Learn Latin from scratch audio. We start learning Latin. Diphthongs and consonant reading features
The course will provide you with an opportunity to touch the riches of the Latin language, which influenced the formation and development of several European languages, such as French, Italian, Spanish, English and others. Therefore, studying Latin will make it easier for you in the future to master new foreign languages \u200b\u200bor will open unexpected facets in the already known ones. Just like logic and mathematics, the practical skills of linguistic analysis of Latin texts will have a positive effect on any research activity.
The Latin language has long become the basis of scientific terminology in various branches of knowledge, and therefore is necessary for those who study law, medicine, biology, philology, history, philosophy and other disciplines.
Since the Latin language today is not native to any nation, that is, it does not belong to the "living", during the lessons we will focus not on speaking practice, but on translation and analysis of texts. The compilers of the course have made an effort to ensure that in the learning process you learn to read, understand and translate with the dictionary both individual sentences and adapted prose texts. In the classroom, you will also master the ability to translate simple Russian sentences into Latin, which will help you better understand and consolidate the grammatical categories of the target language.
In the course of your studies, you will definitely get acquainted with the winged Latin expressions that have entered the treasury of world culture, as well as with the fate of Latin words in Russian and other European languages.
Requirements
Completed secondary education.
Course program
Introductory lecture
I. 1. Alphabet. Reading rules
2. Verb - general information. Basic forms, basics, personal endings of active voice
3. Praesens indicativi activi. Imperativus praesentis activi. Forms of prohibition
4. Noun - general information. Cases. First declension
5. Personal pronouns. Reflexive pronoun
II 1. Second declension (masculine)
- 2.Second declension (neuter). Neuter rule
3. Adjectives I – II declension. Possessive pronouns
4. Passive voice. Personal endings in the passive voice. Praesens indicativi passivi. Infinitivus praesentis passivi
5. Real and passive constructions. Ablativus auctoris. Ablativus instrumenti
III 1. Pronouns ille; iste; ipse
2. Imperfectum indicativi activi et passivi
3. The pronoun is, ea, id. Pronoun adjectives
4. Futurum primum indicativi activi et passivi
5. Prefixed verbs with “esse”
IV 1. Third declension: consonant type
2. Third declension: vowel type
3. Third declension: mixed type
3. Third declension: adjectives
4. Features of the third declension
5. Participium praesentis activi
V 1. Functions of the infinitive. Accusativus cum infinitivo turnover (start)
2. Turnover of Nominativus cum infinitivo (beginning)
3. Perfectum indicativi activi
4. Participium perfecti passivi. Perfectum indicativi passivi
5. Pronouns qui, quae, quod
VI 1. Plusquamperfectum et futurum secundum indicativi activi et passivi.
2. Ablativus absolutus
3. Comparative degree of comparison of adjectives and adverbs. Ablativus comparationis.
4. Excellent comparison of adjectives. Genetivus partitivus
5. Fourth declension
VII 1. Fifth declension
2. Pronoun hic, haec, hoc
3. Participium futuri activi. Infinitives
4. Accusativus cum infinitivo turnover (continued)
5. Numbers
VIII 1. Gerundium
2. Gerundivum as a definition
3. Coniugatio periphrastica. Descriptive conjugation.
4. Irregular verbs - eo, fero
5. Irregular verbs - volo, nolo, malo
IX 1. Modus coniunctivus - the formation of forms
2. Coniunctivus in independent proposals
3. Student anthem "Gaudeamus"
4. The rule for setting tenses in subordinate clauses with a conjunctiva
5. Indirect question
Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this course, students will
Be able to:
1. Translate coherent adapted texts and individual sentences with a dictionary into Russian.
2. Translate simple sentences into Latin with a dictionary.
3. Use the Latin-Russian and Russian-Latin dictionary.
Know:
1. Basics of Latin morphology.
2. Basics of Latin syntax.
3. Basics of grammatical terminology.
Own:
1. Skills in reading texts and stressing.
2. Skills of translation from Latin into Russian.
3. Skills of translation from Russian into Latin.
Formed competencies
OK-1 - readiness for critical understanding of the phenomena of social and cultural life; the ability to perceive, analyze, generalize information, set a goal and choose ways to achieve it
OK-2 - willingness to respect the historical heritage and cultural traditions, tolerantly perceive social and cultural differences
OK-3 - the ability to use basic knowledge in the field of humanities, social and economic sciences in cognitive and professional activities
OK-4 - possession of the culture of thinking, the ability to reasonably and clearly build oral and written speech
OK-5 - the ability to use computer skills in the social sphere, in cognitive and professional activities
PC-1 - the ability to demonstrate knowledge of the main provisions and concepts in the field of theory and history of literature (literatures) and the main studied language (languages), communication theory, philological analysis and interpretation of text, understanding of history, the current state and prospects of development of philology
PC-3 - possession of basic skills in collecting and analyzing literary and linguistic facts using traditional methods and modern information technologies
PC-6 - the ability to apply the knowledge gained in the field of theory and history of literature (literatures) and the studied foreign language (languages), communication theory, philological analysis and interpretation of the text in one's own research activities
PC-13 - possession of the skills of translating various types of texts (mainly scientific and journalistic) from a foreign language and into a foreign language; annotation and abstracting of scientific papers and works of art in a foreign language
1. History of the Latin language
Latin belongs to the group of Italic dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the II-I centuries. BC e., and he achieved the greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or "golden", Latin. He was distinguished by the richest vocabulary, the ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific-philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology.
This period was followed by postclassical, or "silver", Latin (I-II centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally strengthened, spelling rules were determined. The last period in the existence of Latin in ancient times was the so-called late Latin (III-VI centuries AD), when the gap between written, book, Latin and folk-spoken language began to grow.
In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the II century. BC e. Latin conquered the position of the official state language.
Since 43 A.D. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) inhabiting Britain were also under the rule of Rome.
If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its colloquial form spread, almost without meeting the resistance of tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) it encountered languages \u200b\u200bthat had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than the Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Even before the arrival of the Romans, the Greek language was widely spread in these regions, and with it the Greek, or Hellenic, culture.
From the very first cultural contacts between the Romans and Greeks and throughout the history of ancient Rome, the latter experienced in the economic, state, social and spiritual spheres of life the constantly increasing influence of a highly developed Greek culture.
Educated Romans tended to read and speak Greek. The colloquial and literary Latin language included borrowed Greek words, especially actively after the rule of Rome in the II-I centuries. BC e. hit Greece and the Hellenistic countries. From the II century. BC e. Rome began to assimilate the vocabulary of Greek science, philosophy and medicine, partially borrowing along with new concepts and terms denoting them, slightly Latinizing them.
At the same time, another process also developed more actively - the formation of Latin words of scientific content, that is, terms.
When comparing the two classical languages, one can see their significant differences.
The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-formation potential to the Greek, which had a remarkable ability to clothe in linguistic forms the phenomena, facts, facts, ideas of biological and medical content that were being described for the first time, easily create more and more new names that are almost transparent in meaning through various methods of word formation, especially by constitution and suffixation.
2. Term and definition
The word "term" (terminus) is Latin in origin and once had the meaning of "limit, border". A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system of special concepts (in science, technology, production). Like any common word, the term has content, or meaning (semantics, from the Greek. Semantikos - "designating"), and a form, or sound complex (pronunciation).
Unlike all other common nouns, which denote everyday, everyday, so-called naive ideas, the terms denote special scientific concepts.
The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary defines the concept as follows: "Thought reflecting in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationship between them." The concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is a combination of the attributes of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has attributes that make up the content of the concept.
In contrast to ordinary everyday concepts, a special scientific concept is always a fact of a scientific concept, the result of theoretical generalization. The term, being a sign of a scientific concept, plays the role of an intellectual tool. With its help, scientific theories, concepts, provisions, principles, laws are formulated. The term is often a messenger of a new scientific discovery, a phenomenon. Therefore, unlike non-terms, the meaning of a term is revealed in a definition, a definition that is necessarily attributed to it.
Definition(lat. definitio) is a formulation in a concise form of the essence of the terminated, that is, designated by the term, concept: only the basic content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - "being", "being" + genesis - "generation", "development") - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of an organism from its inception to the end of life; aerophiles (lat. aёr - "air" + philos - "loving") - microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation of oxygen in the environment.
As you can see, the definition does not just explain the meaning of the term, but sets this meaning. The requirement to determine what a particular term means is tantamount to the requirement to give a definition of a scientific concept. In encyclopedias, special explanatory dictionaries, in textbooks, the concept (term) introduced for the first time is revealed in definitions. Knowledge of the definitions of those concepts (terms) that are included in the curriculum for the disciplines is a mandatory requirement for the student.
3. Medical terminology
Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or a macro-term system. The totality of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The content plan of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body in normal conditions and in pathologies at various stages of their development; human diseases and pathological conditions; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and vectors of diseases; environmental factors that positively or negatively affect the human body; indicators of hygienic regulation and assessment; methods of diagnostics, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; operative approaches and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and sanitary and epidemiological services; apparatus, devices, tools and other technical means, equipment, furniture for medical purposes; medicines grouped according to the principle of their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicines, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials, etc.
Each term is an element of a certain subsystem, for example, anatomical, histological, embryological, therapeutic, surgical, gynecological, endocrinological, forensic, traumatological, psychiatric, genetic, botanical, biochemical, etc. Each sub-term reflects a certain scientific classification of concepts adopted in this science. At the same time, terms from different subsystems, interacting with each other, are in certain semantic relationships and connections at the level of the macro-term system.
This reflects a dual trend of progress: further differentiation of medical sciences, on the one hand, and their increasing interdependence and integration, on the other. In the XX century. the number of highly specialized subterm-systems expressing concepts related to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases affecting mainly individual organs and systems (pulmonology, urology, nephrology, neurosurgery, etc.) has significantly increased. Over the past decades, highly specialized dictionaries of cardiology, oncology, radiology, immunology, medical virology, and the sciences of a hygienic profile have reached impressive sizes.
Within the framework of the macro-thermal system, almost the leading role belongs to the following subsystems:
1) anatomical and histological nomenclatures;
2) a complex of pathological-anatomical, pathological-physiological and clinical terminological systems;
3) pharmaceutical terminology.
4. General cultural humanitarian meaning of the Latin language
However, in order to master any language, you need to improve your cultural and educational level, expand your horizons.
In this respect, useful Latin aphorisms, sayings expressing in a laconic form a generalized, complete thought, for example: Fortes fortuna juvat - "Fate helps the brave"; Non progredi est regredi - "Not to go forward is to go back."
There are also interesting proverbs like: Omnia mea mecum porto - "I carry everything with me"; Festina lente - "Hurry slowly", etc. Many aphorisms are separate lines, sayings of famous ancient writers, philosophers, politicians. Of considerable interest are aphorisms in Latin belonging to scientists of the New Age: R. Descartes, I. Newton, M. Lomonosov, K. Linnaeus and others.
Most of the Latin aphorisms, sayings and proverbs included in the material of individual lessons and presented in the list at the end of the textbook have long become catchwords. They are used in scientific and fictional literature, in public speaking. Certain Latin aphorisms and sayings relate to issues of life and death, human health, doctor's behavior. Some of them are medical deontological (Greek deon, deonios - "due" + logos - "teaching") commandments, for example: Solus aegroti suprema lex medkorum - "The well-being of the sick is the highest law of doctors"; Primum noli nocere! - "First of all, do not harm!" (the first commandment of the doctor).
Latinisms occupy a significant place in the international vocabulary of many languages \u200b\u200bof the world, especially European ones: institute, faculty, rector, dean, professor, doctor, associate professor, assistant, graduate student, laboratory assistant, preparator, student, dissertation candidate, audience, communication, credit, discrediting, decree, creed, course, curator, supervise, prosecutor, cadet, run, competitor, competition, excursion, excursionist, degree, graduation, degradation, ingredient, aggression, congress, progress, regression, lawyer, legal adviser, consultation, intellect, intellectual, colleague, collegium, collection, petition, appetite, competence, rehearsal, tutor, conservator, conservatory, preserve, observatory, reserve, reservation, reservoir, valence, valerian, currency, devaluation, disabled, prevail, equivalent, statue, monument, ornament, style, illustration, etc.
Only in the last few years, new words of Latin origin for our political life have flashed on the pages of newspapers and magazines, in the speeches of deputies: pluralism (pluralis - "plural"), conversion (conversio - "transformation", "change"), consensus (consensus - "agreement", "agreement"), sponsor (sponsor - "trustee"), rotation (rotatio - "circular movement"), etc.
5. Alphabet
The Latin alphabet used in modern textbooks, reference books and dictionaries consists of 25 letters.
Table 1. Latin alphabetIn Latin, proper names, names of months, peoples, geographical names and adjectives derived from them are written with a capital letter. In pharmaceutical terminology, it is customary to write the names of plants and medicinal substances with a capital letter.
Notes.
1. Most of the letters of the Latin alphabet are pronounced in the same way as in various Western European languages, however, some letters in these languages \u200b\u200bare called differently than in Latin; for example, the letter h is called "ha" in German, "ash" in French, "h" in English, and "ha" in Latin. The letter j is called "ji" in French, "jay" in English, and "iot" in Latin. The Latin letter "c" in English is called "si" and so on.
2. It should be borne in mind that one and the same letter can mean a different sound in these languages. For example, the sound indicated by the letter g is pronounced in Latin as [g], and in French and English before e, i - as [zh] or [dj]; in English, j is read as [j].
3. Latin spelling is phonetic, it reproduces the actual pronunciation of sounds. Compare: lat. latina [latina], eng. latin - Latin.
The difference is especially noticeable when comparing vowels in Latin and English. In Latin, almost all vowels are always pronounced in the same way as the corresponding vowels in Russian.
4. As a rule, names not from Latin, but from other languages \u200b\u200b(Greek, Arabic, French, etc.) are romanized, that is, they are drawn up in accordance with the rules of phonetics and grammar of the Latin language.
6. Reading vowels (and consonant j)
In Latin, "E e" reads as [e]: vertebra [ve "rtebra] is a vertebra, medianus [media" nus] is a median.
Unlike Russians, no Latin consonants soften before the sound [e]: anterior [ante "rior] - front, arteria [arte" ria] - artery.
"I i" reads as [and]: inferior [infe "rior] - lower, internus [inte" rnus] - internal.
At the beginning of a word or syllable before vowels i reads like a voiced consonant [th]: iugularis [yugul "rice] - jugular, iunctura [yunktu" ra] - connection, maior [ma "yor] - large, iuga [yu" ha] - elevation.
In these positions in modern medical terminology, instead of i, the letter J j is used - iot: jugularis [yugul "rice], juncture [yunktu" ra], major [ma "yor], juga [yu" ha].
The letter j is not written only in words borrowed from the Greek language, since there was no sound [y] in it: iatria [ia "tria] - healing, iodum [io" dum] - iodine.
To convey the sounds [ya], [yo], [ue], [yy], combinations of letters ja, jo, je, ju are used.
Y y (upsilon), in French "igrek", reads as [and]: tympanum [ty "mpanum] - drum; gyrus [gi" rus] - gyrus of the brain. The letter "upsilon" is used only in words of Greek origin. It was introduced by the Romans to represent the letter of the Greek alphabet upsilon, which read German [and]. If the Greek word was written through i (Greek iota), read as [and], then in Latin it was transcribed through i.
In order to correctly write medical terms, you need to know some of the most common Greek prefixes and roots in which "upsilon" is written:
dys- [dis-] - a prefix giving the term the meaning of a disorder, disorder of function: dysostosis (dys + osteon - "bone") - dysostosis - disorder of bone formation;
hypo- [hypo-] - "under", "below": hypoderma (hypo + + derma - "skin") - hypodermis - subcutaneous tissue, hypogastrium (hypo- + gaster - "stomach", "stomach") - hypogastrium - hypogastrium;
hyper- [hyper-] - "over", "over": hyperostosis (hyper + + osteon - "bone") - hyperostosis - pathological growth of unchanged bone tissue;
syn-, sym- [syn-, sym-] - "with", "together", "together": synostosis (syn + osteon - "bone") - synostosis - connection of bones through bone tissue;
mu (o) - [myo-] - the root of the word indicating the relation to muscles: myologia (myo + logos - "word", "teaching") - myology - the teaching about muscles;
phys- [phys-] - the root of the word, indicating in anatomical terms the relationship to something growing in a certain place: diaphysis - diaphysis (in osteology) - the middle part of the tubular bone.
7. Diphthongs and peculiarities of reading consonants
In addition to simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [and], in Latin there were also two-vowel sounds (diphthongs) ae, oe, ai, ee.
Digraph ae reads as [e]: vertebrae [ve "rtebre] - vertebrae, peritonaeum [peritone" mind] - peritoneum.
Digraph oe reads like [eh], more precisely, like the German o or French oe: fetor [fetor] - a bad smell.
In most cases, the diphthongs ae and oe, found in medical terms, were used to convey the Greek diphthongs ai and oi in Latin. For example: oedema [ede "ma] - edema, oesophagus [ezo" phagus] - esophagus.
If in the combinations ae and oe the vowels belong to different syllables, that is, they do not constitute a diphthong, then a separation sign (``) is placed above the "e" and each vowel is pronounced separately: diploё [diploe] - diploe - spongy substance of the flat bones of the skull ; aёr [aer] - air.
Diphthong au reads as: auris [ay "rice] - ear. Diphthong eu reads as [eu]: ple" ura [ple "hurray] - pleura, neurocranium [nurokra" nium] - cerebral skull.
Features of reading consonants
Accepted double reading of the letter "C with": as [k] or [c].
How [k] is read before the vowels a, o, and, before all consonants and at the end of the word: caput [ka "put] - head, head of bones and internal organs, cubitus [ku" bitus] - elbow, clavicula [curses "kul ] - collarbone, crista [kree "hundred] - crest.
As [c] is read before the vowels e, i, y and digraphs ae, oe: cervicalis [cervica "fox] - cervical, incisure [incizu" ra] - tenderloin, coccyngeus [koktsinge "mustache] - coccygeal, coelia [tse" lia ] - abdomen.
"Н h" reads as a Ukrainian sound [g] or German [h] (haben): homo [homo] - a person, hnia "tus [gna" tus] - a gap, a cleft, humerus [gume "rus] - a humerus.
"K k" occurs very rarely, almost exclusively in words of non-Latin origin, in cases where it is necessary to preserve the sound [k] before the sounds [e] or [and]: kyphosis [kypho "zis] - kyphosis, kinetocytus [kine" to -cytus] - kinetocyte - a mobile cell (Greek words of origin).
"S s" has a double reading - [s] or [h]. As [s] is read in most cases: sulcus [su "lkus] - groove, os sacrum [wasps sa" krum] - sacrum, sacrum bone; dorsum [to "rsum] - back, back, back. As [z] is read in the position between vowels: incisura [incisu" ra] - notch, vesica [vezi "ka] - bubble. Double s reads as [s]: fossa [pho "cca] - pit, ossa [about" ssa] - bones, processus [proce "ssus] - process. In the position between vowels and consonants m, n in words of Greek origin s reads as [z]: chiasma [chia "zma] - cross, platysma [dance" zma] - subcutaneous muscle of the neck.
"X x" is called a double consonant, since it represents the sound combination [ks]: radix [ra "dix] - root, extremitas [extre" mitas] - end.
"Z z" occurs in words of Greek origin and reads as [z]: zygomaticus [zygoma "ticus] - zygomatic, trapezius [trape" zius] - trapezoidal.
8. Letter combinations. Accents. Brevity rule
In Latin, the letter "Q q" occurs only in conjunction with u before vowels, and this combination is read as [kv]: squama [squa "me] - scales, quadratus [kvadra" tus] - square.
The combination of letters ngu is read in two ways: before vowels as [ngv], before consonants - [ngu]: lingua [li "ngwa] - language, lingula [li" ngulya] - tongue, sanguis [sa "ngvis] - blood, angulus [angu" Luce] - angle.
The combination of ti before the vowels reads as [qi]: rotatio [rota "tsio] - rotation, articulatio [article" tsio] - joint, eminentia [emine "ntsia] - elevation.
However, ti before vowels in combinations sti, xti, tti reads as [ti]: ostium [o "steum] - hole, entrance, mouth, mixtio [mi" kstio] - mixture.
In words of Greek origin, there are digraphs ch, ph, rh, th, which are graphic signs for conveying the corresponding sounds of the Greek language. Each digraph reads as one sound:
сh \u003d [x]; ph \u003d [f]; rh \u003d [p]; th \u003d [t]: nucha [well "ha] - vyya, chorda [chord] - chord, string, phalanx [fa" lianx] - phalanx; apophysis [apophysis] - apophysis, process; thorax [that "rax] - chest taphole, rhaphe [ra" fe] - seam.
The letter combination sch reads as [cx]: os ischii [wasch and "schii] - ischial bone, ischiadicus [ischia" dikus] - ischial.
Stressing rules.
1. The stress is never placed on the last syllable. In two-syllable words, it is placed on the first syllable.
2. In trisyllabic and polysyllabic words, stress is placed on the penultimate or third syllable from the end.
Stressing depends on the duration of the penultimate syllable. If the penultimate syllable is long, then the stress falls on it, and if it is short, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end.
Therefore, to put stress in words containing more than two syllables, you need to know the rules for the length or brevity of the penultimate syllable.
Two rules of longitude
Longitude of the penultimate syllable.
1. The syllable is long if it contains a diphthong: peritona "eum - peritoneum, perona" eus - peroneal (nerve), dia "eta - diet.
2. The syllable is long if the vowel comes before two or more consonants, as well as before the double consonants x and z. This longitude is called positional longitude.
For example: colu "mna - column, pillar, exte" rnus - external, labyri "nthus - labyrinth, medu" lla - brain, medulla, maxi "lla - upper jaw, metaca" rpus - metacarpus, circumfle "xus - envelope.
Brevity rule
A vowel before a vowel or an h is always short. For example: tro "chlea - block, pa" ries - wall, o "sseus - bony, acro" mion - acromion (brachial process), xiphoi "deus - xiphoid, peritendi" neum - peritendinium, pericho "ndrium - perichondrium.
9. Cases and types of declensions
Inflection of nouns in cases and numbers is called declension.
Cases
There are 6 cases in Latin.
Nominativus (Nom.) - nominative (who, what?).
Genetivus (Gen.) - genitive (who, what?).
Dativus (Dat.) - dative (to whom, what?).
Accusativus (Аcc.) - accusative (who, what?).
Ablativus (Abl.) - ablative, instrumental (by whom, by what?).
Vocativus (Voc.) - vocative.
For nomination, that is, for naming (naming) objects, phenomena and the like in medical terminology, only two cases are used - nominative (im. N.) And genitive (gen. N.).
The nominative case is called direct case, which means there is no relationship between words. The meaning of this case is the actual naming.
The genitive case has a characterizing meaning.
There are 5 types of declensions in Latin, each of which has its own paradigm (a set of word forms).
A practical means of distinguishing declension (determining the type of declension) is the genitive singular in Latin.
Forms genus. n. units hours in all declensions are different.
Distribution of nouns by type of declension, depending on the end of the gender. n. units h.
Genitive endings for all declensions
10. Determination of the practical basis
Nouns are given in a dictionary and memorized in a dictionary form, which contains 3 components:
1) the form of the word in them. n. units h;
2) the end of the genus. n. units h;
3) gender designation - masculine, feminine or neuter (abbreviated with one letter: m, f, n).
For example: lamina, ae (f), sutura, ae (f), sulcus, i (m); ligamentum, i (n); pars, is (f), margo, is (m); os, is (n); articulatio, is (f), canalis, is (m); ductus, us (m); arcus, us (m), cornu, us, (n); facies, ei (f).
Some nouns have III declension before the ending gender. n. units h. -is is also assigned the final part of the stem.
Full form genus. n. units hours for such nouns are found as follows:
corpus, \u003d oris (\u003d corpor - is); foramen, -inis (\u003d fora-min - is).
For such nouns, the practical basis is determined only from the form of the word to the gender. n. units h. by discarding its end.
If the basics are in them. n. units h. and genus. n. units h. coincide, then in the dictionary form only the ending genus is indicated. etc., and the practical basis in such cases can be determined from them. n. units hours without ending.
Examples of
The practical basis is the basis to which the endings of the indirect cases are added during the word change (declension); it may not coincide with the so-called historical basis.
For monosyllabic nouns with a changing stem, the entire word form gender is indicated in the dictionary form. etc., for example, pars, partis; crus, cruris; os, oris; cor, cordis.
11. Determining the gender of nouns
In Latin, as in Russian, nouns belong to three genders: masculine (masculinum - m), feminine (femininum - f) and middle (neutrum - n).
The grammatical gender of Latin nouns cannot be determined from the gender of equivalent Russian words, since often the gender of nouns with the same meaning in Russian and Latin does not coincide.
It is possible to determine the belonging of a Latin noun to a particular genus only by the endings characteristic of this genus in them. n. units h.
For example, words in -a are feminine (costa, vertebra, lamina, incisura, etc.), words in -um are neuter (ligamentum, manubrium, sternum, etc.).
The declension of a noun is the ending gender. n. units h; gender trait - a characteristic ending in them. n. units h.
Determination of the gender of nouns ending in the nominative singular in -а, -um, -on, -en, -i, -us
There is no doubt that nouns ending in -а are feminine, and nouns ending in -um, -on, -en, -u are neuter.
All nouns ending in -us, if they belong to the II or IV declension, are necessarily masculine, for example:
lobus, i; nodus, i; sulcus, i;
ductus, us; arcus, us; meatus, us, m - masculine.
If a noun in -us refers to the III declension, then its belonging to a certain genus should be clarified using such an additional indicator as the final consonant of the stem in the genus. P.; if the final consonant of the stem is r, then the noun refers to the neuter gender, and if the final consonant is different (-t or -d), then to the feminine gender.
tempus, or-is; crus, crur is;
corpus, or-is - neuter, juventus, ut-is - feminine.
12.III declension of nouns
Nouns of the III declension were extremely rare, for example: os, corpus, caput, foramen, dens. This methodical approach was absolutely justified. The III declension is the most difficult to learn and has a number of features that distinguish it from other declensions.
1. The III declension includes nouns of all three genders ending in the genus. n. units h on -is (sign of the III declension).
2. In them. n. units h. words not only of different genders, but even of the same genus have different endings characteristic of a particular genus; for example, in the masculine gender -os, -or, -o, -eg, -ex, -es.
3. Most nouns have III declension bases in them. n. and genus. etc. do not match.
For such nouns, the practical basis is not determined by them. n., but by genus. by dropping the -is ending.
1. If in the dictionary form of any noun before the ending gender. n. units h. -is the end of the stem is attributed, which means that the stem of such a word is determined by gender. P.:
2. If in the dictionary form before the end of the genus. n. units h. -is does not have a postscript, which means that such a word can also have a stem by them. n. units h., dropping the ending to them. p .: pubes, is the basis of pub-.
3. Nouns III declension, depending on the coincidence or non-coincidence of the number of syllables in them. n. and genus. n. units h. are equally complex and non-complex, which is important for the exact definition of the genus in a number of cases. Equosyllabic Nom. pubes canalis rete Gen. pubis canalis retis. Unequal Nom. pes paries pars Gen. pedis parietis partis.
4. For monosyllabic nouns in the dictionary form in the genus. n. the word is written in full: vas, vasis; os, ossis.
The genus is determined by the endings to them. n. units hours, characteristic of a certain genus within a given declension. Therefore, in order to determine the gender of any noun III declension, 3 points must be taken into account:
1) know that this word refers specifically to the III declension, and not to any other;
2) know what endings are in them. n. units hours are characteristic of this or that genus III declension;
3) in some cases, also take into account the nature of the stem of a given word.
13. Adjective name
1. Adjectives in Latin, as in Russian, are divided into qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote the attribute of an object directly, that is, without relation to other objects: true rib - costa vera, long bone - os longum, yellow ligament - ligamentum flavum, transverse process - processus transversus, large hole - foramen magnum, trapezoidal bone - os trapezoideum, wedge-shaped bone - os sphenoidale, etc.
Relative adjectives indicate a sign of an object not directly, but through a relation to another object: the spinal column (a column of vertebrae) - columna vertebralis, the frontal bone - os frontale, the sphenoid sinus (cavity in the body of the sphenoid bone) - sinus sphenoidalis, the sphenoid crest (site the front surface of the body of the sphenoid bone) - crista sphenoidalis.
The predominant mass of adjectives in the anatomical nomenclature are relative adjectives indicating that this anatomical formation belongs to a whole organ or to another anatomical formation, such as the frontal process (extending from the zygomatic bone upwards, where it connects with the zygomatic process of the frontal bone) - processus frontalis ...
2. The categorical meaning of the adjective is expressed in the categories of gender, number and case. The genus category is an inflectional category. As in Russian, adjectives vary by gender: they can be masculine, feminine or neuter. The gender of an adjective depends on the gender of the noun with which it is agreed. For example, the Latin adjective with the meaning "yellow" (th, th) has three forms of the genus - flavus (m. P.), Flava (f. P.), Flavum (c. P.).
3. Inflection of adjectives also occurs in cases and numbers, that is, adjectives, like nouns, are inclined.
Adjectives, unlike nouns, are declined only in I, II or III declension.
The specific type of declension by which this or that adjective is changed is determined by the standard dictionary form in which it is written in the dictionary and in which it should be memorized.
In the dictionary form of the vast majority of adjectives, endings characteristic of one kind or another are indicated in them. n. units h.
Moreover, some adjectives have endings in them. items for each genus are completely different, for example: rectus, recta, rectum - straight, straight, straight; other adjectives for masculine and feminine have one common ending, and for the neuter gender it is different, for example: brevis - short and short, breve - short.
Adjectives are also given in different ways in dictionary form. For example: rectus, -a, -um; brevis, -e.
The ending is -us m. replaced in f. R. in -a (recta), and cf. R. - to -um (rectum).
14. Two groups of adjectives
Depending on the type of declension by which the adjectives are inclined, they are divided into 2 groups. Membership in a group is recognized by standard vocabulary forms.
The 1st group includes adjectives that are inclined according to I and II declensions. They are easily recognizable by their endings. n. -us (or -er), -a, -um in dictionary form.
The 2nd group includes all adjectives that have a different dictionary form. Their inflection occurs according to the III declension.
Memorizing the dictionary form is necessary in order to correctly determine the type of declension and use the corresponding endings in indirect cases.
1st group adjectives
If there is a dictionary form with endings in them. n. units h. -us, -a, -um or -er, -a, -um adjectives in the form of f. R. incline according to I declension, in the form of m. and cf. R. - according to the II declension.
For example: longus, -a, -um - long; liber, -era, -erum - free. In the genus. they have, respectively, endings:
Some adjectives that have a m. the ending -er, the letter "e" drops out in m., starting with genus. n. units h., and in. R. and on Wed. R. - in all cases, without exception. Other adjectives do not. For example, the dictionary forms ruber, -bra, -brum, liber, -era, -erum.
Group 2 adjectives
Group 2 adjectives are declined according to the III declension. Their dictionary form differs from the adjectives of the 1st group.
By the number of generic endings in the dictionary form, adjectives of the 2nd group are divided into:
1) adjectives with two endings;
2) adjectives of the same ending;
3) adjectives with three endings.
1. Adjectives of two endings in anatomical-histological and in general in medical terminology are found most often. They have them. n., singular only two generic endings - -is, -e; -is - common for m. and w. r., e - only for cf. R. For example: brevis - short, short; breve is short.
The predominant number of adjectives of two endings found in the nomenclature is characterized by the following word-formation model.
2. Adjectives of the same ending have for all genders one common ending in them. n. units h. Such an ending can be, in particular, -x, or -s, etc. For example: simplex - simple, -th, -th; teres - round, th, th; biceps - biceps, th, th.
3. Adjectives of three endings have endings: м. Р. - -er, g. p. - -is, cf. R. - th. For example: ce-ler, -eris, -ere - fast, -th, -th; celeber, -bris, -bre - healing, th, th.
All adjectives of the 2nd group, regardless of the dictionary form, are inclined according to the III declension and have a single base in indirect cases.
15. Adjective - Agreed Definition
Another type of subordinate connection, when the function of definition in a noun phrase is performed by a non-noun in the gender. etc., and the adjective is called agreement, and the definition is agreed.
When agreed upon, the grammatically dependent definition is likened to gender, number and case with the main word.
With a change in the grammatical forms of the main word, the forms of the dependent word also change. In other words, as in Russian, adjectives agree with the noun in gender, number and case.
For example, when agreeing the adjectives transversus, -a, -um and vertebralis, -e with the nouns processus, -us (m); linea, -ae (f); ligamentum, -i (n); ca-nalls, -is (m); incisura, -ae, (f); foramen, -inis (n) the following phrases are obtained:
As in Russian, Latin qualitative adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive (gradus positivus), comparative (gradus comparativus) and excellent (gradus superlativus).
The comparative degree is formed from the stem of the positive degree by adding to it the suffix -ior for m. and w. p., suffix -ius - for cf. R. For instance:
1. The main grammatical feature of adjectives in the comparative degree are: for m. and f. R. - suffix -ior, for cf. R. - suffix -ius.
For example: brevior, -ius; latior, -ius.
2. In all adjectives, the base coincides with the form of m. and w. R. in them. n. units h .:
3. Adjectives are declined in a comparative degree according to the III declension. Form genus. n. units h. in all three genera is the same: it is formed by joining the ending -is to the stem.
4. Adjectives are comparatively consistent with nouns in gender, number, and case, that is, they are consistent definitions: sutura latior; sulcus latior; foramen latius.
16. Nominative plural
1. Any case endings, including endings by them. n. pl. h. are always attached to the base.
2. For the formation of word forms them. n. pl. h. different declensions must adhere to the following provisions.
If the noun refers to cf. r., then it declines in accordance with the rule cf. r., which reads: all words cf. R. (both nouns and adjectives of all degrees of comparison), regardless of which declension they belong to, end in them. n. pl. h. on -a. This applies only to the words cf. p., for example: ligamenta lata - broad ligaments, crura ossea - bony legs, ossa temporalia - temporal bones, cornua majora - large horns.
Word endings in m. and f. R. in them. n. pl. hours easier to remember, taking into account each individual declension. In this case, it is necessary to remember the following correspondences: nouns I, II, IV declensions have in them. n. pl. h. exactly the same ending as in the genus. n. pl. h. The same correspondence is observed for adjectives of the 1st group, because they are inclined like nouns of I and II declensions, for example:
Nouns of the III and V declensions, as well as adjectives of the III declension and comparative adjectives (they are also declined according to the III declension) have in them. n. pl. h .. the same ending -es.
Generalization of data on the endings of nouns and adjectives in them. n. pl. h.
17. Genitive plural
Continuing the study of the inflection of nouns and adjectives in the plural, it is necessary to note the genitive case of the plural.
To learn how to quickly and accurately form terms in the form of genus. n. pl. h., you must be able to:
determine by the dictionary form of a noun its belonging to a certain declension; highlight the basis;
recognize the genus by the characteristic endings to them. n. units h; establish by the dictionary form, the adjective belongs to the 1st or 2nd group; to establish by which of the three declensions (I-II or III) the given adjective is declined, consistent with the noun in gender, number and case.
Genitive plural endings (Genetivus pluralis)
The -um ending has:
1) non-simple nouns of all three genders, the stem of which ends in one consonant: tendinum (m), regionum (f), foraminum (n); 2) adjectives in the comparative degree of all three genders (they also have a base of one consonant): majorum (m, f, n).
The -ium ending has:
1) all other nouns with a stem for more than one consonant; equivalent to -es, -is; nouns R. on -e, -ai, -ar: dentium (m), partium (f), ossium (n), animalium, avium, retium;
2) adjectives of the 2nd group of all three genders: brevi-um (m, f, n).
Notes.
1. Noun vas, vasis (n) - vessel in singular. h. declines according to the III declension, and in pl. hours - on II; Gen. pl. - vasorum.
2. The term os ilium (ilium) uses the form genus. n. pl. hours from the noun ile, -is (n) (lower abdomen); them. n. pl. hours - ilia (iliac region). Therefore, it is wrong to change the ilium form to ilii (ossis ilii).
3. The noun fauces, -ium - zev is used only in plural. h.
4. Nouns of Greek origin larynx, pharynx, meninx, phalanx end in them. pl. h. to -um.
18. Morphemic analysis
In a linear sequence, the composition of the word contains the minimum, indivisible neither in form nor in meaning of the part: prefix (prefix), root, suffix and ending (inflection). All these minimal significant parts of the word are called morphemes (Greek morphe - form). The core of the meaning is contained in the root, for example: sweat, sweat, sweat, effusion, etc. The prefix and suffix, distinguished by their position to the root, are called together by word-formation affixes (Latin affixus - "attached").
By joining them to the root, derivatives - new - words are formed. The ending - an affix with grammatical meaning is not used for word formation, but for inflection (in cases, numbers, gender). Dividing a word into morphemes is called compositional analysis, or morpheme analysis.
All the unchanging part of the word preceding the ending that carries the basic lexical meaning is called the base of the word. In the words vertebr-a, vertebral-is, intervertebral-is, the bases are, respectively, vertebr-, vertebral-, intervertebral-.
The stem can in some cases be represented only by the root, in some others - by the root and derivational affixes, that is, by the root, suffix and prefix.
Morphemic analysis shows what minimal significant parts (morphemes) the studied word consists of, but does not answer the question of what is the actual mechanism of word formation. This mechanism is revealed with the help of derivational analysis. The meaning of the analysis is to isolate two direct components in a word: that single segment (generating basis) and that (those) affix (s), due to the combination of which the derived word is formed.
The difference between derivational and morphemic analysis can be shown in the following example.
The adjective interlobularis (interlobular) from the standpoint of morphemic analysis consists of five morphemes: inter- (prefix), -lob- (root), -ul-, -ar- (suffixes), -is (ending); from the standpoint of derivational analysis, two direct components are isolated: inter- - between (prefix) + -lobular (is) - lobular (producing stem, or word).
The real mechanism of formation: inter- (prefix) + -lobular (is) (producing base, not divisible in this case into morphemes).
Consequently, the producing one is the one from which another, more complex derivative basis is formed by adding affix (s) to it.
The derivative base is more productive by at least one morpheme.
19. Productive stem of the word
To highlight the generating basis in the word in question, it should be compared with two rows of words:
a) cholecyst-itis, cholecyst-o-graphia, cholecyst-o-pexia;
b) nephr-itis, vagin-itis, gastr-itis, etc. The producing base is not only the material backbone of the derived word, but also motivates, that is, determines its meaning. In this sense, one can judge about motivating and motivated words or about motivating and motivated bases. For example, derivatives - the names of diseases of the heart muscle - myocarditis, myocardiofibrosis, myocardosis, myocardtodystrophia - are motivated by the motivating basis myo-card (ium).
The motivated word differs from the motivating one in greater semantic (in meaning) complexity, for example: the histological term myoblastus (myoblast), consisting of two root morphemes myo- - "muscle" + blastus (Greek blastos - "sprout", "embryo"), means a poorly differentiated cell from which a striated muscle fiber develops. The same word served as a motivating basis for the formation of the motivated word myoblastoma (myoblastoma) - the name of a tumor consisting of large cells - myoblasts.
There are times when the concepts of the productive and motivating words do not completely coincide. This happens if the motivating factor is not a single word, but a whole word combination (adjective + noun), and only the adjective is used as a productive basis. Such, for example, are the word-terms choledocho-piastica, chcledocho-tomia, choledocho-scopia, mastoid-itis, mastoido-tomia, for which the motivating phrases are ductus choledochus (common bile duct) and processus mastoideus (mastoid process), and producing basics - choledoch- (Greek chole - "bile" + doche - "vessel", "container") and mastoid- (Greek mastos - "nipple" + -eides - "similar", "similar"; "mastoid") ...
The names or surnames of persons who first discovered or described this or that phenomenon are also used as productive bases in clinical and pathological terms. Such "family" terms are called eponymous, or eponyms. The motivation for each such term is usually a phrase - an anatomical name, which includes its own name.
For example: in the term highmoritis (sinusitis) the producing base is haimor- on behalf of the English physician and anatomist N. Highmore, who described the maxillary sinus, named after him the maxillary sinus. In the international Parisian anatomical nomenclature approved in 1955, all eponyms (names of authors) were removed and replaced with informative terms indicating the main morphological features of the corresponding formation. For example, instead of the eponym "Bartholin's gland" the term glandula vestibularis major was introduced, instead of "Cooper's gland" - glandula bulbourethralis, instead of "Virungian ducts" - ductus pancreaticus major, instead of "maxillary sinus" - sinus maxiliaris, etc.
20. Articulation of terms
Members are words, at least one part of which is repeated in any other words that are related to the data in meaning. The articulation of different words can be complete or incomplete. Those derivatives are fully articulated, all of whose constituent parts (individual morphemes or a block of morphemes) are repeated in other derivatives. If not every significant part is found in other modern medical terms, then the derivative is incompletely segmented. For example, the following words:
1) with full articulation: pod-algia (Greek pus, podos - "leg" + algos - "pain"), neur-algia (Greek neuron - "nerve"), as well as my-algia (Greek mys, myos - "muscle"), kephal-o-metria (Greek kephalos - "head"), thorac-o-metria (Greek thorax, thorakos - "chest", "chest"), etc .;
2) with incomplete articulation: pod-agra (Greek podagra - "trap"; aching legs; from pus, podos - "leg" + agra - "seizure", "attack"). If the first part is isolated, as it is found in a number of modern terms, then the second part - agra - is practically singular.
Almost all terms are derivative words that arose naturally in the ancient Greek and Latin languages, or artificially created from morphemes and the derived stems of these languages, are fully segmented. This means that they are also fully motivated within the framework of modern terminology. The remarkable property of complete articulation becomes even more important for the master of the basics of medical terminology due to the fact that a significant number of morphemes and morpheme blocks are frequent.
Frequency should be considered those morphemes and blocks that are repeated in different words at least 2-3 times. It is clear that the greater the frequency, that is, the greater the number of uses, the parts of the derivatives have, the more significant they play in terminology. Some high-frequency morphemes and blocks are involved in the formation of dozens of terms.
Many morphemes of the ancient Greek and Latin languages \u200b\u200bacquired specific, sometimes new, meanings in the terminology that were previously unusual for them in the ancient source language. Such meanings are called terminological. So, for example, the Greek word kytos (vessel, cavity) in the Latinized form cytus began to be used as a regular root morpheme in the structure of dozens of terms - derived words - meaning "cell". The suffix of ancient Greek adjectives -itis, which gave them the general meaning of "belonging, belonging", became a regular part of noun terms with the meaning of "inflammation".
21. Term element
Any part of a derived word (morpheme, block of morphemes) that is regularly reproduced in finished form when using existing or creating new terms and retaining a certain meaning assigned to it in terminology is called a term element.
Term elementis a component that recurs regularly in a series of terms and has a specialized meaning. At the same time, it does not matter in principle, in the form of which transcription, Latin or Russian, the same international term element of Greek-Latin origin appears: infra- - infra-; -tomia - -tomy; nephro- - nephro-, etc. For example: the term cardiologia - the science of diseases of the cardiovascular system consists of the initial term cardio - heart and the final -logia - science, branch of knowledge.
Dividing a word-term into term elements does not always coincide with dividing it into morphemes, since some term elements represent a whole block - a union of 2-3 morphemes in one whole: prefix + root, root + suffix, prefix + root + suffix. In such a regular formal and semantic fusion, these blocks of morphemes are distinguished in a number of similarly formed derivatives, for example, in terms of asthen-o-spermia - asthen-o-sperm, asthen-opia - asthen-opium, asthen-o-depressivus - asthen-o- depressive, asthen-isatio - asthen-ization the block term is isolated asthen (o) - (asthen (o) -), from the Greek. asthenes - "weak": negative prefix a- - "not, without" + sthenos - "strength".
High-frequency term elements tom-ia (-to-miya) (Greek tome - "cut"), rhaph-ia (-raphia) (Greek rhaphe - "seam"), log-ia (-logy) (Greek logos - "science") - the final parts of the derivatives - are two-morphological in their composition: root + suffix -ia, giving the words a general meaning "action, phenomenon". The high-frequency term -ectomia (-ectomy) - the final part of the derivatives - consists of three ancient Greek morphemes: the prefix ec- + root -tome- - "incision" + suffix -ia - "excision", "removal".
Terminology elements of Greek-Latin origin constitute the international "golden fund" of biological and medical terminology.
With the help of frequency term elements, numerous series of terms of the same type in their structure and semantics (meaning) are formed. Interacting with each other, the term elements together form a complex formal-semantic term system, which remains open for the inclusion of new term elements and new series of terms, and in which each term element is assigned a certain place and meaning.
A huge number of medical terms are formed by adding stems, combined with a suffix. At the same time, the suffix of Greek origin -ia is used more often than others. For example, haemorrhagia in ancient Greek is produced by adding two stems: haem - "blood" + rhagos - "torn, torn" + suffix -ia.
22. Greco-Latin doublets
The division of term elements into bound and free should be constantly taken into account. For example, when comparing anatomical meanings in normal anatomy, on the one hand, with similar meanings in pathological anatomy and in a complex of clinical disciplines, on the other, the following pattern emerges: one and the same organ is denoted in two ways - different not only in its linguistic origin, but also in grammatical registration with signs. In the nomenclature of normal anatomy, this is an independent and usually Latin word, and in pathological anatomy, it is a related term element of Greek origin. Much less often in both disciplines the same name is used, borrowed from one language that is the source, for example, the Greek hepar, oesophagus, pharynx, larynx, urethra, thorax, ureter, encephalon and Latin appendix, tonsilla and others that were used even in ancient medicine, as well as complex-suffix derivatives on -turn, created in modern times; for example, myocardium, endothelium, perimetrium, etc. These words are included in the structure of compound words in clinical terminology as free terms: hepatomegaly, endothelioma, encephalopathy, myocardiopathy, appendectomy. In the anatomical nomenclature, there are designations of the same formation both as an independent Latin root word and a Greek component in the derivative; for example, chin - lat. mentum, but "chin-lingual" - genioglossus (Greek geneion - "chin"); language - lat. lingua, but "sublingual" - hypoglossus; "glossopharyngeal" - glossopharyngeus (Greek glossa - "language"), etc. Latin and Greek designations of anatomical formations, which have exactly the same meaning, are called Greco-Latin doublet designations (or doublets). The following fundamental position can be formulated: as a rule, Greco-Latin doublets are used to designate the majority of anatomical formations (organs, body parts), and in the anatomical nomenclature - mainly Latin words, in clinical terminology - related terms of Greek origin.
Scope of doublets
23. The meaning and place of term elements in the structure of a derived word
Term elements are mostly unambiguous, but some of them have two or more meanings.
So, for example, the term element оnсo- (Greek onkos - "pile, mass, volume, swelling") in some complex words means "volume, mass" (oncogramma - oncogram - a curve reflecting volume changes; oncometria - oncometry - measurement of volume tissue or organ), in others - "tumor" (oncogenesis - oncogenesis - the process of emergence and development of a tumor; oncologist - a doctor, specialist in the treatment and prevention of tumors, etc.).
The final component-lysis (Greek "untie, decomposition, dissolution"; lyo - "untie, release") in some compound words means "decomposition, decay, dissolution" (autolysis, karyolysis, hemolysis, etc.), in others - "surgical operation of release from adhesions, adhesions" (cardiolysis, pneumo (no) lysis, etc.).
Usually, the place of the motivating single-root stem in the structure of words does not affect its meaning: whether it is megalo- or -megalia (increase), gnatho- or -gnathia (jaw), blepharo- or -blepharia (eyelid), the meaning of the term elements will remain unambiguous. Some term elements, like the above, can act both first and final. Others can only occupy one permanent place, for example, as final (-cele, -clasia, -le-psia, -peaia), some can only be the first components (auto-, brady-, bary-, laparo-).
1. It should be borne in mind that, depending both on the specific meaning of the other component involved in the addition, and on the place occupied in the complex word, some shades may arise that affect the general meaning of the motivated word. Thus, the term elements haemo-, haemato- and -aemia with the same root term have the general meaning "related to blood." At the same time, the final term element -aemia, which is preceded by the designation of a substance, indicates blood as an environment in which substances are found, the presence and concentration of which in this environment are pathological (azotaemia, uraemia, bacteriaemia, etc.). If the term elements haemo- or haemato- are combined with the designation of the organ, then the general meaning of the complex word is the accumulation of blood in the cavity of the organ, hemorrhage (haematomyelia - hemorrhage into the substance of the spinal cord, haemarthrosis - accumulation of blood in the joint cavity).
2. For a logical understanding of the general meaning of a derived word, it is advisable to start the semantic analysis of its constituent term elements from the final term element. For example, gastro / entero-logia: logia - "science about ...": gastro- - "stomach", entera- - "intestines".
3. The general meaning of a motivated word is always somewhat more voluminous, fuller, deeper than the simple addition of the meanings of the motivating components: for example, gastrojejunoplastica (Greek gaster - "stomach" + Latin jejunum - "jejunum" + plastike - "formation, plastic") - surgery to replace the stomach with a segment of the jejunum.
24. Formal-linguistic types of clinical terms
Formal linguistic types of clinical terms are different.
1. Unmotivated simple words:
1) simple root words of Latin or Ancient Greek origin: for example, stupor - stupor (numbness), tremor - tremor (tremor), thrombus - thrombus (blood clot), aphthae - aphthae (rash);
2) simple derivatives (in the source language) - prefix and affix: for example, insultus (Latin insulto - "attack") - stroke, infarctus (Latin infarcio - "fill, stuff") - heart attack, aneurysma (Greek aneuryno - "expand") - aneurysm.
The given simple root and simple derivative words and many other similar clinical terms turn out to be indistinct in the framework of modern terminology and, therefore, unmotivated. Most often they are not translated, but borrowed, transcribed by means of national languages \u200b\u200b(Russian, English, etc.) and are internationalisms.
2. Terms and phrases. Nominal phrases occupy a significant place in clinical terminology. For their education, no special knowledge is required, except for grammar. In each phrase, the pivotal word is the defined word - the noun in it. n. units or pl. h. Usually this is a generic term, ie, the name of a higher, more general concept in the classification.
Defining words are most often represented by adjectives. Their role is to clarify in a certain respect the generic (general) concept: for example, pneumonia adenoviralis - adenoviral pneumonia, p. apicalis - apical pneumonia, p. haefflorrhagica - hemorrhagic pneumonia, etc.
The most common meaning of the defining words is the localization of the lesion: abscessus appendicis, ab. femoris, ab. parietis arteriae, ab. mesenterii, ab. poliicis, ab. bronchi, ab. peritonealis; ulcus pharyngis, etc.
Some internationalist phrases are traditionally included in the text in national languages \u200b\u200bin Latin grammatical form and transcription, for example genu valgum (curved knee inward).
3. Fully severable motivated word terms. Among the formal linguistic types of clinical terms, they are of greatest interest in teaching the basics of medical terminology. The first motivating bases in complex words are Greek or, less often, Latin terms with anatomical meaning. Final components carry the main semantic load, perform (like suffixes) a classifying function.
Some of them relate this concept with a certain group, a class of pathological phenomena (signs, conditions, diseases, processes), others - with surgical operations or diagnostic techniques, etc. For example, terms with the initial term cardio- (Greek kardia - "heart"): cardiosclerosis, cardioneurosis, cardiomegalia, cardiolysis, cardiotomia, cardiographia, cardiotachometria, cardiovolumometria.
25. Ways of word formation. Deminutives
The main ways of word formation are affix and non-affix.
Affixal means are ways of forming derivatives by adding derivational affixes (prefixes, suffixes) to the generating stems.
Non-affix methods are used mainly for the formation of complex words.
A complex word is a word that consists of more than one productive stem. A compound word is formed by the way of constitution.
A word in the structure of which there is only one productive basis is called simple: for example, costoarticularis is a compound word, and costalis and articularis are simple words.
There are also mixed ways of word formation: prefixing + suffixing, addition + suffixing, the way of creating compound words, etc.
Deminutives- nouns with a general derivational meaning "diminutiveness".
A motivated diminutive noun (deminative) retains the gender of the motivating word from which it is derived. These motivated words are inclined only according to the I or II declension, regardless of which declension the motivating word belongs to: for example, nodus, -i (m); nodu-lus; vas, vasis (n) vasculum.
1. Some artificially formed terms do not have a diminutive meaning; these are the designations of the stages of development of the embryo: gastrula, blastula, morula, organella.
2. The nouns macula (spot), acetabulum (acetabulum) and some others also do not have a diminutive meaning.
26. Nouns with a general derivational meaning "action, process"
In Latin there are nouns that have certain suffixes with the general meaning "action, process".
1. Nouns of this very productive derivational type denote operations, methods of examination, physiological functions, treatments, theoretical concepts in various disciplines: for example, auscultatio - auscultation, listening; percussio - percussion, tapping; palpatio - palpation, feeling.
All three terms refer to methods for examining internal organs.
There are derivatives on -io, denoting not only an action, a process, but also the result of this action, for example, decussatio - a cross (formation in the form of X); impresso - impression; terminatio - end, end.
2. Among the artificially formed words in -io, some do not come from the verb, but from the nominal stem, for example decapsulatio - decapsulation, the operative removal of the shell of the organ; hepatisatio - hepatization, compaction of lung tissue.
3. Nouns with a general derivational meaning "an object (organ, instrument, device) that performs an action; a person carrying out the activity".
4. Nouns with a general derivational meaning "result of action".
27. Adjective suffixes
I. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "characterized or rich in a feature indicated by the generating stem".
II. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "belonging to or related to what is called the generating stem".
III. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "similar to what is called the stem of the word."
IV. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "carrying that which is called the generating basis."
V. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning:
1) "generating, producing, causing what is called the basis" (active meaning);
2) "generated, caused, due to what is called the basis" (passive meaning).
28. Features of foundation
1. As the most common derivational means, with the help of which two or more generating stems are combined into a single word, an interfix, or a connecting vowel, is used. In medical terminology, the most common interfix is \u200b\u200b-o, less often -i- is used. In the original words of the ancient Greek language, only the interfix -o is used, Latin - -i-: for example, lat. aur-i-scalpium (auris - "ear" + scalpo - "scrape, cut") - ear cleaning; viv-i-ficatio (vivus - "live" + facio - "to do") - revival.
However, in artificial neologisms, this linguistic pattern has ceased to be observed. Regardless of the origin, the interfix -o- is used (neur-o-cranium, cary-o-lysis, lept-o-meniux, lat.auropalpebraiis, lat.nasolacrimal, etc.). The first components of addition are usually indicated in dictionaries and reference books along with the interfix: thoraco-, spondylo-. Non-interfix connection of components usually takes place, although not always, if the first component ends with a vowel or the second component begins with a vowel: for example, the terms brady- (Greek bradys - "slow"): brady-cardia; brachy- (Greek brachys - "short"): brachy-dactylia; rhin- (Greek rhis, rhinos - "nose"): rhin-encephalon.
2. The variability of the producing base. In Latin and Greek there are nouns and adjectives (III declension), in which the bases of the word forms of the nominative and genitive cases differ: for example, cortex, cortic-is; Greek som-a, somat-os - "body"; Greek meg-as, megal-u - "big"; Greek pan, pant-os - "everything", etc. The base of the genitive case acts as the productive stem of Latin words: pariet-o-graphia, cortic-o-visceralis; in Greek words, the genitive stem is also more often the generative stem. At the same time, sometimes the generating stem appears in a variant form - either nominative or genitive, for example: pan-, pant - "everything" (pan-demia, pant-o-phobia), mega- - "big" (megacolon, megal -o-biastus).
There are also three-variant forms of the same term element: initial - haemo-, haemato-, final -aemia with the general meaning "related to blood" (haemo-glоbinum, haemato-logia, an-aemia).
3. Phonetic-graphic variance of the foundations. Some Greek stems have experienced varying degrees of Romanization. In some cases, a pronunciation close to the Greek language was preserved, in others there was a convergence with the norm of the Latin language. As a result, one and the same morpheme can be spelled differently: Greek. cheir - "hand" - cheir and chir; Greek koinos - "common", "joint" - coenosis, koino-. Various transcriptions of the Greek word neuron - "nerve" in Russian terms are used: neurology, but neurosurgery; neuritis (axon) and neuritis (nerve inflammation).
29. Prefix
Prefixing, that is, attaching a prefix morpheme (prefix) to the root, does not change its meaning, but only adds to this value some component indicating localization (above, below, front, back), direction (approach, distance), flow in time (before something, after something), on the absence or denial of something.
Prefixes developed mainly from prepositions, so their direct meanings coincide with the meanings of the corresponding prepositions.
Some prefixes have developed secondary, portable ones based on direct meanings. So, the Greek preposition-prefix para- ("about, near") developed a figurative meaning "retreat, deviation from something, inconsistency of external manifestations of the essence of this phenomenon": for example, para-nasalis - paranasal, but para-mnesia (Greek . mnesis - "memory") - paramnesia - the general name for distortions of memories and deceptions of memory.
In descriptive names used in morphological disciplines, prefix terms have a direct meaning. In terms expressing the concepts of pathological conditions, diseases, impaired functions of organs, and the like, prefix term elements are often used with secondary meanings. In various subsystems of medical terminology and in biology, Greek and Latin terminology prefixes are extremely widespread.
As a rule, Latin prefixes are attached to Latin roots, Greek ones to Greek roots. However, there are also exceptions, the so-called hybrids, for example, in the words epi-fascialis - suprafascial, endo-cervicalis - Greek intra-cervical prefixes, and the producing stems are Latin. When prefixed, the whole word acts as a productive basis: intra-articularis - intra-articular.
Antonymic prefixes. An important role in the functioning of medical terms is played by antonymic prefixes, that is, those whose meanings are opposite: for example, lat. intra- - "inside" and extra- - "outside", "outside", etc.
Latin-Greek doublet prefixes. The meanings of a number of Latin prefixes are the same as or very close to certain Greek prefixes:
lat. media- - Greek. meso- - "in the middle", "between".
When prefixes are attached to stems, changes may occur in the prefix, influenced by the initial sound of the stem.
This is mainly manifested in assimilation (lat. Assimilalio - "assimilation", "similarity"): the final consonant in the prefix is \u200b\u200bfully or partially assimilated to the initial sound of the generating stem. For some Latin prefixes, elision may occur, that is, the loss of the final consonant. In the Greek prefixes ana-, dia-, cafa-, meta-, para-, and-, epi-, apo-, hypo-, meso-, elision is manifested in the disappearance of the final vowel before the initial vowel of the stem. This eliminates possible gaping (vowel with vowel).
30. Infinitive
Depending on the nature of the stem - the final sound of the stem - verbs are divided into IV conjugations.
In I, II, IV conjugations, stems end in a vowel, and in III - most often in a consonant.
The infinitive is an indefinite form. To correctly highlight the stem and determine by its final sound which of the four conjugations a particular verb belongs to, you must remember the infinitive of this verb. Infinitive - the original form of the verb; it does not change in persons, numbers and moods. The infinitive feature in all conjugations is the ending -re. In I, II and IV conjugations, it is attached directly to the stem, and in III - through the connecting vowel -.
Samples of the infinitive of verbs I-IV conjugations
In II and III conjugations, the vowel [e] differs not only in brevity or length: in II conjugation it is the final sound of the stem, and in III it is a connecting vowel between the stem and the ending.
The stem of the verb is practically determined from the infinitive form by separating the ending -re for I, II, IV conjugations and -ere for III conjugation verbs.
In contrast to the usual full dictionaries of the Latin language in educational dictionaries for medical students, the verb is given in an abbreviated dictionary form: the full form of the 1st person singular. the present tense of the indicative mood of the active voice (ending -o), then the ending of the infinitive -re is indicated together with the preceding vowel, that is, the last three letters of the infinitive. At the end of the dictionary form, a digit denotes conjugation, for example:
31. Imperative and subjunctive mood
In prescriptions, a doctor's appeal to a pharmacist about the manufacture of a medicine has the character of an order, an inducement to a specific action. This meaning of the verb is expressed by the imperative or subjunctive mood.
As in Russian, the order is addressed to the 2nd person. The recipe uses only the 2nd person singular imperative. This form completely coincides with the stem of verbs I, II, and IV of conjugations, and -e is added to the stem of verbs III of conjugation.
In practice, for the formation of an imperative, it is necessary to discard the ending of the infinitive -re from verbs of all conjugations, for example:
The imperative mood in the form of the 2nd person pl. ch. is formed by attaching the ending -te: in verbs I, II, IV conjugations - directly to the stem, in verbs III conjugation - using the connecting vowel -i - (- ite).
Subjunctive mood
Value. The recipe uses only one of the many meanings of the Latin subjunctive mood - command, urge to action.
In Russian, conjunctival forms with this meaning are translated by a verb in combination with the word "let" or an indefinite form of the verb, for example: let it be mixed or mixed.
Education. The conjunctiva is formed by changing the stem: in I conjugation -a is replaced by -e, in II, III and IV - -a is added to the stem. The personal endings of the verbs are added to the modified stem.
Conjunctival base formation
Latin verbs, like Russian, have 3 persons; in medical terminology, only the 3rd person is used. Personal endings of verbs in the 3rd person are shown in the table.
32. Conjunctiva. Accusative
Examples of conjugation of verbs in the conjunctiva of the active and passive voice.
Accusative
For the correct writing of recipes, it is necessary to master the endings of two cases - the accusative and the so-called ablative - in five declensions of nouns and adjectives I, II and III declensions. Accusativus (vin. P.) Is the direct object case; as in Russian, it answers the questions "who?" So what?" For convenience, first, the endings of this case, which have neuter nouns and adjectives, are separately memorized, and then the endings of masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives. Neuter rules. All neuter nouns and adjectives, regardless of their declension, obey the following rules.
1. End of Ass. sing. matches the ending Nom. sing. given word: for example, linimentum compositum, semen dulce.
2. End of Ass. pl. matches the ending Nom. pl. and regardless of the declension, always -a (-ia): for example, linimenta composita, semina dulcia.
Only nouns have the ending -ia. R. on -e, -al, -ar (III declension) and all adjectives of the 2nd group (III declension).
Male and female gender. Masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives in Ass. sing. have a common final element -m, and in Acc. pl. - -s; they are preceded by certain vowels depending on the declension.
The -im ending in Acc. sing. take Greek nouns in -sis like dosis, is (f) and some Latin nouns: pertussis, is (f).
33. Ablative. Prepositions
Ablativus- this is the case corresponding to the Russian instrumental case; answers the questions "by whom?", "by what?". In addition, it performs the functions of several other cases.
The endings of the ablative are shown in the table
The -i ending in Abl. sing. accept:
1) nouns ending in -e, -al, -ar;
2) adjectives of the 2nd group;
3) equivalent nouns of Greek origin in -sis of the dosis type.
All prepositions in Latin are used with only two cases: the accusative and the ablative. The control of prepositions in Russian is not the same as in Latin.
1. Prepositions used with the accusative case.
2. Prepositions used with the ablative.
3. Prepositions used with either the accusative or the ablative.
The prepositions in - "in", "on" and sub - "under" control two cases depending on the question posed. Questions "where?", "What?" require the accusative case, the questions "where?", "in what?" - ablative.
Examples of the use of prepositions with dual control.
34. Form - cyclical, terminological
Pharmaceutical terminology is a complex consisting of a set of terms of a number of special disciplines, united under the general name "pharmacy" (Greek pharmakeia - creation and use of drugs), which study the research, production, use of medicinal products of plant, mineral, animal and synthetic origin. The central place in this terminological complex is occupied by the nomenclature of drugs - an extensive set of names of drugs and drugs officially approved for use. The pharmaceutical market uses tens and hundreds of thousands of names of medicines. The total number of medicines and their combinations available in different countries exceeds 250 thousand. Every year, the pharmacy chain receives more and more new drugs.
To have an idea of \u200b\u200bhow the names of medicines are created, which affects the choice of certain methods of word formation and structural types of names, it is necessary to familiarize yourself at least in the most general terms with some general pharmaceutical terms.
1. Medicinal product (medicamentum) - a substance or a mixture of substances permitted by the authorized body of the relevant country in the prescribed manner for use for the purpose of treating, preventing or diagnosing a disease.
2. Medicinal substance (materia medica) - a medicine, which is an individual chemical compound or biological substance.
3. Medicinal herbal raw materials - herbal raw materials permitted for medical use.
4. Dosage form (forma medicamentorum) - a condition that is given to a medicinal product or herbal raw materials, convenient for use, in which the necessary therapeutic effect is achieved.
5. Medicinal product (praeparatum pharmaceuticum) - a medicinal product in the form of a specific dosage form.
6. Active ingredient - a component (s) of a medicinal product providing (s) a therapeutic, prophylactic or diagnostic effect.
7. Combined medicinal products - medicinal products containing in one dosage form more than one active substance in fixed doses.
35. Trivial names of medicinal substances
Some chemical compounds used as medicinal substances retain the same traditional semi-systematic names that they received in the chemical nomenclature (salicylic acid, sodium chloride).
However, in a much larger volume in the nomenclature of drugs, chemical compounds are presented not under their scientific (systematic) names, but under trivial (Latin trivialis - "ordinary") names. Trivial names do not reflect any uniform principles of scientific classification adopted by chemists, do not indicate composition or structure. In this respect, they are completely inferior to systematic names. However, the latter are unsuitable as names for medicinal substances due to their cumbersomeness and complexity for use in prescriptions, on labels, in pharmacy trade.
Trivial names are short, convenient, available not only for professional, but also for ordinary communication.
Examples of trivial names
Ways of word formation of trivial names
Trivial names of medicines are derivatives of various derivational structures. A word or a group of words, which are often the systematic names of chemical compounds or the names of the sources of their production, are used as generators. The main "building" material for the formation of trivial names - words, derivational elements, roots and just the so-called verbal segments of ancient Greek and Latin origin. So, for example, a preparation from the herb of the spring adonis (Adonis vernalis) is called Adonisidum - adonisid; a substance (glycoside) obtained from some species of the foxglove plant (Digitalis) is called Digoxinum - digoxin. The name Mentholum - menthol is assigned to a substance obtained from mint oil (oleum Menthae).
Among the various methods of word formation used to create trivial names, the most productive is abbreviation (lat. Brevis - "short") - abbreviation. This is a way of creating complex abbreviated words, the so-called abbreviations, by combining verbal segments, arbitrarily selected from the corresponding generating words or phrases. As such, the systematic names of chemical compounds are often used.
The abbreviation is also used to form the names of combination medicines. Instead of listing the names of all active substances contained in one dosage form, the drug is assigned an abbreviated name. It is placed in quotation marks and is an appendix to the name of the dosage form.
36. General requirements for the names of medicinal products
1. In Russia, the name of each new drug is officially approved in the form of two intertranslational equivalents in Russian and Latin, for example: solutio Glucosi - glucose solution. As a rule, the Latin names of medicinal substances are nouns of the II declension cf. R. The Russian name differs from the Latin only in transcription and the absence of the ending -um, for example: Amidopyrinum - amidopyrine, Validolum - validol. The trivial names of combined drugs, which are inconsistent applications to the name of the dosage form, are also nouns of the II declension cf. p .: for example, tabulettae "Haemostimulinum" - tablets "Hemostimulin".
2. The name of medicines should be as short as possible; easy to pronounce; have a clear phonetic and graphic distinction. The latter requirement is of particular importance in practice.
Each title should be noticeably different in its sound composition and graphics (spelling) from other titles.
After all, it is enough to at least slightly inaccurately memorize the sound complex and write it down incorrectly in Latin letters in the recipe for a serious mistake to occur. A large number of drugs are supplied to the domestic market under original brand names. They are designed orthographically and grammatically most often in some national language, that is, they do not have Latin grammatical design. Often the names do not contain the ending -um completely (German) or partially (English), or the ending -um is replaced by -e (English and French), and in some languages \u200b\u200b(Italian, Spanish. , rum.) - on -a.
At the same time, firms assign names to their drugs with the traditional Latin ending -um. In domestic prescription practice, in order to avoid confusion, the commercial names of imported drugs should be conditionally romanized: substitute the ending -um instead of the last vowel or add the ending -um to the final consonant, for example: instead of Mexase (mexase) - Mexasum, instead of Lasix (lasix) - Lasixum, etc. ...
Exceptions are allowed only for names ending in -a: Dopa, Nospa, Ambravena. They can be read and viewed by analogy with nouns of the 1st declension.
In modern commercial names, the traditional scientifically approved transcription of derivational elements (verbal segments) of Greek origin is often neglected; their graphic simplification is cultivated; to make pronunciation easier ph is replaced by f, th - by t, ae - by e, y - by i.
37. Frequency segments in trivial names
A huge number of abbreviations, as noted, is formed by a combination of segments arbitrarily selected from the composition of generating words - systematic names.
At the same time, the nomenclature contains many such names, in the sound complexes of which repeating frequency segments are included - a kind of pharmaceutical termoelements.
1. Frequency segments, very conditionally and approximately reflecting information of anatomical, physiological and therapeutic nature.
For example: Corvalolum, Cardiovaienum, Valosedan, Apressinum, Angiotensinamidum, Promedolum, Sedalgin, Antipyrinum, Anaesthesinum, Testosteronum, Agovirin, Androfort, Thyrotropinum, Cholosasum, Streptocidum, Mycoseptinum, Enteroseptolum.
2. Frequency segments carrying pharmacological information. Over the past decades, the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO) has spread to include in the trivial names of medicinal substances (namely substances!) Frequency segments that carry not random and vague characteristics, like the above segments, but stable information of a pharmacological nature.
For this purpose, it is recommended to include in the names frequency segments indicating the belonging of a medicinal substance to a certain pharmacological group. To date, several tens of such frequency segments have been recommended. For example: Sulfadimezinum, Penicillinum, Streptomycinum, Tetracyclinum, Barbamylum, Novocainum, Cortico-tropinum, Oestradiolum, Methandrostenolonum.
Trivial names for vitamins and multivitamin combination medicines
Vitamins are known both under their trivial names and under their letter designations, for example: Retinolum seu Vitaminum A (also known under another name - Axerophtholum); Cyanocobalaminum seu Vitaminum B12; Acidum ascorbinicum seu Vitaminum C. The names of many multivitamin preparations include the frequency segment -vit- - -vit-, for example Tabulettae "Pentovitum" (contains 5 vitamins), Dragee "Hexavitum" (contains 6 vitamins), etc.
Trivial names for enzyme preparations
Often the names contain an indication that the drug affects the enzymatic processes of the body. This is evidenced by the presence of the suffix -as- - -az-. Such names are usually romanized according to the general rule, that is, they receive the ending -um. However, there are also deviations from this rule: for example, Desoxyribonucleasum (or Desoxyribcnucleasa) - deoxyribonuclease, Collagenasum - collagenase.
38. Dosage forms
Aerosolum, -i (n)- aerosol - a dosage form, which is a dispersed system, obtained using a special package.
Granulum, -i (n)- granule - solid dosage form in the form of grains, grains.
Gutta, -ae (f)- drop - a dosage form intended for internal or external use in the form of drops.
Unguentum, -i (n)- ointment - a soft dosage form with a viscous consistency; intended for external use.
Linimentum, -i (n)- liniment - liquid ointment.
Pasta, -ae (f)- paste - ointment with a powdery substance content of over 20-25%.
Emplastrum, -i (n)- patch - a dosage form in the form of a plastic mass that softens at body temperature and sticks to the skin; intended for external use.
Suppositorium, -i (n)- suppository, candle - a dosage form that is solid at room temperature and expands or dissolves at body temperature; injected into the body cavity. If it is introduced per rectum (through the rectum), it is called a candle. If the suppository is in the form of a ball for insertion into the vagina, then it is called globulus vaginalis - a vaginal ball.
Pulvis, -eris (m)- powder - a dosage form intended for internal, external or injection (after dissolution in an appropriate solvent) use.
Tabuletta, -ae (f)- dosage form obtained by pressing medicinal substances
substances or mixtures of medicinal and auxiliary substances; intended for internal, external or injection (after dissolving in an appropriate solvent) use.
Tabuletta obducta- coated tablet - a coated tablet intended to localize the site of action, taste; preservation, improvement of appearance.
Dragee (fr.)- dragee (not skl.) - solid dosage form obtained by layering drugs and excipients on granules.
Pilula, -ae (f)- pill - a solid dosage form in the form of a ball (weight 0.1-0.5 g) containing drugs and excipients.
Species, -ei (f)(usually in the plural Species, -erum) - collection - a mixture of several types of crushed or whole medicinal raw materials for the preparation of infusions and decoctions.
C. amylacea seu oblate- dosage form, which is enclosed in a shell (from gelatin, starch or from another biopolymer) drugs; intended for indoor use.
Seu lamella ophthalmica- eye film - a dosage form in the form of a polymer film that replaces eye drops.
39. Liquid dosage forms. Name of drugs
Solutio, -onis (f)- solution - a dosage form obtained by dissolving one or more medicinal substances; intended for injection, internal or external use.
Suspensio, -onis (f)- suspension - a liquid dosage form, which is a dispersed system in which a solid is suspended in a liquid; intended for internal, external or injection use.
Emulsum, -i (n)- emulsion - a liquid dosage form, which is a dispersed system consisting of mutually insoluble liquids; intended for internal, external or injection use.
Tinctura, -ae (f)- tincture - a dosage form representing an alcoholic, alcohol-ether, alcohol-water transparent extract from medicinal plant materials; intended for indoor or outdoor use.
Infusum, -i (n)- infusion - dosage form, which is an aqueous extract from medicinal plant materials; intended for indoor or outdoor use.
Decoctum, -i (n)- a decoction - an infusion with a different extraction mode.
Sirupus, -i (m) (medicinalis)- syrup is a liquid dosage form intended for internal use.
Extractum, -i (n)- extract - dosage form, which is a concentrated extract from medicinal plant materials; intended for indoor or outdoor use.
Drug names.
1. If the dosage form given to a medicinal substance or herbal raw material is indicated in the name of the drug, then the name begins with its designation, followed by the name of the medicinal substance or raw material.
Tabulettae Analgini - analgin tablets, Pulvis Ampicillini - ampicillin powder, etc.
2. The name of a combination drug accompanying the designation "dosage form" is a noun in it. etc., placed in quotes as an inconsistent appendix to the designation "dosage form", for example: Tabulettae "Urosalum" - tablets "Urosal", Unguentum "Calendula" - ointment "Calendula", etc.
3. In the names of infusions and decoctions between the designations "Dosage form" and "Plants" stands in the genus. the name of the type of raw material (leaf, grass, bark, root, flowers, etc.), for example: Infusum florum Chamomillae - infusion of chamomile flowers, Infusum radicis Valerianae - infusion of valerian root, etc.
4. The agreed definition characterizing the dosage form takes the last place in the name of the drug: for example, Unguentum Hydrargyri cinereum - mercury (mercury) gray ointment, Solutio Synoestroli oleosa - synestrol solution in oil (oil), Solutio Tannini spirituosa alcoholic tannin solution, Extractum siccum - dry belladonna extract.
40. Recipe
Recipe(receptum - "taken" from recipio, -ere - "to take", "to take") is a written prescription from a doctor to a pharmacist, drawn up in a certain form, about the manufacture, dispensing and method of using the medicine. A prescription is an important legal document that must be drawn up in accordance with official rules. Prescriptions are written out on a standard 105 x 108 mm letterhead clearly and legibly, without blots and corrections, in ink or ballpoint pen. Doctors who have the right to issue prescriptions are obliged to indicate their position and rank in them, put a signature and certify it with a personal seal.
The following parts are usually distinguished in a recipe.
1. Inscriptio - stamp of a medical institution and its code.
2. Datum - date of the prescription.
3. Nomen aegroti - the patient's surname and initials.
4. Aetas aegroti - the patient's age.
5. Nomen medici - doctor's surname and initials.
6. Praescriptio - "prescription" in Latin, which consists of invocatio - standard treatment to a doctor, Rr .: - Recipe - "take" and designatio materiarum - designations of substances indicating their quantity.
7. Subscriptio - "signature" (lit. "written below" designation of substances) - the part in which some instructions are given to the pharmacist: on the dosage form, the number of doses, the type of package, on the delivery of the medicine to the patient, etc.
8. Signature - a designation, a part that begins with the verb signa or signetur - "designate", "designate". Then an instruction to the patient about the method of taking the medicine follows in Russian and (or) the national language.
9. Nomen et sigillum personaie medici - a doctor's signature with a personal seal.
Each drug is prescribed on a separate prescription line and with a capital letter. The names of medicinal substances and plants inside the line are also written with a capital letter.
The names of medicinal substances or preparations are grammatically dependent on their dose (quantity) and are placed in the genus. P.
Prescribing rules
41. The use of the accusative case when prescribing tablets and suppositories
There are various approaches to naming pills and suppositories.
1. Medicinal preparations of the combined composition are assigned a trivial and most often abbreviated name, placed in quotation marks: for example, tabulettae "Codterpinum" - tablets "Codterpin"; suppositoria "Neo-anusolum" - candles "Neo-anusol".
The trivial names of tablets or suppositories are in them. n. units h. and are inconsistent applications. The dose is usually not indicated, as it is standard.
2. If suppositories consist of one active medicinal substance, then its name is appended to the name of the dosage form using the preposition cum and is placed in the ablative indicating the dose; for example: Suppositoria cum Cordigito 0.0012 - candles with cordigite 0.0012.
3. If the tablets consist of one active medicinal substance, then after indicating the dosage form, its name is put into the genus. item with dose designation; for example: Tabulettae Cordigiti 0.0008 - Cordigit tablets 0.0008.
4. When prescribing tablets and suppositories in an abbreviated way, the name of the dosage form is put in wines. n. pl. hours (tabulettas, tabulettas obductas, suppositoria, suppositoria rectalia), since it grammatically depends on the Recipe, and not on the dose.
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Russian-language project with a large amount of text information, divided into several blocks: "History of the language", "Lessons" (structured materials of the main textbook, answers to assignments, phrases in Latin), "Latin alphabet" (with an explanation of pronunciation features). Classes are aimed at mastering language rules - from phonetic to syntactic. The forms of parts of speech are analyzed in detail. Several lessons are supplemented with electives; for passing the latter, there are texts in Latin in a separate section.
Website with simple navigation. Contains textual information divided into four sections. The first is a textbook, the texts of which are borrowed from the latrus 1.2 program. The second section is a self-instruction manual, the materials of which are taken from the site of the candidate of philological sciences Alexei Musorin. Both the textbook and the tutorial cover the basics of Latin, starting with the alphabet. The name of the block "Proverbs and Sayings" speaks for itself, you can search in it by phrases, words or parts of words. The "Dictionary" section provides translation both from Russian into Latin and vice versa.
A block of materials for self-study of Latin, presented in the format of online lessons. The task of the portal is to help people learn languages \u200b\u200bfree of charge in the absence of any initial knowledge. Classes are structured from simple (alphabet, stress rules) to complex (parts of speech, types of sentences). A total of 60 Latin lessons are posted, at the end of each an assignment is proposed on the topic covered. There are texts that allow you to consolidate the material covered in the lessons. In a separate section, catch phrases and a small dictionary are placed. A convenient option is the ability to ask questions that are answered either by other users or professional linguists.
YouTube channel with a playlist of 21 Latin video lessons. The duration of each lesson is an academic hour, i.e. 43-44 minutes.
The telecourse will allow you to get basic information about writing, the interaction of Russian vocabulary with Latin, the case system of the Latin language, and teach you how to build the simplest expressions. The project was prepared by SSU TV, teacher - candidate of historical sciences Victor Fedotov. The channel is distinguished by a peculiar presentation, information is presented in the form of classical lectures with periodic output of text explanations.
Video tutorials by Svetlana Golovchenko. The videos are mainly aimed at doctors, some videos are devoted to the nuances of writing recipes, clinical terminology, and the names of chemical elements.
There are also general language classes, in which grammatical aspects are understood. Depending on the topic, the length of the plots varies from 3 to 20 minutes.
The videos are short lectures by the instructor who complements what has been said with written explanations on the board. An alternative solution for those who prefer living language to dryish texts.
A selection of open lectures on the Latin language from the teacher, a specialist in the field of classical philology Dmitry Novokshonov. The video was recorded in the lecture hall, but the quality of the shooting, including the sound component, is sufficient to obtain the required knowledge.
Novokshonov helps to understand the features of the parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb), to overcome difficulties in learning Latin. The collection contains lectures by another teacher - Viktor Rebrik.
Online transliteration. The project is posted on the website of the Department of Classical Philology of the Belarusian State University. Using the functionality is simple: to get a transliteration (transcription) of Latin words and phrases in Russian, you just need to enter them into a special window. You can handle Latin characters of any case, as well as characters with superscripts. Sets of settings are provided that allow transliterating words according to traditional and classical canons, as well as according to the rules adopted in reading medical, biological, and chemical terms.
Additional material suitable for consolidating knowledge and expanding horizons. It comes in the form of voice-over presentations, so you can improve your pronunciation as you expand your vocabulary.
Online tests with the ability to change the settings for a specific connoisseur of Latin. You can independently ask the number of questions (maximum - 83) and the number of answer options, choose the option to show the correct answer in case of an error. There is a choice of five difficulty levels: very easy, light, medium, hard, very hard. All questions and answers are available for download in PDF format.
Instructions
You need to start learning Latin by learning the alphabet. The Latin alphabet has 25 letters. Six letters (a, e, i, o, u, y) convey 12 vowel sounds of the Latin language. There are also 4 diphthongs in Latin. You need to know that Latin has long and short vowels. Brevity and longitude are indicated using superscript characters: ā - "a" is long, ă - "a" is short. The stress in Latin words is never put on the last syllable. In two-syllable words, the stress is on the initial syllable. In trisyllabic and polysyllabic words, stress is placed on the second syllable from the end, if this second syllable is long. The stress is placed on the third syllable from the end if the second syllable is short. For example, in the word transformatio, the stress is on "a".
Further, in Latin 4. In the first conjugation, the stem ends in a long (ā). For example, "ornāre", in which "ornā" is the stem and "re" is the suffix. The suffix can also be "ere". The second conjugation includes verbs whose stem ends in "e" long (ē), for example, "habēre". The third conjugation includes verbs whose stem ends in a consonant, “u” is short and “i” is short (ŭ and ĭ), for example, “tangere” (stem is “tang”). The fourth conjugation includes verbs with a long “i” (ī), for example, “audīre”, where “audī” is the stem and “re” is the suffix.
Latin verbs have the following grammatical categories: tense (six tenses: present, future first, future second, imperfect, perfect, plusamperfect), mood (indicative, subjunctive and imperative), voice (real and), number (singular and plural ), person (1, 2 and 3 person). Of course, you need to study each section gradually. However, you should start somewhere, for example, to start with four correct conjugations. Consider how the verbs I-IV of the conjugation in the present tense of the indicative mood of the active voice change.
Verb I conjugation of ornāre: orno, ornas, ornat, ornāmus, ornatis, ornānt. Verb II conjugation of tacēre: taceo, taces, tacet, tacēmus, tacētis, tacent. Verb III conjugation tangere: tango, tangĭs, tangĭt, tangĭmus, tangĭtis, tangŭnt. Verb IV conjugation of audīre: audio, audis, audit, audīmus, audītis, audiuŭt.
Let's talk a little about nouns in Latin. They have a gender category (masculine, feminine, neuter), numbers (singular, plural). There are 6 cases in Latin: Nominativus (nominative case), Genetivus (genitive case), Dativus (dative case), Accusativus (accusative case), Ablativus (defensive case), Vocativus (vocative case). Latin nouns have 5 declensions. The first includes nouns with stems in ā and ă. To the second - on ŏ and ĕ. To the third - into a consonant and ĭ. To IV - by ŭ. By the fifth - on ē.
So, we learned a little about the Latin verb and noun. It is important that now, when we can already distinguish them a little, some Latin sentences can be translated with the help of a dictionary;
Fortuna caeca est - Fortune is blind;
Epistula non erubescit - Paper does not blush;
Mala herba cito crescit - Bad grass grows quickly;
Amicitia vitam ornat - Friendship adorns life;
Amat victoria curam - Victory loves care;
Terra incognita - Unknown land;
Cogito ergo sum - I think, therefore I exist.
Why do we say "Latin", "Latin"? When it comes to ancient languages, first of all, Greek and Latin languages \u200b\u200bappear in memory. It is quite obvious that the Greek language, in its various dialects, was spoken by the Greeks, and Latin was the language of the Romans. And then the question arises: why romans spoke in latin language?
Latin language (lingua Latina) is the language of the ancient inhabitants of Latium, a small region in central Italy bordering the lands of the Sabines, Etruria and Campania. The inhabitants of Latium were called Latins, their language was Latin (lingua Latina). It fell to Latius - according to traditional Roman legend - to accept Aeneas, who fled from the captured Troy by the Greeks, and his distant descendant Romulus was destined to become the founder and first king of Rome (in 753 BC). And it was Rome, at first only the capital of Latium, thanks to its expansionist policy, first took possession of all of Italy, and then the Mediterranean basin and became the capital of the whole Roman Empire. And although the power and political influence of the Romans spread far beyond Latium and their language became the language of the entire Roman Empire, it was still called latin.
For a very long time, Lingust could not find high-quality materials for independent study of the Latin language, to everyone's joy, the legacy of the Soviet Union, in the form of a self-instruction manual for the Latin language by the Polish author Lydia Vinnichuk (), solved this problem. The site presents is free Not only course of 60 online lessons, but also the texts of Roman authors, such as Caesar, Cicero, Horace, Ovid, etc. To view the answers to the exercises and translations of Latin texts, move the mouse over the key: We sincerely advise the student to abandon dependent moods, maintain character and refer to the “Key” in the last the moment when in grammar exercises and translations everything has already been done, depending on their own knowledge and ingenuity.
Go to → list of lessons ← (Click)
Is Latin a dead language?
Let us answer this with the words of Julian Tuwim: "What kind of a dead language is it if, without fading, it survived thousands of years? ..." But how, in what form, did it "survive"? First of all, in texts, in works that have survived to our time and thanks to which we can observe the development and change of the Latin language over the centuries; in historical monuments and documents of the Middle Ages, in the creations of the Renaissance. And, in addition, it was preserved in the Romance languages, in the languages \u200b\u200bof those peoples conquered by Rome who experienced its political and cultural influence. These are Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and other foreign languages.
Finally - and this should also be remembered - other languages \u200b\u200bwere also influenced by Latin, although this impact is manifested mainly in the fact that their vocabulary is largely saturated with Latin words. Scientists have calculated that of the 20,000 most common words in the English language, about 10,400 are of Latin origin, about 2,200 are Greek and only 5,400 are of Anglo-Saxon origin.
A lot of Latin words have entered the Russian language. And this is not only scientific terminology, which in most cases is international, but also the words of colloquial speech. They have penetrated so deeply into our language that, using them since childhood, we no longer perceive them as words of foreign origin. Here are some examples related to the field of education: “school”, “institute”, “student”, “table”, “director”, “lecture”, “audience”, etc. Therefore, we advise you to accompany the learning of Latin vocabulary by searching for borrowed words in in Russian. You will discover how exciting the life of the word is.
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Learning Latin
