, MERCOSUR, etc.). However, integration is hampered by the difference in the level of economic development of the countries, as well as the instability of the political situation in the region (armed clashes, frequent civil wars and military coups, terror against democratic forces). A century and a half of independent development of countries south of the Rio Grande has accumulated a large number of serious problems. It is Latin American countries that provide countless examples of military involvement in political life. Suffice it to recall the military coup in Chile (General Pinochet); General Stroessner's 34-year military dictatorship in Paraguay; frequent military coups in many countries of this region (the last - in Haiti in 1992). Only in Bolivia, according to historians, more than 190 military coups were committed.

In addition, there is the traditional geopolitical rivalry between Argentina and Brazil, Chile and Peru. Territorial disputes and claims that more than once resulted in serious conflicts (for example, Bolivia's desire to gain access to the Pacific Ocean at the expense of a strip of Chilean territory) have not receded into the past. Crisis episodes in Latin American history continue: Peruvian President Albert Fujimori dispersed the opposition parliament. The Venezuelan parliament has no less decisively dismissed its president, Carlos Andrés Pérez. Brazil's parliament has ousted President Fernando Color de Mello. A turbulent situation has also recently been observed in Mexico (performances by the Indian population in the south of the country, etc.). The threat of civil wars has not been completely removed from the agenda. Guerrilla movements in Latin America have declined with the warming of the international climate in recent years, but in Peru and Colombia, as well as in the countries of Central America, they pose a certain danger to governments.

In 1993-1994 Democratic elections were held in many Central American countries. With the exception of Costa Rica, where alternative elections have been held for forty years, the Central American countries have no established democratic traditions. For El Salvador, this is the first free elections in half a century after the rampant military regimes and civil war. In Panama, the elections were controlled by the military and so on for more than 20 years. And yet, despite all the difficulties, in Latin American countries there has recently been a tendency towards a neoliberal path of development, a decrease in the role of military institutions in society and an improvement in the economy.

5. POLITICAL MAP OF ASIA

Asia is the largest part of the world, where more than half of humanity lives.

Among the modern independent states of foreign Asia, republics predominate, however, there are countries with a monarchical form of government - there are 14 of them.

Up to the 2nd World War (XX century), foreign Asia (excluding the USSR) was a very important component of the colonial system. More than 90% of the population of the region lived in the colonies and dependent countries. The main metropolitan countries were: Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Japan, and the USA. After the 2nd World War, the collapse of the colonial system covered, first of all, the countries of Asia. Until now, only the last leftovers former colonial possessions.

An attempt was made to involve the young independent states in military blocs. Now they have disintegrated, but it should be remembered that in the mid-1950s the SEATO and CENTO military blocs were created. SEATO included the United States, Great Britain, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, and from Asian countries - Thailand, the Philippines and Pakistan (which came out in 1972). Soon the SEATO bloc fell apart. Members of another military alliance, CENTO, were Great Britain, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan; in fact, the United States played a large role in it, although formally they were not a member of the bloc. Until 1959, CENTO included Iraq. In 1979, Iran, Pakistan and Turkey announced their withdrawal from this bloc, which predetermined the disintegration of this bloc as well.

The NATO bloc includes Turkey - the only Asian country. In Asia, the Non-Aligned Movement is widely manifested. The non-aligned countries proclaimed non-participation in military-political blocs and groupings as the basis of their foreign policy.

5.1 Southwest Asia

There are 16 countries in Southwest Asia that form a historically established sub-region covering most of the Near and Middle East (conditional concept Near and Middle East covers the territory located in Southwest Asia and North Africa). Monarchies with strong vestiges of feudal and tribal relations still survive in Southwest Asia, but republics predominate. The modern and recent history of Southwest Asia reflected the rivalry of the major imperialist powers. They were attracted middle the position of the region on the shortest routes from the mother countries to their large colonial possessions in South and Southeast Asia, and later - the richest oil fields in this region.

The struggle for strategically important territories was carried out mainly between Great Britain and France.

Chronology:

d. - purchase by Great Britain of a stake in the Suez Canal Company (built in Egypt in 1869). Aden and Cyprus were turned into British colonies. By the end of the XIX century. Great Britain established its protectorate over a number of territories on the Arabian Peninsula and in the Persian Gulf zone. After World War I, the British mandated (managed by mandate League of Nations) territories became Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan, and French - Syria and Lebanon. The League of Nations actually legalized the division of Southwest Asia into spheres of influence.

- as a result of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Yemen, Hijaz and Asir gained independence.

- the people of Afghanistan became independent (in 1978 Afghanistan became a republic).

- the Soviet-Iranian friendship treaty was signed - the recognition of Iran (since 1979, the monarchical regime has been abolished and the Islamic Republic has been proclaimed).

- Republic of Turkey proclaimed.

- the state of Saudi Arabia was formed (the principalities of Nejd and Hijaz united).

- Iraq gained independence (in 1958 it became a republic).

- Syria and Lebanon gained independence, and in 1946 Transjordan gained independence (since 1950 - Jordan).

- By resolution of the UN General Assembly, the British Mandate for Palestine was canceled. On the territory of this country, it was decided to create two sovereign states: Arab and Jewish (this issue has not yet been resolved).

In 1948 - the formation of the State of Israel was proclaimed, the State of Palestine was not formed. Israel occupied all the territory allotted for the Arab state (Arab-Israeli wars of 1948-49, six day war 1967). Despite the UN resolution, the Israeli authorities declared Jerusalem the capital of their state. Only in September 1993, the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration was signed, providing for the creation of temporary self-government on the Western Beret of the river. Jordan and the Gaza Strip (autonomy). 1960 - the independence of the Republic of Cyprus was proclaimed (since 1974 - about 37% of the territory was occupied by Turkey, which led to the actual split of Cyprus into two separate parts). 1961 - Kuwait gained independence (was a British protectorate). 1962 - the Yemen Arab Republic was formed (in 1967, another independent state was formed, the People's Republic of South Yemen - NDRY); and in 1990 both states merged into the Republic of Yemen with its capital in Sana'a.

- The Sultanate of Oman (a former colony of Great Britain) was created.

g. - independence was proclaimed in the former English protectorates of Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates (previously contractual Oman). 1978 - A coup d'état was carried out in Afghanistan. The country was named the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (in November 1987 it was returned to its former name - the Republic of Afghanistan, and in 1992 the country was proclaimed the Islamic State of Afghanistan).

At the end of 1979, by agreement with the leadership of the country, Soviet troops were introduced into Afghanistan. This illegal act led to the strengthening of the opposition movement, to the extreme aggravation of tension in the country. One way or another, the United States, Pakistan, Iran and other countries joined the conflict. By 1986, the Soviet government made a political decision to withdraw troops, and by 1989 the USSR had fulfilled its obligations. However, the civil war in the country continues due to the ongoing deep divisions between the Afghan warring factions.

The nature of state borders established in colonial times, religious, ethnic and other disagreements still give rise to border conflicts, armed clashes and wars:

49, 1956, 1967, 1982 - aggression and wars of Israel against the Arab states - neighbors (Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon),

88 years - Iran-Iraq War, 1979-95 - war in Afghanistan, 1990-91. - Iraqi aggression against Kuwait.

5.2 South Asia

The region includes 7 countries of the Eurasian continent, located south of the Himalayas on the Hindustan Peninsula and on nearby islands in the Indian Ocean, with a population of more than 1 billion people. The countries of South Asia have a significant historical commonality of development. In the pre-capitalist era, numerous slave-owning and feudal states existed here, some of them had a high socio-economic level of development for their time. With the strengthening of capitalism in Europe, interest in India sharply increased, beckoning with its legendary riches. The Portuguese expedition of Vasco da Gama in 1498 opened the sea route (around Africa) from Europe to India and other countries of the region and laid the foundation for colonial conquests. Since the 17th century began a fierce competition for colonial domination between Portugal, the Netherlands, England and France. The victory was for England and from the middle of the XIX century. the largest of the colonies, British India, emerged. In Ceylon, the British also changed their former owners - the Portuguese and the Dutch. Great Britain established its protectorate over the principalities of Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim, located in the Himalayas, as well as over the sultanate in the Maldives. The national liberation struggle of the conquered peoples was brutally suppressed (the Sinai uprising in India in 1857-59 and others). Of all the states of South Asia, only Nepal has been a formally sovereign state since 1923 (before that it was under the British protectorate), but gained independence after an armed uprising in 1950-51. After World War II, the disintegration of the colonial system of imperialism also affected South Asia. 1947 - two states were created - the dominions of the Indian Union and Pakistan (section according to religious principle). The migration of peoples was accompanied by an increase in religious strife, which continues to this day (the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, etc.).

In 1950 - the Republic of India was proclaimed, in 1956 - the Republic of Pakistan (Western and Eastern),

In 1971, an independent state, the People's Republic of Bangladesh, was formed on the site of East Pakistan.

- the independence of the sultanate in the Maldives was proclaimed (since 1968 - the Republic of Maldives).

- Republic of Sri Lanka proclaimed.

India is one of the oldest countries in the world. For almost 200 years it was a British colony. In 1950 it was proclaimed a republic. India has been a member of the UN since the establishment of this organization, one of the founders and leaders of the Non-Aligned Movement. It owns a number of major initiatives aimed at stabilizing the situation in the world and solving disarmament problems. Complex relations have been developing for many years between India and neighboring Pakistan. The period of their comparative normalization (1988-1989) was replaced since 1990 by the aggravation of a long-standing dispute. The Indian and Pakistani leadership are taking steps to reduce tension in Indian-Pakistani relations, to resolve the problems of separatism in the border states of Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir. The history of another country in this region is also full of dramatic events. The island of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) was a colony of Portugal, the Netherlands, and then from the 18th century. - Great Britain. In 1948, the country gained independence (remaining a dominion), and in 1972 it was proclaimed the Republic of Sri Lanka. Since the 1970s, the situation in the country has been largely determined by the unresolved Singhalo-Tamil ethnic conflict, which has historical roots.

All countries in this region attach great importance to membership in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Non-Aligned Movement.

5.3 Southeast Asia

The region includes the Indochina Peninsula and numerous islands of the Malay Archipelago. This region connects the mainland of Eurasia and Australia and is the border between the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Important air and sea routes run through the countries of Southeast Asia: the Strait of Malacca is comparable to the Strait of Gibraltar, the Panama and Suez Canals in terms of importance for world shipping.
The position between two ancient centers of civilization and the most populous states of the modern world - China and India - greatly affected the formation of the political map of the region, the processes of economic development, the ethnic and religious composition of the population, and the development of culture. Geographical position, significant natural and human resources led to colonial conquests in the past and neo-colonial expansion in Southeast Asia in the present. The seizure of territories by European powers in this region began in the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries.

d. - Spaniards settled in the Philippines (expedition of Magellan - El Cano). 16th century - Portuguese possessions appeared on the Malay Peninsula and the Malay Archipelago (Moluccas). In the 17th century. and later until the 20th century. - control over most of Indonesia was carried out by the Netherlands. End of the 19th century - French colonies appeared in the eastern regions of the Indochina peninsula (French Indochina: Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia). Early 20th century - British colonies arose: in the north of Kalimantan, the Malay Peninsula and nearby islands, as well as in Burma (which was included in British India). Portugal by that time had lost all its colonies. As a result of the aggressive war of 1898-1904. The US has established its dictatorship over the Philippines. Only the Kingdom of Thailand retained formal independence, but fell under the strong political and economic influence of France and England. The rest of the countries of this subregion were colonies. After World War II, the disintegration of the colonial system led to the formation of sovereign states in the region (Vietnam and Laos followed the path of building socialism). Chronology:

- Indonesia gained independence (West Irian was reunited with Indonesia in 1963).

- the independence of the state of Laos was proclaimed.

- the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed (1946-54 - the war against the French colonialists, 1964-73 - the US aggression, 1969 - the war of North and South Vietnam), 1976 - the proclamation of a united Vietnam. 1946 - the Philippines became an independent state, in 1948 - Burma (now Myanmar), in 1953 - Cambodia.

- Malaya gained independence, 1959 - Singapore achieved self-government.

- Malaya, Singapore and the former British possessions of Sabah and Sarawak (on the island of Kalimantan) united into the Federation of Malaysia (since 1965 - Singapore left the Federation). 1975 - the sovereign Republic of East Timor (a former Portuguese colony) was proclaimed, but it was occupied by Indonesian troops). The question of East Timor, contrary to the resolution of the UN General Assembly, has not been resolved to date.

- The Sultanate of Brunei (formerly under the protectorate of Great Britain) became independent.

In 1967, a regional organization, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), was created, which included Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines and Brunei (since 1984). Negotiations are currently underway to join this grouping of Vietnam.

This organization sets the tasks of cooperation between the countries of the region in order to accelerate economic, cultural, scientific and technological progress.

5.4 Central and East Asia

This region includes: Japan, Korea (DPRK and South Korea), China, Mongolia, Hong Kong (Xianggang) and Macau. Hong Kong and Macao - small politically dependent states on the coast of the South China Sea, the status of which is determined: Hong Kong (the possession of Great Britain) came under the sovereignty of China since 1997, Macao (the possession of Portugal) - by 2000. During World War II, on December 7, 1941, by attacking Pearl Harbor (Hawaii), Japan launched a war against the United States. At the beginning of 1942, Japan captured the entire territory of the Indochina Peninsula, Malaya, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Burma. After the surrender of Germany on September 2, 1945, under the blows of the armed forces of the allies, Japan capitulated (the defeat of the Kwantung Army).

Under the terms of the peace treaty with Japan, Korea was promised independence. Northeast China (Manchuria), the island of Taiwan (Formosa) and other Chinese islands captured by Japan were supposed to be returned to China. South Sakhalin was returned to the Soviet Union and the Kuril Islands, which once belonged to Russia, were transferred.

During the hostilities, the Americans occupied all the Japanese islands, as well as the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean, which were under the rule of Japan (later, the United States took custody of the islands on behalf of the UN). South Korea also entered the zone of American occupation (up to the 38th parallel), and North Korea was occupied by Soviet troops.

The United States of America concluded a so-called security treaty with Japan, which gave them the right to maintain their armed forces there. Japan is the only economically highly developed country in Central and East Asia. The remaining states of this region, according to typology, belong either to the group of developing countries, or to the group of post-socialist and socialist countries (China, Mongolia, North Korea).

Japan is a constitutional monarchy. According to the current constitution, the emperor is a symbol of the state and the unity of the people . The highest body of state power and the only legislative body is the Parliament. Japan is one of the most highly developed countries on the planet, ranking second in the world (after the United States) in terms of economic power.

There are two states on the Korean Peninsula: the DPRK and the Republic of Korea. Korea is a country with an ancient history (about 5 thousand years). The last royal dynasty lasted from 1392 to 1910. During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Korea was occupied by Japan. After the Second World War (in 1945), the country was divided along the 38th parallel, which became the dividing line between Soviet and American troops (to the north of the 38th parallel was the territory liberated by the Soviet Army). In 1948, the Republic of Korea was officially proclaimed in Seoul, and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was officially proclaimed in Pyongyang. In 1950-53. there was a war on the peninsula, which was the result of a sharp confrontation between the two republics on the issue of uniting the country. The post-war armistice agreement is still preserved. An important event was the accession in 1991 of two Korean states to the UN. The founder of the first unified Mongolian state at the beginning of the XIII century. became Genghis Khan. Later, in the XVII century. Mongolia was conquered in parts by the Manchus and until 1911 was part of the Qing Empire. Then independence was proclaimed and national statehood was restored in the form of an unlimited feudal-theocratic monarchy. In 1915, the status of Mongolia was limited to broad autonomy under the suzerainty of China and the patronage of Russia (Chinese troops were later brought into the country). In 1921, as a result of the struggle of the Mongolian people for liberation, the victory of the people's revolution was proclaimed. Mongolia became a people's republic and for many years developed in close connection with the USSR. Foreign trade was focused on the member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), the main trading partner was the Soviet Union. Mongolia is currently a parliamentary republic with a presidential form of government; agro-industrial country. In the early 1990s, the former socialist agricultural associations were transformed into joint-stock companies, and the privatization of livestock was basically completed in the country. China is one of the oldest countries in the world. From the 17th to the 20th centuries the country was ruled by the Manchu Qing dynasty, which with its policy brought the country to the position of a semi-colonial state. In the 19th century China has become an object of colonial expansion by a number of imperialist powers (Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and others). A major event in China's recent history was the Xinhai Revolution (1911-13), which overthrew the Manchu monarchy and proclaimed the Republic of China. During the war against Japanese aggression (1937-45), the USSR provided assistance to the Chinese people. After the defeat of the Japanese Kwantung Army and the completion of the people's revolution in 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed. The remnants of the overthrown Kuomintang regime fled to the island of Taiwan (Formosa). There was created government of the Republic of China . According to the constitution in force in Taiwan, the Taipei regime is a republic headed by a president. The highest representative body is the National Assembly. At present, the government of Taiwan claims to represent all of China, the mainland of which, according to Taipei, temporarily occupied by the communists . For its part, Beijing believes that Taiwan should recognize the PRC government and proposes a formula one state - two systems (i.e. Taiwan becomes a special administrative region under the jurisdiction of China). Taipei offers its own formula - one country two governments . Taiwan is now part of the group new industrial countries (four small economic dragons ) along with Singapore, the Republic of Korea and Hong Kong; plays an increasingly significant role in the economies of the Asia-Pacific region. China has experienced significant economic recovery and policy adjustments in recent years. In 1992 (at the XIV Congress of the CPC), a course was proclaimed for further deepening economic reforms, the transition of the economy to rails socialist market economy . An open foreign economic policy is being implemented.

6. POLITICAL MAP OF AFRICA

The mainland occupies 1/5 of the earth's land mass and is second only to Eurasia in size. Population - over 600 million people. (1992). Currently, there are more than 50 sovereign states on the continent, most of which were colonies until the middle of the 20th century. European colonization began in this region in the 16th century. Ceuta and Melilla - rich cities, the end points of the trans-Saharan trade route - were the first Spanish colonies. Further colonized mainly the West coast of Africa. By the beginning of the XX century. black continent has already been divided by the imperialist powers into dozens of colonies.

By the beginning of World War I, about 90% of the territory was in the hands of Europeans (the largest colonies were in Great Britain and France). Germany, Portugal, Spain, Belgium and Italy had extensive possessions. French colonies were located mainly in North, West and Central Africa. Great Britain tried to create a single British East Africa - from Cairo to Cape Town, in addition, its colonies in West Africa were Nigeria, Ghana, Gambia, Sierra Leone, in East - part of Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda, etc.

Portugal belonged to Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Sao Tome and Principe. Germany - Tanganyika, Southwest Africa (Namibia), Ruanda-Urundi, Togo, Cameroon. Belgium belonged to the Congo (Zaire), and after the 1st World War also Rwanda and Burundi. Most of Somalia, Libya and Eritrea (a state on the Red Sea) were colonies of Italy. (Changes on the political map as a result of world wars - see the relevant sections of the manual). In the early 1950s there were only four legally independent states on the continent - Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia and South Africa (although Egypt has been independent since 1922, it achieved sovereignty only in 1952). The collapse of the colonial system began in the north of the continent. In 1951, Libya became independent, in 1956 - Morocco, Tunisia and Sudan. The sovereign state of Morocco was formed from the former possessions of France and Spain and the international zone of Tangier. Tunisia was a French protectorate. Sudan was formally under joint Anglo-Egyptian control, but in fact it was an English colony, while Libya was Italian. In 1957-58. Colonial regimes fell in Ghana (a former colony of England) and Guinea (a former French colony). The year 1960 went down in history as year of africa . 17 colonies achieved independence at once. In the 60s - another 15. The process of decolonization went on almost until the 90s. The last colony on the mainland - Namibia - gained independence in 1990. Currently, most states in Africa are republics. There are three monarchies - Morocco, Lesotho and Swaziland. Almost all African states are classified according to the UN typology as a group of developing countries (countries third world ). The exception is the economically developed state - the Republic of South Africa. The success of the struggle of African states to strengthen their political and economic independence depends on which political forces are in power. In 1963, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was established. Its goals are to help strengthen the unity and cooperation of the states of the continent, to defend their sovereignty, and to fight against all forms of neo-colonialism. Another influential organization is the League of Arab States (LAS), formed in 1945. It includes the Arab countries of North Africa and the countries of the Middle East. The League is in favor of strengthening the economic and political cooperation of the Arab peoples. African countries from the era of wars of independence fell into the era of civil wars and ethnic conflicts. In many African states, during the years of independent development, the privileged position of the ethnic group whose representatives were in power became a general rule. Hence the many inter-ethnic conflicts in the countries of this region. For about 20 years, civil wars have already been going on in Angola, Chad and Mozambique; For many years, war, devastation and famine have reigned in Somalia. For more than 10 years, inter-ethnic and at the same time inter-confessional conflict has not stopped in Sudan (between the Muslim North and adherents of Christianity and traditional beliefs in the south of the country). In 1993, there was a military coup in Burundi, and there is a civil war in Burundi and Rwanda. A bloody civil war has been going on for several years in Liberia (the first country in Black Africa to gain independence in 1847). The classic African dictators include the presidents of Malawi (Kamuzu Banda) and Zaire (Mobutu Sese Seko), who have been ruling for more than 25 years.

Democracy does not take root in Nigeria - 23 of the 33 years after independence, the country lived under a military regime. In June 1993, democratic elections were held and immediately after that - a military coup, all democratic institutions of power were again dissolved, political organizations, rallies and meetings were banned.

There are practically no places left on the map of Africa where the problem of state independence has not been solved. The exception is Western Sahara, which has not yet acquired the status of an independent state, despite the 20-year struggle for liberation waged by the Polisario Front. In the near future, the UN intends to hold a referendum in the country - independence or accession to Morocco.

Recently, a new sovereign state of Eritrea, a former province of Ethiopia, appeared on the map of Africa (after 30 years of struggle for self-determination).

Separately, the Republic of South Africa should be considered, where there is a transition from democracy for the white minority to non-racial principles of local and central government: the elimination of apartheid and the creation of a united, democratic and non-racial South Africa. For the first time, non-racial presidential elections were held. Elected Nelson Mandela (first black president of South Africa). Former President Frederick de Klerk joined the coalition cabinet. South Africa reinstated as a member of the UN (after 20 years of absence). For many African countries, the transition to political pluralism and a multi-party system has become a big test. Nevertheless, it is precisely the stability of political processes in African countries that is the main condition for further economic development.

7. POLITICAL MAP OF AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA

Australia, New Zealand and numerous large and small islands in the central and southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean, due to a certain commonality of geographical and historical development, can be considered as a special region - Australia and Oceania.

The region is politically and economically diverse. Highly developed Australia and New Zealand, small backward island countries, colonies in the recent past, and some territories that are still colonies adjoin here.

Australia (Australian Union) - a state that occupies the mainland of Australia, the island of Tasmania and many small islands. It is a federal state within the Commonwealth, led by Great Britain.

The first Europeans to set foot on Australian soil were the Dutch Janszon (1606) and Tasman (1642). The beginning of European colonization was laid by the British (J-Cook, 1770). The white colonialists drove the indigenous people from their lands and exterminated them. Subsequently, the natives began to be forcibly relocated to reservations (already by 1981, their number was less than 1% of the country's population). Initially, Australia served as a place of exile for British criminals. Discovery of gold deposits, etc. at the end of the 19th century. led to an increase in the flow of free settlers (Australia is a country resettlement capitalism).

d. - the union of six colonies into the Commonwealth of Australia (status of the dominion of Great Britain); 1931 - complete independence from the metropolis. At present, Australia takes an active position on a number of major international problems - it was one of the initiators of the Treaty on a nuclear-free zone in the South Pacific, and takes part in UN peacekeeping activities. Like New Zealand, it is a member of the South Pacific Forum (STP), the South Pacific Commission (STC), the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (STEC - or ARES in English) and other international agreements.

New Zealand is a state within the British Commonwealth. It is located on two large islands (North and South) and a number of smaller ones. This is a former colony of Great Britain (since 1840), in 1907 it received the status of a dominion, and in 1931 - the right to independence in external and internal affairs. At present, it is a highly developed industrial-agrarian country.

Oceania is the largest cluster of islands on the planet (about 10 thousand) in the central and southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean, the total area is more than 1 million km2. Oceania also includes New Zealand.

By the end of the XIX century. completed the colonial division of the islands of Oceania. In addition to political and economic interests, the military-strategic position of the islands also attracted Oceania; some of them were later turned into military bases and nuclear weapons testing grounds.

In the 60s of our century, the process of disintegration of the colonial system also embraced this remote corner of the globe. Became independent: 1962 - Western Samoa (former UN Trust Territory under the control of New Zealand); 1968 - about. Nauru (former United Nations Trust Territory jointly administered by the UK, Australia and New Zealand); 1970 - Kingdom of Tonga (former British protectorate) and the Fiji Islands (former British colony) and others.

The process of decolonization continues: in the early 1990s, the trust territories that were under US control - the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands - gained independence.

But, as before, some islands in Oceania remain in the possession of: Great Britain (Pitcairn, Henderson, etc.); France (New Caledonia, archipelago and islands of French Polynesia); the Commonwealth of Australia (Christmas Islands, Cocos, Norfolk, etc.); New Zealand (Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau). And the status freely associated with another territorial state often means replacing the trusteeship status with a colonial or semi-colonial regime (see para. Non-self-governing territories on the modern political map of the world).

8. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AS A POLITICAL FACTOR

8.1 Role of international organizations

International organizations are among the most developed and diverse mechanisms for streamlining international life. A noticeable increase in the activity of international organizations, as well as a significant increase in their total number, is one of the remarkable phenomena of modern international development.

According to the Union of International Associations, in 1998. there were 6020 international organizations; over the past two decades, their total number has more than doubled.

International organizations, as a rule, are divided into two main groups.

Interstate (intergovernmental) organizations are established on the basis of an international treaty by a group of states; within the framework of these organizations, the interaction of the member countries is carried out, and their functioning is based on the reduction to a certain common denominator of the foreign policy of the participants on those issues that are the subject of the activity of the corresponding organization.

International non-governmental organizations arise not on the basis of an agreement between states, but by combining individuals and/or legal entities whose activities are carried out outside the framework of the official foreign policy of states.

It is clear that interstate organizations have a much more tangible impact on international political development - to the extent that states remain the main actors in the international arena. At the same time, there are more international non-governmental organizations than interstate ones, and for many years there has been a steady increase in their number. In 1968 there were 1899 international non-governmental organizations, in 1978 - 2420, in 1987 - 4235, in 1998 - 5766. ) interactions.

The influence of non-governmental organizations on international life is also quite tangible. They may raise issues that are not affected by the activities of governments; collect, process and disseminate information on international issues requiring public attention; initiate concrete approaches to their solution and encourage governments to conclude appropriate agreements; to monitor the activities of governments in various spheres of international life and the fulfillment by states of their obligations; mobilize public opinion and contribute to the emergence of a sense of involvement of the "common man" in major international problems.

And yet the importance of interstate organizations for the regulation of international life is immeasurably greater. In this regard, they manifest themselves as if in two guises - on the one hand, forming a field of cooperative or conflict interaction between member states, on the other hand, acting as specific actors in the international arena and thus exerting an independent influence on the dynamics of the development of international relations. .

The scale, nature and depth of the impact of interstate organizations on international political life vary within fairly wide limits. The activity of some of them is of particular importance for modern international relations and deserves special consideration.

8.2 United Nations (UN)

The United Nations not only occupies a central place in the system of interstate organizations, but also plays an exceptional role in modern international political development. Established in 1945 as a universal international organization with the aim of maintaining peace and international security and developing cooperation between states, the UN currently unites 185 countries of the world.

The impact of the UN on modern international relations is significant and multifaceted (Chart 1).

The efforts of the United Nations to maintain peace have taken on special significance. If in the first four decades of its existence the UN carried out 14 different missions and operations with the dispatch of observers, mediators or military personnel to conflict areas, then since 1988 33 peacekeeping actions have been initiated. The peak of activity in this area occurred in 1995, when the total number of personnel involved in UN peacekeeping activities amounted to almost 70 thousand people (including 31 thousand military personnel) from more than 70 countries. Preventive diplomacy (fact-finding missions, efforts to reconcile the parties, mediation, etc.), organizing ceasefire monitoring, humanitarian operations (providing assistance to refugees and other victims of conflicts), and promoting post-conflict rehabilitation have received significant development through the UN. In one form or another, the UN has been involved in efforts to resolve most of the "hot spots" of the current decade - in Somalia, Mozambique, Cambodia, Afghanistan, Central America, Haiti, the former Yugoslavia, the Middle East, Rwanda, Western Sahara, Tajikistan, Georgia. At the same time, the Security Council also used such instruments as sanctions (economic, political, diplomatic, financial and other coercive measures not related to the use of armed forces) and forced disarmament (in relation to Iraq).

At the moment, extensive discussions are underway on the issue of reforming the UN: expanding the scope of activities, changing the order of financing, restructuring the work of the Secretariat, increasing the efficiency of work, etc. In general, the prerequisites for a radical transformation of the UN currently do not look very significant - both due to the diverging views of member states (and the reluctance of many of them to make too drastic changes), and due to the lack of necessary financial resources (which is why today we have to go to a certain curtailment of peacekeeping activities). However, evolutionary adaptation of the organization to changing conditions is urgently needed. The expansion of the UN's capabilities in terms of its impact on international life and the effective performance of the function of the most important multilateral mechanism for regulating international relations will depend on this.

8.3 Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)

This structure, for more than two decades called the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), began functioning in 1973 as a diplomatic forum of 35 states. They included almost all European countries as well as the USA and Canada. The uniqueness of the CSCE was that states belonging to different socio-political systems and included in opposing military structures - NATO and the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO), as well as neutral and non-aligned states, managed to organize a constant process of dialogue and negotiations on topical issues ensuring peace and stability on the continent (Scheme 2).

The result of the activities of the CSCE was the Final Act, adopted in Helsinki in 1975. It determined the principles of relations between states (the “Helsinki Decalogue”), and also outlined specific steps to develop cooperation in a number of areas. The continuation of this line was the meetings of representatives of the CSCE states in Belgrade (1977-1978), Madrid (1980-1983), Vienna (1986-1989), the organization of scientific (Bonn, 1980) and cultural (Budapest, 1985). ) forums, holding conferences on economic cooperation (Bonn, 1990), on the human dimension” of the CSCE (Copenhagen, 1990; Moscow, 1991), on the Mediterranean (Palma de Mallorca, 1990).

Ensuring military detente on the continent has become an important activity of the CSCE. Concrete measures to increase mutual confidence in the military field were already determined by the Helsinki Final Act; their further development and deepening were envisaged by the relevant documents adopted in Stockholm (1986) and Vienna (1990). Within the framework of the CSCE, negotiations were underway on the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (1990), which became a landmark event in strengthening stability on the continent. In accordance with the commitments made within the CSCE regarding greater openness and transparency in the military activities of the participating States, the Open Skies Treaty (1992) was signed.

The collapse of the socialist community and then the Soviet Union, as well as the cardinal changes that occurred as a result of this in the European international political landscape, could not but leave a noticeable imprint on the activities of the CSCE. Steps were taken to institutionalize the CSCE and its structural consolidation. This was also the aim of the document of the Paris Summit (1990) mentioned above, in 1992. in Helsinki, the document “The Challenge of the Times of Change” and a package of organizational decisions were adopted; in 1994 At the Budapest Summit, it was decided to transform the CSCE from a negotiating forum into a permanent organization and call it the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) since 1995.

There has been a significant expansion of the circle of OSCE participants. All post-Soviet states, as well as countries that emerged on the territory of the former Yugoslavia, were accepted into the organization. As a result, 55 states are currently members of the OSCE. This undoubtedly gave the OSCE a more representative character and at the same time became a factor contributing to the integration into the world community of the new states that emerged in the Transcaucasus and Central Asia. However, if previously these regions were part of the "European space" as part of the Soviet Union, now the countries that have arisen in them are directly represented in the OSCE. Thus, the OSCE zone extends geographically far beyond the borders of Europe.

In the activities of the OSCE increased attention began to be paid to the problems of international political development in Europe, which are of particular importance in the conditions that have arisen since the end of the Cold War. To assist the Council of Ministers, a Conflict Prevention Center has been set up in Vienna, within the framework of which member states conduct relevant consultations. The Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (based in Warsaw) promotes cooperation in the field of the "human dimension" and the formation of civil society in the new democracies. In 1997, the OSCE introduced the position of Representative on Freedom of the Media. The OSCE Forum for Security Co-operation is a permanent body dedicated to new negotiations on arms control, disarmament and confidence and security building.

8.4 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) currently includes 19 countries and ensures their interaction in the military-political field. As a military alliance, it is by far the most developed of all multilateral security instruments in Europe. NATO has created a whole system of mechanisms through which the joint activities of the member countries are carried out, starting from coordinating the policy pursued by the members of the alliance in the international arena, and up to preparing for the organization of hostilities in the event of war.

The alliance's highest political authority is the North Atlantic Council, which crowns "the civilian part of NATO's institutional structure. Council sessions are held twice a year at the level of foreign ministers (sometimes joined by defense ministers), and in some cases at the level of heads of state and government. It determines the directions of NATO's activities, consults on the most important international political problems affecting the alliance, and makes key decisions on practical issues of its functioning.

With the end of the Cold War, the threat of a large-scale military clash along the East-West line was practically removed from the agenda. Strictly speaking, this meant that the military alliance had lost its raison d "etre, since the main reason for its existence was to prepare to repel aggression. The North Atlantic Alliance faced the most serious task of adapting to new circumstances and rethinking its role in new conditions. Twice over 90 During the 1990s, new strategic concepts of NATO were adopted (at the summits in Rome in 1994 and in Washington in 1999).The process of restructuring the alliance, accompanied by heated debates among its members, is developing along the following main lines.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

world map country state international

1.Gladky Yu.N., Lavrov S.B. Economic and social geography of the world. Textbook for 10 cells for Wednesdays. School

2.V.P. Maksakovskiy Economic and social geography of the world. Textbook for 10 cells.

.Geographical picture of the world. In 2 books. Maksakovskiy V.P. 4th ed., rev. and additional - M.: Bustard, Book 1 - 2008, 495s

.AV Torkunov Modern international relations. Textbook

5.Maksimova M.V XXI century - with old and new global problems // World economy and international relations

6.Economic, social and political geography. Regions and countries. / Ed. S.B. Lavrova, N.V. Kaledin. M., Gardariki, 2003. Part 1.

7.Capitalist and Developing Countries on the Threshold of the 1990s (Territorial and Structural Shifts in the Economy in the 70s-80s) / Ed. V.V. Volsky, L.I. Bonifatieva, L.V. Smirnyagin. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1990.

.Smirnyagin L.V. Geography of the world economy and socio-cultural context // Questions of economic and political geography of capitalist and developing countries. Issue. 13. - M.: ILA RAN, 1993.

.Kholina V.N. Geography of human activity: economics, culture, politics.: A textbook for grades 10-11 of schools with in-depth study of humanitarian subjects. - M.: Enlightenment, 1995.

Annex 1

Table 1 The ratio of the area and population of metropolises and colonies at the beginning of our century; Colonial possessions in 1900

Area of the world, continents, mln. km Area of colonial possessions, million sq. km.% of the area of the world, continents Population of the world, continents, million people overall132,872,954,91503,4529,635.2Asia44,225,056,6819,6390,647.6Africa29,827,090,4140,7123,387.6Americas38,610,527,2144.29,16.2Polynesia1,31,298.95 .0

Table 2 Ratio of area and population of metropolises and colonies in 1900

StatesMetropolisesColoniesRatio of colonial possessions to the metropolis Area, mln. sq. km. Population, mln. people Area, mln. sq. km. Population, mln. people By area By population 42.612.05.2 times21% Denmark0.042.40.20.15 times4.2% Spain0.518.20.20.740%3.8% Italy0.332.50.50.71.7 times2.2% The Netherlands0. 035.12.037.967 times 7.4 times Portugal 0.15.02.17.7 times 21 times 1.5 times USA7,876.01.98.824.4% 11.6% .72.4 119.0 1c 80 times 2.8 times

Appendix 2

Changes on the political map of the world since the early 90s.

Namibia gained independence - the last colony of Africa.

The guardianship of the United States was terminated and, in fact, new states were formed in Oceania: the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) and the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMO). The Republic of Yemen and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen were unified into the Republic of Yemen.

Two German states united in the FRG: the GDR and the FRG.

Result transformation velvet revolution : NRB to the Republic of Bulgaria, Hungary to the Republic of Hungary (Poland and Romania became republics in 1989).

The collapse of the Soviet Union and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Formation of new states on the world map: Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan. Formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) from 12 republics of the former USSR (excluding the Baltic republics).

The formation of new states on the territory of the former SFRY: Macedonia, Croatia, Slovenia. Termination of the activities of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (OVD) and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA).

The capital of Germany has been moved: from Bonn to Berlin. New international economic organizations have been formed: the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development - to provide credit assistance in the transition to a market-oriented economy in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the Council of the Baltic Sea States - to promote regional cooperation between the countries adjacent to the Baltic Sea in the field of politics, economics, commodity exchange.

Formation of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY). Democratic Republic of Madagascar renamed Republic of Madagascar. Liberated by UN forces (29 countries) Kuwait, occupied as a result of aggression by Iraq in 1991

Within the framework of the EEC, the Maastricht Agreement was signed on the creation of a single European economic space. A new international association has been formed: Black Sea Economic Cooperation (11 countries) to turn the Black Sea into a region of peace and prosperity through the development of friendly and good neighborly relations and the promotion of economic, technological, social progress and free enterprise.

The collapse of Czechoslovakia and the formation of two new states: the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.

A new state was formed in Oceania: the Republic of Palau (capital - Koror) as a result of the termination of US custody. In Africa, the state of Eritrea (capital - Asmara) was formed as a result of secession from Ethiopia.

The Republic of Kyrgyzstan was renamed the Kyrgyz Republic.

The People's Republic of Kampuchea became the Kingdom of Cambodia.

The European Economic Community has been renamed the European Union. In Schengen, 8 countries (Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg) signed an agreement on opening their borders for free movement of goods, persons, currencies, services.

A new international integration grouping was formed: the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) as part of the USA, Canada, Mexico. South Africa restored its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations (withdrew from it in 1961). A new international association was formed: the Association of Caribbean States (AKG) ( 12 countries and 12 territories) to promote the economic integration of Caribbean countries.

Ethiopia is transformed into a federal state. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is established. It replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in force since 1948.

Sweden, Finland, Austria joined the EU. Vietnam became a member of ASEAN.

The Community between Russia and Belarus was formed.

In Kazakhstan, the capital has been moved from Alma-Ata to Astana.

Three Eastern European states became new members of NATO: Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic.

Appendix 3

There are currently 257 countries in the world, including:

· 193 UN member states and the Vatican

· States with undetermined status (10):

states that are not members of the UN, but are officially recognized by one or some UN member states (partially recognized states):

.Republic of Abkhazia

.Republic of China

.Republic of Kosovo

Palestine

.Saharan Arab Democratic Republic

.Republic of South Ossetia

.Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

non-UN member states not recognized by any UN member country, but recognized by some partially recognized states:

Nagorno-Karabakh Republic

Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic

a non-UN member state that is effectively independent, not recognized by any UN member state or partially recognized states: Somaliland

· Other territories (54):

1.4 territories with a special status stipulated in international agreements: Aland Islands, Svalbard, Xianggang (Hong Kong) and Macau (Macao)

.38 dependent territories with permanent population:

.3 Australian overseas territories

.15 UK territories (3 crown lands and 12 overseas territories)

.2 Danish territories,

.3 Dutch overseas territories

.3 New Zealand territories (2 self-governing public entities in free association and 1 dependent territory)

.5 Overseas possessions (non-attached territories) of the United States

.7 overseas territories of France

.11 overseas territories that are considered an integral part of the respective states, but geographically significantly remote from the main part of the state (in particular, belonging to another part of the world):

.3 Spanish territories in Africa: the Canary Islands and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla

.2 autonomous regions of Portugal: Azores and Madeira Islands

.1 US Overseas State - Hawaii

.5 overseas regions of France: Guadeloupe, Mayotte, Martinique, Reunion, French Guiana

.1 unregistered territory, considered by some to be within the sovereign maritime waters of the United Kingdom, but self-governing, and which the United Kingdom does not actually claim: Sealand

There are 5 territories with a special status stipulated in international agreements:

Antarctica;

Aland Islands;

Svalbard;

The size and composition of the territory of states change over time as a result of historical events, relations between states (negotiations, military clashes), decisions of international organizations.

The political map of the world is characterized by high dynamism. It reflects the main political and geographical changes: mergers and divisions, the formation of new states, changes in territory, borders, capitals, names.

The process of forming the political map of the world has several millennia. States were formed, flourished and declined, empires arose and disappeared forever, occupying vast territories and holding numerous peoples in obedience. To navigate the events reflected on the political map, there are several stages of its formation: ancient, medieval, new and latest (Table 1.4).

Table 1.4

Stages of formation of the political map of the world

	Main events
Medieval (V-XV centuries)	Associated with the era of feudalism. The isolation of regions was overcome. Powerful empires were formed from many small feudal states, their borders were constantly changing. Influential states of that time: Holy Roman Empire, Frankish Empire, Kievan Rus, Byzantium, Golden Horde, England, Spain, France, China, India
(XVI century - early XX century)	The era of great geographical discoveries marked the beginning of colonial expansion, the birth and development of capitalist relations. The largest colonial powers were Spain and Portugal, later - England, France, the Netherlands, Germany and the USA. A colonial system was formed; powerful countries appeared on the political arena: Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, Russian empires: new states arose in America; the world market is being formed and the division of the world between the capitalist countries is being completed
Newest (since 1914)	Redistribution of the world after the First and Second World Wars; the collapse of the colonial system and a sharp increase in the number of states. Formation of a socialist system. The collapse of the socialist system, the emergence of new independent states

Within the framework of the latest stage, several periods of the formation of the political map of the world are distinguished.

The first period is the time between the two world wars (1914-1945). The most important events: the collapse of four empires: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Turkish. The appearance on the world map of the first socialist state (USSR). The formation of new states in place of Austria-Hungary: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (renamed Yugoslavia in 1929). Separation from the Russian Empire of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland. Changing the borders of Germany, Turkey, Romania, Italy. The loss of all German possessions. Expansion of the colonial possessions of Great Britain, France, Belgium, Japan.

The second period (from the end of World War II to the 90s of the XX century).

In the post-war period (1946-1989), significant changes took place on the political map of the world. The most important territorial changes in Europe are connected with the results of the Second World War: a significant reduction in the territory of Germany (by! 4 compared with 1938) due to the transfer of Pomerania and Poznan Silesia to Poland; Soviet Union - Kaliningrad region. The USSR transferred small territories to Poland, increasing its territory by annexing Transcarpathian Ukraine (under an agreement with Czechoslovakia) and the Pechenga region in the northwest (under an agreement with Finland). In the east, the Tuva Republic (as an autonomy) became part of the USSR, and after the capitulation of Japan, South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.

Two states were formed on the territory of Germany: within the boundaries of the occupation zones of the Western powers - the Federal Republic of Germany, and within the boundaries of the Soviet zone of occupation - the German Democratic Republic. Some territories of Italy went to Yugoslavia and Greece.

In 1948, the State of Israel was formed in accordance with a UN General Assembly resolution.

The confrontation between the capitalist and socialist systems, between the USA and the USSR during this period was called the Cold War.

Another important phenomenon was the collapse of the colonial system with the formation of a large number of independent states in Asia, Africa, Latin America, Oceania, reflected in Table. 1.5.

Table 1.5

Countries - former colonies that gained independence after World War II

The country	Part Sveta	Metropolitan country

2. Vietnam
3. Indonesia		Netherlands
4. Jordan		Great Britain


7. Philippines
		Great Britain
9. Pakistan		Great Britain
10. Myanmar		Great Britain
11. Israel		Great Britain
12. Sri Lanka		Great Britain


15. Cambodia
16. Morocco		Spain, France

		UK, Egypt
		Great Britain

The country	Part Sveta	Year of Independence	Metropolitan country
20. Malaysia			Great Britain
21. Guinea

23. Ivory Coast
24. Burkina Faso


27. Cameroon			Great Britain,
28. Democratic Republic of the Congo
29. Republic of the Congo
30. Mauritania

32. Madagascar

34. Nigeria			Great Britain
35. Senegal
36. Somalia			Italy, UK


			Great Britain
40. Kuwait			Great Britain
41. Sierra Leone			Great Britain
42. Tanzania			Great Britain
43. Yemen Arab Republic			Great Britain

45. Burundi
46. Rwanda
47. Uganda			Great Britain
48. Trinidad and Tobago			Great Britain
			Great Britain
			New Zealand
			Great Britain
52. Zambia			Great Britain
53. Malawi			Great Britain
54. Malta			Great Britain
55. Republic of Maldives			Great Britain

The country	Part Sveta	Year of Independence	Metropolitan country
56. Singapore			Great Britain
57. Gambia			Great Britain
58. Guyana			Great Britain
59. Botswana			Great Britain
60. Lesotho			Great Britain
61. Barbados			Great Britain
62. People's Democratic Republic of Yemen			Great Britain
63. Mauritius			Great Britain
			UK, New Zealand, Australia
65. Swaziland			Great Britain
66. Equatorial Guinea
			Great Britain
			Great Britain
69. Bahrain			Great Britain
			Great Britain
			Great Britain
72. Bangladesh			Great Britain
73. Bahamas			Great Britain
74. Guinea-Bissau			Portugal
75. Grenada			Great Britain
76. Mozambique			Portugal
77. Cape Verde			Portugal
78. Sao Tome and Principe			Portugal
79. Comoros
80. Papua New Guinea			Australia
81. Angola			Portugal
82. Suriname			Netherlands
83. Seychelles			Great Britain
84. Djibouti
85. Solomon Islands			Great Britain
86. Tuvalu			Great Britain
87. Dominica			Great Britain
			Great Britain
89. Kiribati			Great Britain
			Great Britain

The country	Part Sveta	Year of Independence	Metropolitan country
91. Zimbabwe			Great Britain
92. Vanuatu			Great Britain,
			Great Britain
94. Antigua and Barbuda			Great Britain
			Great Britain
96. Brunei			Great Britain
97. Federated States of Micronesia
98. Marshall Islands
99. Namibia

The colonial past had a great influence on many features of the current state of the countries - former colonies: language, religion, population migration, directions of external economic and political relations, and other aspects of life.

The beginning of the third modern period (since 1990) of the formation of the political map of the world was marked by two events that radically changed the world: the unification of Germany in 1990 and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. These events provoked a chain reaction on the political map of the world: socialist system. In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia; Federal Federal Republic of Yugoslavia - to Serbia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia. No less significant events took place in other regions: in Asia in 1990, North and South Yemen united into a single Yemeni Republic. At the same time, a new sovereign state appeared on the political map of Africa - Namibia, and in 1993 - Eritrea. In 1997, the British colony of Hong Kong (Xianggang) and in 1999 the Portuguese colony of Macao (Aomen) became special administrative regions of China.

The formation of a modern political map and a modern world economy is a very long historical process, during which mankind has overcome the path from the “primitive communal system” to the era of computers and atomic energy. Accordingly, the following periods are distinguished in the development of the political and economic map of the world.

Ancient period (from the era of the emergence of the first forms of the state to the 5th century AD) covers the era of the slave system. During this period, the development of productive forces takes place: the extraction of minerals expands, the construction of sailing ships, irrigation systems, etc. begins. The world's population is rapidly increasing. Cities arose - first as centers for the concentration of handicraft production, and then for trade, which especially developed rapidly in the Mediterranean, South and Southeast Asia. The development of productive forces and commodity economy led to the emergence of surplus product, private property, the division of society into classes and the formation of states. Together with the first states, there are also two main forms of government: monarchy (Ancient Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, Persia, Roman Empire) and republic (city-states of Phoenicia, Greece, Ancient Rome). Wars were the main method of division of territories during this period.

Medieval period (V-XV centuries) This is the era of feudalism. It is characterized by a further gradual development of the productive forces. The internal market of states appears, the remoteness of farms and regions is overcome. The main branch of the economy in all countries is agriculture; horticulture, horticulture, and viticulture are developing. Important geographical discoveries have been made. The population during this period, due to significant mortality, increases rather slowly and by 1500 reaches 400-500 million people, of which 60-70% are in Asia. Cities arose in Europe and Asia as centers of crafts, trade, education, and political life. Monarchy, mostly absolute, remained almost the only form of government throughout the feudal era. The era of feudalism is characterized by the disunity of the world space, which has developed from several significant parts that are not connected or little connected with each other.

New period (the end of the 15th century - the end of the First World War)- the era of the birth, growth and establishment of capitalist relations. During this period, technical progress covers all areas of industry, trade and transport received new impetus for development. The process of nation formation is accelerating. The birth of capitalism led to changes in the distribution of the population. The great geographical discoveries significantly influenced the formation of the political map of the world and the entire world economy. The main consequences of these discoveries are the following: the emergence of the first three colonial empires: Spanish (in America), Portuguese and Dutch (in Asia); the emergence of European colonial settlements; the emergence of world trade, which contributes to the formation of a world market. The period of industrial revolutions (the middle of the 17th century - the end of the 19th century) was marked by bourgeois revolutions, the most prominent of which was the Great French Revolution. At this time, absolute monarchies give way republics (France) or constitutional monarchies (England, Netherlands).

The main feature of economic relations during the development of capitalism was the internationalization of economic life and the deepening of the international geographical division of labor. The final stage of the period is characterized by the rapid development of new industries - the electric power industry, oil production, mechanical engineering, and the chemical industry. Heavy industry began to prevail over light industry. At the same time, the concentration of production and capital is increasing, which led to the emergence of monopolies primarily in Africa and Oceania. Political stability during this period was short-lived.

Recent period (after the First World War to the present day) is divided into three stages. First stage (1918-1945) began with the formation of the first socialist state - the RSFSR, eventually the USSR - and noticeable territorial changes on the political and economic maps. It is characterized by such general features of the development of productive forces as: the rapid growth of new areas of industry (electricity, oil industry, aluminum smelting, automotive, plastics), as well as transport (automobile, air, pipeline) and communications (radio), intensification of agriculture. Changes are also taking place on the political map of the world. The main events of the 30s were the establishment of a fascist dictatorship in Germany in 1933. There was a further division of spheres of influence in Europe between the USSR and Germany: 1938 - the annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia, 1939 - the capture of Poland, 1939 - joining the USSR Western Ukraine, 1940 - accession to the USSR of Bukovina and Bessarabia.

The second stage (after the Second World War until the beginning of the 90s) characterized by the rapid development of productive forces, the further development of the world political process. Since the 1950s, the world experienced an unprecedented acceleration of scientific and technical progress, which caused a scientific and technological revolution that led to a qualitative transformation of the productive forces and sharply increased the internationalization of the economy. Important changes in the world population are associated with the accelerated growth of its population, which is called the "population explosion", changes in the structure of employment, and the development of ethnic processes. Changes have also taken place in the political map of the world. The defeat of fascism in 1945 and the victory of socialist revolutions in many countries turned socialism into a world system: a socialist camp was formed in Europe (Poland, the German Democratic Republic (GDR), Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania, Albania), in Asia ( China, Mongolia, Vietnam, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Laos) and in 1959 - in Cuba.

In October 1945, the United Nations (UN) was established in San Francisco by 51 states of the world. In 1949, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was created, uniting all the then socialist countries. In response, the capitalist states announced the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) (1957). In September 1949, an agreement was signed on the formation of two countries on the territory of post-war Germany: the GDR (with Berlin as its capital) and the FRG (Bonn).

From the 60s. a national liberation movement begins in many African countries, as a result of which they gained independence. If in 1955 there were only four independent states in Africa: Egypt, Liberia, Ethiopia and the Kingdom of Libya, then in 1960, which is considered the “year of Africa”, 17 colonies acquired sovereignty and independence, including 14 French ones. In the 60-70s, the process of decolonization affected Latin America (Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Grenada, Dominica, etc. gained independence), Oceania (Western Samoa, Tonga, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, etc.) and Europe (in 1964 Malta became independent). As a result, about 100 new states appeared on the site of the former colonies.

The third stage (from the beginning of the 90s to the present) characterized by changes in the political map of the world, which took place on almost all continents and significantly influenced the socio-economic and socio-political life of the world community: March 1990 - the independence of Namibia (the last of the significant colonies in Africa);

· May 1990 - unification of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY) with its capital in Aden and the Arab Republic of Yemen with its capital in Sana'a into the Yemen Arab Republic (capital Sana'a);

October 1990 - the unification of the FRG and the GDR into a single state - the Federal Republic of Germany (since 1991, Berlin again becomes the capital);

· 1991 - termination of the activities of the Warsaw Treaty Organization and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance;

· September 1991 - independence of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, isolation from Yugoslavia of its former union republics: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia;

· autumn 1991 - acquisition of sovereignty by the Federated States of Micronesia (former Caroline Islands), the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Palau;

December 1991 - the collapse of the USSR and the SFRY;

· beginning of 1992 – formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS);

· April 1992 - the formation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as part of Serbia and Montenegro;

· January 1, 1993 - the peaceful disintegration of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic (the capital of Prague) and Slovakia (the capital of Bratislava) under the signed agreement;

· May 24, 1993 - the independence of Eritrea, which was a province of Ethiopia on the Red Sea coast and fought for self-determination for almost 30 years;

November 1993 - declaration of Palestinian autonomy (370 km 2 of the Gaza Strip, the city of Jericho and the West Bank of the Jordan River);

· autumn 1993 - the proclamation of the kingdom of Cambodia;

· 1995 - transfer of the capital of Nigeria from Lagos to Abuja;

· 1996 - transfer of the capital of Tanzania from Dar es Salaam to Dodoma;

· January 1997 (officially from 01.01.98) - the transfer of the capital of Kazakhstan from Almaty to Astana;

· 1997 - the renaming of the African state of Zaire into the Democratic Republic of the Congo;

· July 1, 1997 - the transition of Xianggang (Hong Kong) under the sovereignty of China, and December 20, 2000 - Macao (Macao).

As of 2002, there were almost 250 political-territorial entities in the world; 191 sovereign states, of which 190 are members of the UN (on March 3, 2002, the inhabitants of Switzerland, 55% of the votes, proclaimed their country's accession to the UN and on September 10, 2002, the country was officially admitted last to this organization, not included in the Vatican) and up to 50 territories with different statuses (colonies, overseas departments, disputed territories, protectorates, etc.).

So, the political map of the world is especially dynamic. It displays and fixes the main political and geographical processes associated with quantitative and qualitative changes. TO quantitative changes relate:

Typology of the countries of the world.

The typology of the countries of the world is one of the most difficult methodological problems. It is solved by economic geographers, economists, political scientists, sociologists and representatives of other sciences. In contrast to the grouping (classification) of countries, their typology is based not on quantitative, but on qualitative features (criteria) that make it possible to attribute each of them to one or another type of socio-economic and political development. A prominent representative of the economic and geographical school of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences V. V. Volsky country type understood the objectively established relatively stable complex of its inherent conditions and features of development, characterizing its role and place in the world community at this stage of world history. In other words, in this case we are talking about those main typological features of countries that bring them closer to some and, on the contrary, distinguish them from other countries.

In a sense, the typology of countries is a historical category. Indeed, until the early 1990s 20th century all countries of the world were usually divided into three main types: socialist, capitalist and developing. In the 90s. In the 20th century, after the collapse of the world socialist system, a different, less politicized typology emerged with the subdivision of countries into: 1) economically highly developed; 2) developing; 3) countries with economies in transition, but along with this, the binomial typology of countries is still widespread, dividing them into: 1) economically developed and 2) developing. At the same time, the indicator is usually used as a generalizing, synthetic indicator. gross domestic product(GDP) per capita.

The typology of V. V. Volsky has already entered into scientific use, it is also widely used for educational purposes. This applies, for example, to distinguishing the main economically developed countries, key developing countries, rich oil-exporting countries, as well as the least developed countries. The concept of least developed country was introduced by the UN back in 1970. At the same time, this category included 36 countries in which GDP per capita did not reach $ 100, the share of manufacturing in GDP did not exceed 10%, and the proportion of the literate population over the age of

A more convenient histological classification was proposed by the bank; it comes from the division of countries into three main groups. First, this low income countries, to which the World Bank refers 42 countries of Africa, 15 countries of foreign Asia, 3 countries of Latin America, 1 country of Oceania and 6 countries of the CIS (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan). Secondly, this middle income countries, which, in turn, are subdivided into lower middle income countries(8 countries of foreign Europe, 6 countries of the CIS, 9 countries of foreign Asia, 10 countries of Africa, 16 countries of Latin America and 8 countries of Oceania) and upper middle income countries(6 countries of foreign Europe, 7 countries of foreign Asia, 5 countries of Africa, 16 countries of Latin America). Thirdly, this high income countries, which include 20 countries of foreign Europe, 9 countries of foreign Asia, 3 countries of Africa, 2 countries of North America, 6 countries of Latin America and 6 countries of Oceania. The group of countries with high income looks, perhaps, the most “team”: along with the most highly developed countries in Europe, America and Japan, it includes Malta, Cyprus, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Brunei, the islands of Bermuda, Bahamas, Martinique, Reunion, etc.

The indicator of per capita GDP does not clearly define the boundary between developed and developing countries. For example, some international organizations use $6,000 per capita (at the official exchange rate) as such a quantitative threshold. But if we take it as the basis of a two-term typology, then it turns out that all post-socialist countries with economies in transition fall into the category of developing countries, while Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Brunei, Bahrain, Barbados, and the Bahamas fall into the group of economically developed countries.

1. Show the new sovereign countries that formed on the political map of Eurasia after the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan.

2. Why is it impossible to accurately name the number of countries on the political map of the world?

The number of countries exceeds the number of states. Since the concept of a country is much broader than the concept of a state. There are countries that are not recognized by other states as independent states (unrecognized states), there are also territories with an undefined status and dependent territories. Not having the status of states, the last three categories of territories still have the status of countries.

3. How did the process of formation of the political map of the world take place in different historical epochs?

Changes on the political map are quantitative (accession to the state of newly discovered lands, territorial gains and losses after wars, unification or disintegration of states, exchange of territories by states, etc.) and qualitative (acquisition of sovereignty, change in the form of government and state structure, formation interstate unions, etc.). Currently, quantitative changes are declining and mainly qualitative changes are taking place on the political map of the world.

4. Recall from the course of history and explain how they influenced the formation of the political map of the world: a) the First World War; b) the formation of the USSR; c) World War II; d) the collapse of the Soviet Union.

a) States with a new socialist orientation appeared, the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the separation of Finland and Poland from the Russian Empire, the Baltic countries. b) The incorporation of the Baltic countries into the USSR in 1940; c) The formation of socialist states in Eastern and southeastern Europe. The emergence of military blocs. d) The formation of new states, the collapse of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, the unification of Germany

5. What is the fundamental difference between quantitative and qualitative shifts on the political map of the world?

Quantitative changes are associated with territorial gains, losses, voluntary concessions by states, etc.

Russian sale of Alaska to the US;

USSR annexation of the Kuril Islands, southern Sakhalin, Kaliningrad region after World War II;

Japan-increase in territory by building up the coastline.

Qualitative changes - a change from one formation to another, the conquest of sovereignty, the introduction of a new state system, etc.

1917 Formation of the USSR;

The collapse of the USSR, the formation of 15 sovereign states;

The collapse of Yugoslavia, the formation of 5 sovereign states;

The division of Germany (FRG, GDR), the unification of Germany.

6. It is known that part of the territory of the Netherlands is lands reclaimed from the sea, which led to a change in the political map of the country. What is this change - quantitative or qualitative?

Quantitative.

7. Using the text of the textbook and knowledge of history, fill in the table.

8. Give examples of quantitative and qualitative shifts on the political map of the world not mentioned in the text.

quantitative changes

Accession of newly discovered lands (in the past);

Territorial gains or losses due to wars;

Unification or disintegration of states; voluntary concessions (or exchange) of land areas by countries;

Reconquest of land from the sea (alluvium).

Qualitative Changes

Historical change of socio-economic formations;

Acquisition of political sovereignty by the country;

Introduction of new forms of government;

Formation of interstate political unions and organizations;

The appearance and disappearance of "hot spots" on the planet - centers of interstate conflict situations;

Changing the names of countries and their capitals.

Description of the presentation on individual slides:

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Formation of the political map of the world Belyaeva L.E. geography teacher MBOU Lyceum No. 15, PYATIGORSK GEOGRAPHY

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Plan Introduction to the topic of the lesson. Stages of political map formation. Modern changes on the political map. Changes on the political map: quantitative, qualitative.

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Many wondered - how many countries are there in the world? There are (2014) 194 (Vatican and UN members) independent states in the world. Despite the fact that the UN has recognized the Vatican, it is not part of it. There are more countries in the world than states, since the concept of "country" is wider and larger than the concept of "state". Now there are 262 countries in the world. Many countries do not want to recognize other states as "independent". Such states are called "unrecognized", now there are 12 of them. There are also many territories with an undefined status in the world. There are also 62 dependent territories. Despite the fact that they do not have state status, unrecognized states, dependent territories and territories with undefined status are countries.

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Stages of formation of the political map I Ancient period (until the 5th century AD) Existence of ancient states: Egypt, Carthage, Greece, Rome II Medieval period (V-XIV centuries) Emergence of new large states: Byzantium, England, France, Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Kievan Rus III Modern times (XV-XIX centuries) The era of the great geographical discoveries, European colonial expansion. By the beginning of the XX century. the division of territories was completely completed, only a forced redistribution became possible.

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IV The latest period (XX-beginning of the XXI century) 1) 1900 - 1938: 1918 - the end of the First World War 1922 - the formation of the USSR, the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, the formation of Poland, Finland, the emergence of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, expansion of the colonial possessions of Great Britain, France, Belgium, Japan Stages of formation of the political map

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2) 1939 - 1980s: 1945 - the end of World War II and the emergence of socialist states 1949 - the partition of Germany, the emergence of the FRG and the GDR 1945-48 - the collapse of the colonial system in Asia 1950-60s - the collapse of the colonial system in Africa 1960 - the "year of Africa": 17 African states gained independence (Chad, Congo, Cameroon, Mauritania, Gabon, etc.) IV The latest period (XX-beginning of the XXI century) Stages of political map formation

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3) 1989 - present: 1989-90 - "velvet" revolutions in Eastern Europe 1990 independence of Namibia, the unification of the FRG and the GDR, the collapse of the SFRY (Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia) 1991: collapse The USSR, the formation of the CIS, the termination of the activities of the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO), the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) Stages of forming a political map

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4) In 1991-1992, four of the six union republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia) separated from the SFRY. At the same time, UN peacekeeping forces were introduced into the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and then the autonomous province of Kosovo Stages of forming a political map

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The disintegration of Yugoslavia is a generalized name for the events of 1991-2008, as a result of which the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was divided into six independent countries and one partially recognized state. On February 17, 2008, the independence of the Republic of Kosovo from Serbia was unilaterally proclaimed.

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5) 1993: disintegration of Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic, Slovakia) formation of the state of Eritrea restoration of the monarchy in Cambodia 1997: return of Hong Kong (Xianggang) under the jurisdiction of China 2000: return of Macau (Ao Men) under the jurisdiction of China 2002: Obtaining sovereignty state East Timor Switzerland's accession to the UN Stages of formation of the political map

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Stages of formation of the political map The Supreme Council of the Republic of South Ossetia (South Ossetia) declared the independence of the republic on May 29, 1992, during the armed conflict with Georgia. Abkhazia declared independence after the 1992-1993 war with Georgia. Its constitution, in which the republic was declared a sovereign state and a subject of international law, was adopted by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Abkhazia on November 26, 1994. The declaration of independence of the republics did not cause a wide international resonance; until the second half of the 2000s, these states were not recognized by anyone. In 2006, Abkhazia and South Ossetia recognized each other's independence; in addition, their independence was recognized by the unrecognized Transnistria. The situation with international recognition changed after the war in South Ossetia in August 2008. After the conflict, the independence of both republics was recognized by Russia. In response, the Parliament of Georgia adopted a resolution "On the occupation of the territories of Georgia by the Russian Federation." These events were followed by the reaction of other countries and international organizations to recognize the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. 6). SOUTH OSSETIA. ABKHAZIA

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Annexation (return) of Crimea Annexation of Crimea to Russia (2014) - inclusion in the Russian Federation of most of the territory of the Crimean peninsula, which became part of independent Ukraine after the collapse of the USSR and until 2014 was controlled by it, with the formation of two new subjects of the Federation - the Republic of Crimea and the federal city values of Sevastopol.

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