Great geographical discoveries and the beginning of the New Age in Western Europe. Great geographical discoveries and the emergence of the colonial system Significance of geographical discoveries of modern times
The era of the great geographical discoveries is the most important stage in the history of mankind. This is a time when the outlines of the continents, seas and oceans are becoming more accurate, technical devices are being improved, and the leading countries of that time are sending sailors in search of new rich lands. In this lesson, you will learn about the sea expeditions of Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan, as well as the discovery of new lands by them.
background
Among the reasons for the Great geographical discoveries are:
Economic
After the era of the Crusades, Europeans developed strong trade ties with the East. In the East, Europeans bought spices, fabrics, jewelry. In the XV century. overland caravan routes, along which Europeans traded with eastern countries, were captured by the Turks. The task of finding a sea route to India appeared.
Technological
The compass and the astrolabe (an instrument for measuring latitude and longitude) were improved.
New types of ships appeared - caravel, carakka and galleon. They were distinguished by their spaciousness and powerful sailing equipment.
Navigation charts were invented - portolans.
Now Europeans could not only make traditional coastal voyages (i.e., mainly along the coast), but also go far into the open sea.
Events
1445- the expedition organized by Henry the Navigator reached the Green Cape (the western point of Africa). The island of Madeira, the Canary Islands, part of the Azores were discovered.
1453- Constantinople is captured by the Turks.
1471 The Portuguese reached the equator for the first time.
1488- Expedition Bartolomeu Dias reached the southernmost point of Africa - the Cape of Good Hope.
1492- Christopher Columbus discovered the islands of San Salvador, Haiti, Cuba in the Caribbean.
1497-1499- Vasco da Gama reached the Indian port of Calicut, rounding Africa. For the first time, a route was opened to the East across the Indian Ocean.
1519- Ferdinand Magellan goes on an expedition in which he discovers the Pacific Ocean. And in 1521 it reaches the Mariana and Philippine Islands.
Members
Rice. 2. Astrolabe ()
Rice. 3. Caravel ()
Successes have also been made in cartography. European cartographers began to draw maps with more accurate outlines of the coasts of Europe, Asia and North America. The Portuguese invented navigational charts. On them, in addition to the outlines of the coast, settlements were depicted, obstacles encountered on the way, as well as the location of ports. These navigation charts were called portolans.
The pioneers were Spaniards and Portuguese. The idea of conquering Africa was born in Portugal. However, the knightly cavalry was helpless in the sands. Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator(Fig. 4) decided to try the sea route along the west coast of Africa. The expeditions he organized discovered the island of Madeira, part of the Azores, the Canary Islands. In 1445, the Portuguese reached the western point of Africa - Cape Verde. Somewhat later, the coast of the Gulf of Guinea was discovered. A large amount of gold and ivory was found there. Hence the name - Gold Coast, Ivory Coast. At the same time, African slaves were discovered, which were traded by local leaders. Portugal became the first European country to sell live goods.
Rice. 4. Henry the Navigator ()
Already after the death of Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese reached the equator in 1471. In 1488 the expedition Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern end of Africa - Cape of Good Hope. Rounding Africa, this expedition entered the Indian Ocean. However, due to the mutiny of the sailors, Bartolomeu Dias was forced to return. His path continued Vasco da Gama (Fig. 5), which in 1497-1499. rounded Africa and after an 8-month voyage arrived in the Indian port of Calicut (Fig. 6).
Rice. 5. Vasco da Gama ()
Rice. 6. The opening of the sea route to India, the route of Vasco da Gama ()
Simultaneously with Portugal, the search for a new sea route to India began Spain, which at that time was ruled Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. Christopher Columbus(Fig. 7) proposed a new plan - to reach India, moving west, across the Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus shared the view that the earth is spherical. On August 3, 1492, Columbus on three caravels "Santa Maria", "Nina" and "Pinta" set off from Spain in search of India (Fig. 8). On October 12, 1492, a shot rang out on the Pinta caravel. This was the signal: the sailors had reached the island they named San Salvador, which in translation means "holy savior." Having explored the island, they went south and discovered two more islands: Haiti (then Hispaniola) and the island of Cuba.
Rice. 7. Christopher Columbus ()
Rice. 8. Route of Christopher Columbus ()
The first expedition of Columbus lasted 225 days and discovered caribbean sea. During the next three expeditions, Columbus discovered the coast of Central America and the northern coast of South America. However, the Spanish crown was not satisfied with the amount of gold that entered the country. Soon Columbus was turned away. He died in 1506 in poverty, confident that he had discovered a new sea route to India. The continent discovered by Columbus was originally called West Indies(Western India). Only later the mainland was given the name America.
The rivalry between Spain and Portugal led to the first division of the world in history. AT 1494 was concluded Treaty of Tordesillas, according to which a conditional meridian was drawn along the Atlantic Ocean somewhat west of the Azores. All newly discovered lands and seas to the west of it were to belong to Spain, and to the east to Portugal. However Ferdinand Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world corrected this document.
Back in 1513, the Spaniard Vasco de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean. He called it then the South Sea. In the autumn of 1519, on five caravels with a team of 253 sailors, Fernand Magellan (Fig. 9) set off on his journey (Fig. 10). His goal was to find a way across the Atlantic Ocean to the Moluccas (Spice Islands). After a year of travel, Magellan's team entered a narrow strait, which was later named Strait of Magellan. After passing through it, Magellan's team managed to enter the previously unknown ocean. This ocean is called Quiet.
Rice. 9. Ferdinand Magellan ()
Rice. 10. The first round-the-world trip of Ferdinand Magellan ()
In March 1521, Magellan's team reached the Mariana Islands and then landed in the Philippines, where Magellan himself died in a skirmish with the locals. His team managed to reach the Moluccas. Three years later, only one ship with 17 sailors returned home. Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world proved that the Earth is spherical.
European exploration of the New World took the form conquests - conquests. Together with the conquest, the resettlement of colonists from Europe to the New World begins.
The great geographical discoveries changed the picture of the world. First, it has been proven that the Earth is spherical. A new continent, America, was also discovered, as well as a new ocean, the Pacific. The outlines of many continents, seas and oceans have been refined. The great geographical discoveries were the first step towards the creation of a world market. They shifted the trade routes. So, trading cities Venice and Genoa lost their key role in European trade. Their place was taken by ocean ports: Lisbon, London, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Seville. Due to the influx of precious metals into Europe from the New World, a price revolution took place. Prices for precious metals fell, while prices for products and raw materials for production rose.
The great geographical discoveries marked the beginning of the colonial redistribution of the world and the dominance of Europeans in Asia, Africa and America. The exploitation of slave labor and trade with the colonies allowed European trading circles to enrich themselves, which became one of the prerequisites for the formation of capitalism. Also, the colonization of America led to the destruction of the oldest American cultures. The great geographical discoveries were one of the causes of the food revolution in Europe. Previously unknown crops were introduced: corn, tomatoes, cocoa beans, potatoes and tobacco.
Bibliography
- Boytsov, M.A. Magellan's Way: Early Modern Times. History reading book. - M., 2006.
- Vedyushkin V.A., Burin S.N. Textbook on the history of modern times, grade 7. - M., 2013.
- Verlinden C., Mathis G. “Conquerors of America. Columbus, Cortes. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1997.
- Lange P.V. Like the sun ... The life of Ferdinand Magellan and the first circumnavigation of the world. - M.: Progress, 1988. ; Artist
- What discovery is Ferdinand Magellan famous for, and what continent was discovered by Christopher Columbus?
- Do you know any other famous navigators and the territories they discovered?
People of the Renaissance type were distinguished by their willingness to take on the most difficult tasks. For Europeans, with the fall of Byzantium in 1453, the problem arose of finding new routes to the East, to China and India, since the direct road was blocked by the Turks.
The Europeans began to look for a sea route. This became possible with the advent of the compass in Europe, the creation of new sails that made it possible to tack and sail against the wind. The creation of mechanical clocks was of great importance, which influenced everyday life, the organization of production, scientific experiments and observations, made it possible to navigate in time and appreciate it.
In 1492, the Genoese in the Spanish service Christopher Columbus, relying on his calculations of the "rose of the winds" (the prevailing wind direction) at different times of the year, with the support of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon on the caravels "Santa Maria", "Pinta" and "Nina" reached the shores of America, opened it to Europe and returned back (Figure 2.1).
Columbus Christopher (1451-1506), navigator. Led four Spanish expeditions to find the shortest route to India (1492-1493, 1493-1496, 1498-1500, 1502-1504). The official date of the discovery of America is October 12, 1492, when the ships of Columbus reached Samana Island (Bahamas). Columbus discovered the Sargasso and Caribbean Seas, all the Greater Antilles, several Lesser Antilles and the Bahamas, a small (150 km) section of the South and part (1700 km) of the coast of Central America.
Figure 2.1 - Swimming of Christopher Columbus
The name of Columbus is one of the countries of Latin America - the Republic of Colombia. Columbus erected a number of monuments. On the occasion of the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America, a television series was filmed about the life of the great pioneer. Many historians consider the discovery of America the beginning of a new era in the history of mankind and, rounding up, count down to 1500 and after 1500. The expression "discover America" ironically is widely used in everyday speech. The essence of the irony is that in its significance any other discovery is inferior to the accomplishment of Columbus.
In the shadow of Christopher Columbus is another navigator, the chief navigator of Spain, Amerigo Vespucci. He, together with A. Ojeda (1499-1500), discovered 1600 km of the northern and 200 km of the eastern coast of South America, the Gulf of Venezuela and a number of the Lesser Antilles. He independently discovered and mapped the Amazon Delta, the Guiana Current, the northern shores of South America (1500 km) and the Brazilian Highlands. A. Vespucci suggested calling the southern transatlantic continent the New World. But the Lorraine cartographer M. Waldseemuller in 1507 named the mainland America in honor of Vespucci, and in 1538 this name extended to North America.
In 1519, the Portuguese Magellan, on behalf of the Spanish king, made the first circumnavigation of the world. He opened the strait separating the mainland of South America from Tierra del Fuego, called the Strait of Magellan (Figure 2.2). He crossed the Pacific Ocean, reached the Philippine Islands, where he died in battle with the natives. In September 1522, 16 out of 234 travelers returned to Spain. The next trip around the world in 1577-1580 was made by the Englishman Francis Drake, who began as a successful pirate. He received from the queen one thousand pounds sterling and full freedom of action (carte blanche), including the robbery of oncoming ships. During his journey, he discovered a strait 460 long and 1120 kilometers wide between the Tierra del Fuego archipelago and the South Shetland Islands, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and named after him. The Queen received £600,000 of stolen treasure (two annual treasury revenues), which, apparently, allows the English royal family to live quite comfortably to this day. Francis Drake himself can serve as a symbol of a new age. He died a vice-admiral, a member of parliament, a knight and a national hero, since in 1588 he actually commanded the English fleet that defeated the Spanish Invincible Armada. In 1597-1598, the Portuguese Vasco da Gama circled Africa from the south (Cape of Good Hope) and reached India. In the 17th century Australia was discovered.
geographic discovery world economic
Figure 2.2 - Ferdinand Magellan's round-the-world expedition
The great geographical discoveries to a great extent stimulated the development of capitalist relations, the processes of initial capitalist accumulation, the formation of a single world economy.
The result of the influx of huge amounts of gold and silver from the newly discovered territories was only at first the strengthening of the states that equipped the pioneers. Soon, Europe was struck by the "revolution of prices", or rather their growth in most industrial and food products. This, in turn, led to the ruin of social strata with fixed incomes that did not have the resources to maneuver. The impoverishment of nobles, peasants, artisans was accompanied by the enrichment of industrialists, manufacturers and merchants.
The great geographical discoveries (Figure 2.3) stimulated the development of commodity-money relations. In European states, credit is being developed, the monetary system is being transformed (trade in securities is emerging), commodity and stock exchanges are being created, and merchant and usurer's capital is developing.
Figure 2.3 - Map of the great geographical discoveries
An important source of accumulation of funds is the expansion of the scale of forced labor. In England, due to the growing demand for wool, the offensive against the peasantry continued. The peasants were deprived of land, which was fenced off for grazing sheep. The peasants were left without a livelihood, sold their labor for food or perished. The statesman and philosopher Thomas More owns the words that "sheep eat people." By the middle of the XVIII century. the peasantry as a class disappeared in England. Against ruined, unfortunate people in 1547, the "Statute against vagabonds and beggars" was adopted. For the theft of a thing that cost as much as a pig, the death penalty was due by hanging. People who avoided work were flogged and shackled. For unauthorized leaving work for the second time they were turned into life-long slaves and branded. According to some reports, for the XVI century. under Henry VIII (1509-1547) 72 thousand people were executed, and during the reign of his daughter Elizabeth I (1558-1603) over 89 thousand people. For the third attempt to leave the place of forced labor, they were executed as state criminals. Ruined peasants and artisans joined the growing ranks of the English working class.
Even worse was the situation of the population in the colonies. The Spaniards and the Portuguese ruled in Central America. In 1607, the first colony in North America, Virginia, was founded. Not only colonists went to new lands, but black slaves were also exported. In 1517, Emperor Charles V officially approved human trafficking. In 1562, the British began trading slaves in America. From the middle of the XVII century. The slave trade reached a terrifying scale. According to historians, in the XV-XIX centuries. slave traders from Africa took 80 million people. The fact is that the Indians perished en masse at the hands of the conquerors both in armed conflicts and in hard work, for which they were physically insufficiently prepared. Christian morality got along well with the extermination of millions of Indians and the exportation of millions of Africans to work in the American possessions of European monopolies. The plunder of native territories, destruction and the most cruel exploitation, the sweat and blood of the colonies were important sources of the primitive accumulation of capital, the progress of European states.
European countries in their colonies pursued a similar economic policy. Spain, Portugal, Holland, France, England initially transferred proven feudal structures to their colonial possessions. Plantation farms were created in the colonies. They worked for the external market, but with the use of semi-slave labor of the native population.
The economically growing bourgeoisie needed a strong state that could provide for the diverse interests of rich people. Such a state becomes an absolute monarchy. The monarchs, through a system of taxation and loans, supported the development of manufactory production, especially related to meeting the needs of the army and the court. The farming out of state taxes to private individuals (the farming system) is becoming widespread, which leads to the emergence of tax farmers-financiers. Trading companies needed diplomatic, military and financial support. So, in England in the middle of the XVI century. Russian (Moscow), Eastern, Levantine, Guinean, East Indian and other leaders of trade and colonial expansion arose. Manufacturers also needed state assistance in maintaining order in production, in providing enterprises with cheap labor.
In the XVI century. in relation to Europe, one can speak of several large forces with independent, common interests. These are: the weakening feudal class; rapidly growing bourgeoisie; absolute monarchies; masses of ordinary workers and the Catholic Church. It would not be an exaggeration to say that in the context of significant socio-economic changes, the latter caused general irritation.
13. Great geographical discoveries and the beginning of a new era in Western Europe.
By the 16th century production and trade in Western Europe have reached a significant development, which led to an increase in the need for money as a universal medium of exchange. There was not enough metal money made of gold and silver in Europe. In addition, after the decline in the XV century. trade in the Mediterranean, the fall of Constantinople and the capture of Western Asia and the Balkans by the Turks, the restoration of the monopoly of the Egyptian sultans on the Red Sea, the need to search for new sources of gold and silver, new ways of trade increased even more. Under these conditions, the irresistible, universal thirst for money, new sources of quick enrichment in Western Europe swept all segments of the population, which stimulated the search for new sea trade routes from Europe to Africa, India and East Asia.
had a positive effect on great geographical discoveries and those important improvements that were made at that time in navigation and military affairs. During the XV century. A new type of high-speed and light sailboats was created - caravels, the capacious hold of which made it possible to make large sea crossings. The safety of navigation has increased significantly due to the improvement of the compass, nautical charts, instruments and devices. The improvement of firearms was of great importance, muskets, pistols and cannons appeared.
The first from the western European countries that began to search for new sea routes to Africa, India and Asia were Portugal and Spain. The royal power of these countries, the church, merchants and especially nobles were interested in this. After the end of the war with the Moors, the Portuguese and Spanish nobles, who were scornful of all activities except war, were essentially idle and very soon found themselves in debt to the city usurers. Therefore, the idea of getting rich in Africa or Asia was especially tempting for the mass of small-scale nobles. It was from their midst that they emerged in the 15th-16th centuries. brave seafarers, cruel conquerors-conquistadors, greedy colonial officials. Merchants willingly gave money for these expeditions, as they hoped to master new trade routes and get rich quickly. The Catholic Church sanctified the deeds of the conquistadors in the hope of increasing the number of believers, their land holdings and income. The royal authorities in Portugal and Spain also saw a way out of the existing acute shortage of money in mastering new trade routes and colonies. In addition, they sought to capture the numerous militant nobility with the idea discoveries new countries, because otherwise it could easily be used by large feudal lords in the struggle against the strengthening of royal power.
Considering that trade routes on the Mediterranean Sea were seized by Venice and Genoa, powerful at that time, the sea cities-republics of Italy, Venice and Genoa, on the Baltic Sea - by the union of northern and central German cities - Hansa, the expansion of Portugal and Spain was possible only towards the then unknown Atlantic Ocean. Yes and just geographical the position of the Iberian Peninsula, which is pushed far to the west into this ocean, contributed to precisely this direction of the expansion of the Portuguese and Spaniards.
The Portuguese were the first to enter the ocean routes, but at first the development of the Atlantic was slow, because those who wanted to get into the "sea of darkness", as they called then Europeans the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean unknown to them was not much. Gradually, the Portuguese captured one colony after another in Africa, and finally B. Diaz in 1487 reached the Cape of Good Hope, rounded it and entered the Indian Ocean. However, his subordinates, citing fatigue, refused to continue navigation and B. Diaz was forced to return to Lisbon, never reaching the shores of India.
To complete the search for new routes to India around South Africa, the King of Portugal in the summer of 1497 prepared an expedition of four ships, led by Vasco da Gama. The squadron circled Africa from the south and, with the help of an Arab pilot, on May 20, 1498, approached the Indian city of Calcutta, which at that time was one of the largest trading cities in Asia. In September 1499, with less than half the team, but with a cargo of spices, Vasco da Gama returned to Lisbon, where his return was solemnly celebrated.
With the opening of routes to India around Africa, the Portuguese very quickly mastered the maritime trade of South and East Asia and began a fierce struggle with the Arabs in the Indian Ocean, robbing and sinking their ships. In 1511, they captured the Strait of Malacca, began trading with China and Japan, and entered the Pacific Ocean.
So the sea route from Western Europe to India and East Asia was opened. From that time until the opening of the Suez Canal in November 1869, the sea route around South Africa was the main trade route from Europe to Asia.
In order to open the western route to India and East Asia, on August 3, 1492, an expedition of three caravels was sent from Spain under the leadership of Christopher Columbus. Not wanting to aggravate relations with Portugal, the real goals of this navigation were kept secret at first. 69 days after sailing, on October 12, 1492, Columbus' caravels reached one of the islands of the Bahamas group, which were located off the coast of a new mainland, not yet known to Europeans. It is the day of October 12, 1492 that is considered the day of the discovery of America.
In total, H. Columbus made four expeditions to America, during which he discovered and explored Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and other Caribbean islands, the eastern coast of Central America and Venezuela.
Until the end of his life, H. Columbus was sure that he had reached the shores of East Asia, the wealth of which was so dreamed of by the Spanish kings, the Catholic Church and the nobles. To conclude that he discovered a new, unknown continent, he could not. H. Columbus called the lands he discovered "Indies", and the inhabitants - "Indians". Even during his last voyage, he wrote to Spain that Cuba is South China, that the coasts of Central America are part of the Malacca Peninsula, that there must be a strait to the south of it through which you can get to India.
The news of the discoveries of H. Columbus caused great alarm in Portugal, the Portuguese even prepared a military expedition to seize the lands discovered by H. Columbus. With the help of the Pope, Spain and Portugal agreed on the division of spheres of influence in the new lands.
The discoveries of H. Columbus, contrary to expectations, gave Spain some gold, and the country soon became disappointed with the results of his expeditions. H. Columbus lost all his property, which went to pay off debts and, forgotten by all, died in 1506.
Contemporaries forgot the great navigator. Even the mainland discovered by H. Columbus was not given his name, but the name of the Italian scientist Amerigo Vespucci, who in 1499 - 1504. took part in the exploration of the shores of South America and whose letters gained great popularity and fame in Europe. "These countries should be called the New World," wrote Amerigo Vespucci.
After H. Columbus, many other conquistadors in search of gold, slaves and hot spices expanded the colonial possessions of Spain in America. In 1508, the Spanish nobles received a patent from the king for the creation of colonies in America, the colonization of Central America and Mexico began.
September 20, 1519 Five caravels of Ferdinand Magellan set sail from the Spanish port of San Lucan in order to find a southwestern route to the Pacific Ocean and reach Asia from the west.
This voyage lasted three years and became the first ever circumnavigation of the world. F. Magellan found the southwestern strait in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, which was later named after him, and in the spring of 1521 reached Asia by the western route.
The Spanish conquistadors conquered and defeated the states of the Aztecs in Mexico, the Incas in Peru, captured Guatemala, Honduras, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, the Portuguese - Brazil.
Despite the existing agreement between Portugal and Spain on the division of spheres influence in new lands, seafarers and merchants from other Western European countries in search of wealth also began to penetrate the American continent. At the end of the XV century. English and French navigators explored part of North America, and the Dutch discovered Australia in 1606.
So was open The New World and the possessions of Spain and Portugal were formed on the American continent, which stopped independent development peoples of this continent and marked the beginning of their colonial dependence. The main social economic the following were the consequences. 1. A colonial system began to take shape, which accelerated the emergence of capitalist production in Western Europe and helped the bourgeoisie to accumulate large sums of money needed to organize large capitalist enterprises. 2. Thanks to the bold expeditions of seafarers from many countries of the world, Europe, Africa, America and Australia were linked by trade routes and a world market began to take shape. His appearance was another powerful impetus to the emergence and development capitalist relations in Western Europe. The New World became a sales market for European manufactories, and its monopoly ownership ensured the rapid accumulation of capital in the countries of Western Europe.
3. There was a so-called price revolution, which was due to the importation from America to Europe of a large amount of gold and silver. For the 16th century the total amount of specie that circulated in the Western European countries more than quadrupled. Such a large influx of relatively cheap gold and silver led to a sharp drop in their value and a strong (2-3 or more times) increase in prices for agricultural and industrial products.
4. The "price revolution" helped to strengthen the position of the urban and rural bourgeoisie and increase their incomes. Large landowners - feudal lords - were ruined, the poorest peasants and hired workers suffered losses. 5. As a result great geographical discoveries Centre economic life moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean. The Italian city-republics fell into decay, new centers of world trade rose up - Lisbon, Seville and especially Antwerp. It was the latter that became the richest city in Europe, the world trade and financial center.
Thus, as a result great geographical discoveries individual countries of Western Europe found themselves in the most favorable conditions for development capitalist production. had a positive impact geographical proximity to the new sea routes of world trade and the fact that the Belarusian-Lithuanian and Moscow states covered Western Europe from the devastating Tatar-Mongol invasions. Great geographical discoveries accelerated the process of initial accumulation of capital
The great geographical discoveries are the most important period in the history of mankind from the end of the 15th to the middle of the 16th centuries. The brave pioneers of Spain and Portugal opened up new lands to the Western world, thereby laying the foundation for the development of new trade routes and connections between continents.
The beginning of the period of great geographical discoveries
Throughout the existence of the human race, many important discoveries were made, but only those that took place in the 16th and 17th centuries entered history under the name "great". The fact is that neither before this period of time, nor after it, none of the travelers and explorers could repeat the success of the medieval discoverers.
Geographical discovery is understood as the discovery of new, previously unexplored geographical objects or patterns. It can be a part of the earth or a whole continent, a water basin or a strait, the existence of which on Earth was not suspected by civilized mankind.
Rice. 1. Middle Ages.
But why did the Great geographical discoveries become possible precisely between the 15th and 17th centuries?
The following factors contributed to this:
- active development of various crafts and trade;
- the growth of European cities;
- the need for precious metals - gold and silver;
- development of technical sciences and knowledge;
- serious discoveries in navigation, the appearance of the most important navigational instruments - the astrolabe and the compass;
- development of cartography.
The catalyst for the Great Geographical Discoveries was the unfortunate fact that Constantinople in the Middle Ages was under the rule of the Ottoman Turks, who prevented the direct trade of European powers with India and China.
Great travelers and their geographical discoveries
If we consider the periodization of the Great geographical discoveries, then the first who gave the Western world new routes and unlimited opportunities were the Portuguese navigators. The British, Spaniards and Russians did not lag behind them, who also saw great prospects in the conquest of new lands. Their names are forever included in the history of navigation.
- Bartolomeu Dias - Portuguese navigator, who in 1488, in search of a convenient direction to India, circled Africa, discovered the Cape of Good Hope and became the first European to find himself in the waters of the Indian Ocean.
- - it is with his name that they associate the discovery in 1492 of the whole continent - America.
Rice. 2. Christopher Columbus.
- Vasco da Gama - Commander of the Portuguese expedition, who in 1498 managed to pave a direct trade route from Europe to Asia.
For several years, from 1498 to 1502, Christopher Columbus, Alonso Ojeda, Amerigo Vespucci and many other navigators from Spain and Portugal carefully explored the northern coast of South America. However, acquaintance with the Western conquerors did not bring anything good to the locals - in pursuit of easy money, they showed themselves extremely aggressively and cruelly.
- Vasca Nuñens Balboa - In 1513, the brave Spaniard was the first to cross the Isthmus of Panama and discover the Pacific Ocean.
- Ferdinand Magellan - the first person in history who in 1519-1522 made a trip around the world, thereby proving that the Earth has the shape of a ball.
- Abel Tasman - opened Australia and New Zealand to the Western world in 1642-1643.
- Semyon Dezhnev - Russian traveler and explorer who was able to find the strait connecting Asia with North America.
Results of the Great geographical discoveries
The great geographical discoveries significantly accelerated the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age, with its most important achievements and the flourishing of most European states.
TOP 4 articleswho read along with this
Mankind took a different look at the world around us, new horizons opened up before scientists. This contributed to the development of the natural sciences, which could not but affect the general standard of living.
The conquest of new lands by Europeans led to the formation and strengthening of colonial empires, which became a powerful raw material base of the Old World. Between civilizations there was a cultural exchange in various areas, there was a movement of animals, plants, diseases and even entire peoples.
Rice. 3. Colonies of the New World.
Geographical discoveries were continued after the 17th century, which made it possible to create a complete map of the world.
What have we learned?
When studying the topic “Great geographical discoveries” in the 6th grade geography program, we learned briefly about the great geographical discoveries, their significance in world history. We also made a brief overview of the greatest personalities who managed to make important discoveries in the geography of the Earth.
Topic quiz
Report Evaluation
Average rating: 4.7. Total ratings received: 1265.
Textbook: chapters 4, 8::: History of the Middle Ages: Early modern times
Chapter 4
Great geographical discoveries of the middle of the XV - the middle of the XVII century. were associated with the process of primitive accumulation of capital in Europe. The development of new trade routes and countries, the plunder of newly discovered lands contributed to the development of this process, marked the beginning of the creation of the colonial system of capitalism, the formation of the world market.
The pioneers of the Great geographical discoveries were in the 15th century. countries of the Iberian Peninsula - Spain and Portugal. Having conquered in the XIII century. their territory from the Arabs, the Portuguese in the XIV-XV centuries. continued wars with the Arabs in North Africa, during which a significant fleet was created.
The first stage of the Portuguese geographical discoveries (1418-1460) is associated with the activities of Prince Enrique the Navigator, a talented organizer of sea expeditions, in which not only nobles, but also merchants participated. Back in the 20-30s of the XV century. the Portuguese discovered the island of Madeira, the Canary and Azores, moved far south along the western coast of Africa. Rounding Cape Bojador, they reached the coast of Guinea (1434) and the Cape Verde Islands, and in 1462 - Sierra Leone. In 1471, they explored the coast of Ghana, where they found rich gold placers. The discovery in 1486 by Bartolomeo Diasem of the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa created a real opportunity for preparing an expedition to India.
Long-distance sea voyages became possible in the second half of the 15th century. as a result of significant advances in science and technology. Until the end of the XVI century. the Portuguese were ahead of other countries not only in the number of discoveries. The knowledge they gained during their travels gave the navigators of many countries valuable new information about sea currents, tides, and the direction of the winds. The mapping of new lands spurred the development of cartography. Portuguese maps were highly accurate and contained data on areas of the world previously unknown to Europeans. Reports on Portuguese sea expeditions and Portuguese navigation manuals were published and republished in many countries. Portuguese cartographers worked in many countries from Europe. At the beginning of the XVI century. the first maps appeared on which the lines of the tropics and the equator and the scale of latitudes were plotted.
Based on the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, the Italian scientist, astronomer and cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli compiled a map of the world, on which the shores of Asia were marked on the western coast of the Atlantic Ocean: he believed that it was possible to reach India, experience to the west from the shores of Europe. The Italian scientist incorrectly imagined the length of the Earth along the equator, making a mistake of 12 thousand km. Later it was said that it was a great mistake that led to a great discovery.
By the end of the XV century. navigational instruments (compass and astrolabe) were significantly improved, which made it possible to more accurately determine the position of a ship on the high seas than before. A new type of ship appeared - a caravel, which, thanks to the sail system, could go both with the wind and against the wind, reaching a speed of 22 km per hour. The ship had a small crew (1/10 of the crew of a rowing galley) and could take on board enough food and fresh water for a long voyage.
At the end of the XV century. The Spaniards were also looking for new trade routes. In 1492, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) arrived at the court of the Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabella. Little is known about the previous period of Columbus's life. He was born in Genoa in the family of a weaver, in his youth he took part in sea voyages, was an experienced pilot and captain, read a lot, knew astronomy and geography well. Columbus proposed to the Spanish monarchs his project, approved by Toscanelli, to reach the shores of India, sailing west across the Atlantic. Prior to this, Columbus had vainly proposed his plan to the Portuguese king, and then to the English and French monarchs, but was refused. The Portuguese by this time were already close to opening a route to India through Africa, which predetermined the refusal of the Portuguese king Alphonse V. France and England did not have at that time a sufficient fleet to equip the expedition.
In Spain, the situation was more favorable for the implementation of Columbus's plans. After the conquest of Granada in 1492 and the end of the last war with the Arabs, the economic situation of the Spanish monarchy was very difficult. The treasury was empty, the crown no longer had vacant lands to sell, and revenues from taxes on trade and industry were negligible. A huge number of nobles (hidalgo) were left without a livelihood. Brought up during the centuries of the Reconquista, they despised all economic activity - the only source of income for most of them was war. Without losing their desire for quick enrichment, the Spanish hidalgos were ready to rush into new conquest campaigns. The crown was interested in sending this restless noble freemen away from Spain, across the ocean, to unknown lands. In addition, Spanish industry needed markets. Due to its geographical position and the long struggle with the Arabs, Spain in the 15th century. was cut off from the Mediterranean trade, which was controlled by the Italian cities. Expansion at the end of the 15th century. Turkish conquests made it even more difficult for Europe to trade with the East. The route to India around Africa was closed to Spain, since the advance in this direction meant a collision with Portugal.
All these circumstances were decisive for the adoption of the Columbus project by the Spanish court. The idea of overseas expansion was supported by the tops of the Catholic Church. It was also approved by scientists from the University of Salamanca, one of the most famous in Europe. An agreement (surrender) was concluded between the Spanish kings and Columbus, according to which the great navigator was appointed viceroy of the newly discovered lands, received the hereditary rank of admiral, the right to 1/10 of the income from the newly discovered possessions and 1/8 of the profits from trade.
On August 3, 1492, a flotilla of three caravels sailed from the harbor of Palos (near Seville), heading southwest. Having passed the Canary Islands, Columbus led the squadron in a northwesterly direction and after a few days of sailing reached the Sargasso Sea, a significant part of which is covered with algae, which created the illusion of the proximity of the earth. The flotilla hit the trade winds and moved quickly forward. For several days the ships wandered among the algae, but the shore was not visible. This gave rise to superstitious fear among the sailors, a mutiny was brewing on the ships. In early October, after two months of sailing under pressure from the crew, Columbus changed course and moved to the southwest. On the night of October 12, 1492, one of the sailors saw the land, and at dawn the flotilla approached one of the Bahamas (the island of Guanahani, called San Salvador by the Spaniards). During this first voyage (1492-1493), Columbus discovered the island of Cuba and explored its northern coast.
Mistaking Cuba for one of the islands off the coast of Japan, he tried to continue sailing west and discovered the island of Haiti (Hispaniola), where he found more gold than in other places. Off the coast of Haiti, Columbus lost his largest ship and was forced to leave part of the crew in Hispaniola. A fort was built on the island. Having strengthened it with cannons from the lost ship and leaving food and gunpowder supplies to the garrison, Columbus began to prepare for the return voyage. The fortress in Hispaniola - Navidad (Christmas) - became the first Spanish settlement in the New World.
The open lands, their nature, appearance and occupation of their inhabitants did not in any way resemble the rich lands of Southeast Asia described by travelers from many countries. The natives had copper-red skin, straight black hair, they walked naked or wore pieces of cotton cloth on their hips. There were no signs of gold mining on the islands, only some of the inhabitants had gold jewelry. Having captured several natives, Columbus explored the Bahamas in search of gold mines. The Spaniards saw hundreds of unfamiliar plants, fruit trees and flowers. In 1493, Columbus returned to Spain, where he was received with great honor.
The discoveries of Columbus worried the Portuguese. In 1494, through the mediation of the Pope, an agreement was concluded in the city of Tordesillas, according to which Spain was given the right to own land to the west of the Azores, and Portugal to the east.
Columbus made three more trips to America: in 1493-1496, 1498-1500 and in 1502-1504, during which the Lesser Antilles, the island of Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and others were discovered, and the coast of the Central America. Columbus believed until the end of his days that he had found a western route to India, hence the name of the lands "Western Indies" came from, which was preserved in official documents until the end of the 16th century. However, in subsequent travels they did not find rich deposits of gold and precious metals there, income from new lands only slightly exceeded the costs of their development. Many expressed doubt that these lands were India, and the number of enemies of Columbus was growing. Especially great was the discontent of the conquistador nobles in the New World, whom the admiral severely punished for disobedience. In 1500, Columbus was accused of abuse of power and sent to Spain in shackles. However, the appearance in Spain of the famous navigator in chains and under arrest caused indignation among many people belonging to various strata of society, including those close to the queen. Soon Columbus was rehabilitated, all his titles were returned to him.
During the last trip, Columbus made great discoveries: he discovered the coast of the mainland south of Cuba, explored the southwestern shores of the Caribbean Sea for 1,500 km. It has been proven that the Atlantic Ocean is separated by land from the "South Sea" and the coast of Asia. Thus, the admiral did not find a passage from the Atlantic to the Indian.
While sailing along the coast of the Yucatan, Columbus encountered more advanced tribes: they made colored fabrics, used bronze utensils, bronze axes, and knew the smelting of metals. At that moment, the admiral did not attach importance to these lands, which, as it turned out later, were part of the Mayan state - a country with a high culture, one of the great American civilizations. On the way back, Columbus's ship was caught in a strong storm, Columbus with great difficulty reached the coast of Spain. The situation there was unfavorable. Two weeks after his return, Queen Isabella, who patronized Columbus, died, and he lost all support at court. He did not receive an answer to his letters to King Ferdinand. The great navigator tried in vain to restore his rights to receive income from newly discovered lands. His property in Spain and Hispaniola was described and sold for debts. Columbus died in 1506, forgotten by everyone, in complete poverty. Even the news of his death was published only 27 years later.
The opening of the sea route to India, the colonial seizures of the Portuguese.
The tragic fate of Columbus is largely due to the success of the Portuguese. In 1497, an expedition of Vasco da Gama was sent to explore the sea route to India around Africa. Rounding the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese sailors entered the Indian Ocean and opened the mouth of the Zambezi River. Moving north along the coast of Africa, Vasco da Gama reached the Arab trading cities of Mozambique - Mombasa and Malindi. In May 1498, with the help of an Arab pilot, the squadron reached the Indian port of Calicut. The entire voyage to India lasted 10 months. Having bought a large cargo of spices for sale in Europe, the expedition set off on the return journey; it took a whole year, during the journey 2/3 of the crew died.
The success of Vasco da Gama's expedition made a huge impression in Europe. Despite heavy losses, the goal was achieved, huge opportunities for the commercial exploitation of India opened up before the Portuguese. Soon, thanks to their superiority in armaments and naval technology, they managed to oust the Arab merchants from the Indian Ocean and seize all maritime trade. The Portuguese became incomparably more cruel than the Arabs, exploiting the population of the coastal regions of India, and then Malacca and Indonesia. From the Indian princelings, the Portuguese demanded the cessation of all trade relations with the Arabs and the expulsion of the Arab population from their territory. They attacked all ships, both Arab and local, robbed them, brutally exterminated the crews. Albuquerque, who was first a squadron commander and then became Viceroy of India, was especially ferocious. He believed that the Portuguese should fortify themselves along the entire coast of the Indian Ocean and close all exits to the ocean to Arab merchants. The Albuquerque squadron smashed the defenseless cities on the southern coast of Arabia, terrifying with their atrocities. Attempts by the Arabs to oust the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean failed. In 1509, their fleet at Diu (the northern coast of India) was defeated.
In India itself, the Portuguese did not capture vast territories, but sought to capture only strongholds on the coast. They made extensive use of the rivalry of local rajas. With some of them, the colonialists entered into alliances, built fortresses on their territory and placed their garrisons there. Gradually, the Portuguese took over all trade relations between individual areas of the Indian Ocean coast. This trade gave huge profits. Moving further east from the coast, they seized the transit routes for the trade in spices, which were brought here from the islands of the Sunda and Moluccas archipelagos. In 1511, Malacca was captured by the Portuguese, and in 1521 their trading posts arose in the Moluccas. Trade with India was declared a monopoly of the Portuguese king. Merchants who brought spices to Lisbon received up to 800% of the profit. The government artificially maintained high prices. Every year, only 5-6 ships of spices were allowed to be exported from the huge colonial possessions. If the imported goods turned out to be more than needed to keep prices high, they were destroyed.
Having seized control of trade with India, the Portuguese stubbornly sought a western route to this richest country. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. As part of the Spanish and Portuguese expeditions, the Florentine navigator and astronomer Amerigo Vespucci traveled to the shores of America. During the second trip, the Portuguese squadron passed along the coast of Brazil, considering it an island. In 1501, Vespucci took part in an expedition that explored the coast of Brazil, and came to the conclusion that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new mainland, which was named America in honor of Amerigo. In 1515, the first globe with this name appeared in Germany, and then atlases and maps,
Opening of the western route to India. First round-the-world trip.
Vespucci's hypothesis was finally confirmed as a result of Magellan's trip around the world (1519-1522).
Fernando Magellan (Magaillansh) was a native of the Portuguese nobility. In his early youth, he participated in sea expeditions, while in the service of the Portuguese king. He made several trips to the Moluccas and thought that they lay much closer to the shores of South America. Not having, he considered it possible to reach them, moving west and skirting the newly discovered continent from the south. At that time, it was already known that to the west of the Isthmus of Panama lies the "South Sea", as the Pacific Ocean was called. The Spanish government, which at that time did not receive large incomes from newly discovered lands, reacted with interest to the Magellan project. According to the agreement concluded by the Spanish king with Magellan, he was supposed to sail to the southern tip of the American mainland and open the western route to India. The titles of the ruler and governor of the new lands and a twentieth of all income that would go to the treasury complained to him.
On September 20, 1519, a squadron of five ships left the Spanish harbor of San Lucar, heading west. A month later, the flotilla reached the southern tip of the American mainland and for three weeks moved along the strait, which now bears the name of Magellan. At the end of November 1520, the flotilla entered the Pacific Ocean, which lasted over three months. The weather was excellent, a fair wind was blowing, and Magellan gave the ocean such a name, not knowing that at other times it can be stormy and formidable. For the entire journey, as Magellan's companion Pigafetta wrote in his diary, the squadron met only two deserted islands. The crews of the ships suffered from hunger and thirst. The sailors ate the skin, soaking it in sea water, drank rotten water, and suffered from scurvy without exception. Most of the crew died during the voyage. Only on March 6, 1521, sailors reached three small islands from the Mariana group, where they were able to stock up on food and fresh water. Continuing his journey west, Magellan reached the Philippine Islands and soon died there in a skirmish with the natives. The remaining two ships under the command of d "Elcano reached the Moluccas and, capturing a cargo of spices, moved west. The squadron arrived at the Spanish port of San Lucar on September 6, 1522. Only 18 returned from a crew of 253 people.
New discoveries aggravated the old contradictions between Spain and Portugal. For a long time, experts on both sides could not accurately determine the boundaries of Spanish and Portuguese possessions due to the lack of accurate data on the longitude of the newly discovered islands. In 1529, an agreement was reached: Spain renounced its claims to the Moluccas, but retained rights to the Philippine Islands, which received their name in honor of the heir to the Spanish throne, the future King Philip II. However, for a long time no one dared to repeat the journey of Magellan, and the journey across the Pacific Ocean to the shores of Asia was of no practical importance.
Spanish colonization of the Caribbean. Conquest of Mexico and Peru.
In 1500-1510. expeditions led by members of the travels of Columbus explored the northern coast of South America, Florida and reached the Gulf of Mexico. By this time, the Spaniards had captured the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles (Trinidad, Tabago, Barbados, Guadeloupe, etc.), as well as a number of small islands in the Caribbean. The Greater Antilles became the outpost of the Spanish colonization of the Western Hemisphere. The Spanish authorities paid special attention to Cuba, which they called "the key to the New World." Fortresses, settlements for immigrants from Spain were built on the islands, roads were laid, plantations of cotton, sugar cane, and spices arose. The gold deposits found here were insignificant. To cover the cost of sea expeditions, the Spaniards began the economic development of the area. The enslavement and merciless exploitation of the indigenous population of the Greater Antilles, as well as epidemics brought from the Old World, led to a catastrophic reduction in the population. In order to replenish labor resources, the conquerors began to import Indians from small islands and from the coast of the mainland to the Antilles, which led to the devastation of entire regions. At the same time, the Spanish government began to attract immigrants from the northern regions of Spain. The resettlement of peasants was especially encouraged, who were given plots of land, they were exempted from taxes for 20 years, they were paid bonuses for the production of spices. However, the labor force was not enough, and from the middle of the XVI century. African slaves began to be imported to the Antilles.
Since 1510, a new stage in the conquest of America began - the colonization and development of the interior regions of the continent, the formation of a system of colonial exploitation. In historiography, this stage, which lasted until the middle of the 17th century, is called the conquest (conquest). The beginning of this stage was laid by the invasion of the conquistadors on the Isthmus of Panama and the construction of the first fortifications on the mainland (1510). In 1513, Vasco Nunez Balboa crossed the isthmus in search of the fantastic "country of gold" - Eldorado. Coming to the coast of the Pacific Ocean, he hoisted the banner of the Castilian king on the shore. In 1519, the city of Panama was founded - the first on the American continent. Here detachments of conquistadors began to form, heading deep into the mainland.
In 1517-1518. The detachments of Hernando de Cordoba and Juan Grijalva, who landed on the Yucatan coast in search of slaves, encountered the oldest of the pre-Columbian civilizations - the Mayan state. Magnificent cities surrounded by fortified walls, rows of pyramids, stone temples richly decorated with carvings depicting gods and cult animals appeared before the shocked conquistadors. In the temples and palaces of the nobility, the Spaniards found a lot of jewelry, figurines, vessels made of gold and copper, chased gold discs with types of battles and scenes of sacrifice. The walls of the temples were decorated with rich ornaments and frescoes, distinguished by their fine workmanship and richness of colors.
The Indians, who had never seen horses, were intimidated by the very sight of the Spaniards. The rider on the horse seemed to them a huge monster. Firearms were especially feared, to which they could only oppose a bow, arrows and cotton shells.
By the time the Spaniards arrived, the territory of Yucatan was divided among several city-states. Cities were political centers around which agricultural communities united. The rulers of the cities collected payments and taxes, were in charge of military affairs, foreign policy, they also performed the functions of high priests. The Mayan community was the economic, administrative and fiscal unit of society. The cultivated land was divided into plots between families, the rest of the land was used jointly. The main labor force was free communal peasants. Within the community, the process of property stratification and class differentiation has already gone far. Priests, officials, hereditary military leaders stood out. Slave labor was widely used in their economy, debtors, criminals and prisoners of war were turned into slavery. In addition to collecting taxes, rulers and priests used the labor service of community members to build palaces, temples, roads, and irrigation systems.
The Maya are the only peoples of pre-Columbian America who had a written language. Their hieroglyphic writing resembles the writing of Ancient Egypt, Sumer and Akkad. Mayan books (codices) were written with paints on long strips of "paper" made from plant fiber, and then placed in cases. The temples had significant libraries. The Maya had their own calendar and were able to predict solar and lunar eclipses.
Not only the superiority in arms, but also the internal struggle between the city-states made it easier for the Spaniards to conquer the Mayan state. The Spaniards learned from local residents that precious metals were brought from the country of the Aztecs, which lies north of the Yucatan. In 1519, a Spanish detachment led by Hernan Cortes, a poor young hidalgo who arrived in America in search of wealth and glory, set off to conquer these lands. He hoped to conquer new lands with small forces. His detachment consisted of 400 infantry soldiers, 16 horsemen and 200 Indians, had 10 heavy guns and 3 light guns.
The state of the Aztecs, which Cortes went to conquer, stretched from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Numerous tribes conquered by the Aztecs lived on its territory. The center of the country was the Valley of Mexico. A large agricultural population lived here, a perfect system of artificial irrigation was created by the labor of many generations, high yields of cotton, corn, and vegetables were grown. The Aztecs, like other peoples of America, did not tame domestic animals, did not know wheel traction, metal tools. The social system of the Aztecs in many ways resembled the Mayan state. The main economic unit was the neighboring community. There was a system of labor conscription of the population in favor of the state in the construction of palaces, temples, etc. The craft of the Aztecs had not yet separated from agriculture, both farmers and artisans lived in the community, there was a layer of representatives of the nobility and leaders - caciques, who had large plots of land and used the labor of slaves. Unlike the Maya, the Aztec state achieved significant centralization, the transition to the hereditary power of the supreme ruler was gradually carried out. However, the lack of internal unity, the internecine struggle for power among the representatives of the highest military nobility and the struggle of the tribes conquered by the Aztecs against the conquerors facilitated the victory of the Spaniards in this unequal struggle. Many conquered tribes went over to their side and participated in the struggle against the Aztec rulers. So, during the last siege of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, 1 thousand Spaniards and 100 thousand Indians participated in the battle. Despite this, the siege lasted 225 days. The final conquest of Mexico stretched over more than two decades. The last Maya stronghold was captured by the Spaniards only in 1697, i.e. 173 years after their invasion of the Yucatan. Mexico justified the hopes of the conquerors. Rich deposits of gold and silver were found here. Already in the 20s of the XVI century. began the development of silver mines. The merciless exploitation of the Indians in the mines, in construction, mass epidemics led to a rapid decline in the population. For 50 years, it has decreased from 4.5 million to 1 million people.
Simultaneously with the conquest of Mexico, the Spanish conquistadors were looking for the fabulous country of Eldorado and on the coast of South America. In 1524, the conquest of the territory of present-day Colombia began, where the port of Santa Marta was founded. From here, the Spanish conquistador Jimenez Quesada, moving up the Magdalena River, reached the possessions of the Chibcha-Muisca tribes who lived on the Bogotá plateau. Hoe farming, pottery and weaving, processing of copper, gold and silver were developed here. Chibcha were especially famous as skilled jewelers who made jewelry and dishes from gold, silver, copper and emeralds. Gold disks served as their equivalent in trade with other areas. Having conquered the largest Chibcha Muisca principality, Jimenez Quesada founded in 1536 the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá.
The second stream of colonization was from the Isthmus of Panama south along the Pacific coast of America. The conquerors were attracted by the fabulously rich country of Peru, or Viru, as the Indians called it. Wealthy Spanish merchants from the Isthmus of Panama took part in the preparation of expeditions to Peru. One of the detachments was led by a semi-literate hidalgo from Extremadura, Francisco Pizarro. In 1524, together with his countryman Diego Almagro, he set sail south along the western coast of America and reached the Gulf of Guayaquil (modern Ecuador). Fertile densely populated lands stretched here. The population was engaged in agriculture, bred herds of llamas, which were used as beasts of burden. The meat and milk of llamas went into food, and durable and warm fabrics were made from their wool. Returning to Spain in 1531, Pizarro signed a capitulation with the king and received the title and rights of adelantado - the leader of the conquistadors. The expedition was joined by two of his brothers and 250 hidalgos from Extremadura. In 1532, Pizarro landed on the coast, quickly conquered the backward scattered tribes living there and captured an important stronghold - the city of Tumbes. Before him opened the way to the conquest of the state of the Incas - Tahuantisuyu, the most powerful of the states of the New World, which at the time of the Spanish invasion was experiencing a period of its highest rise. Since ancient times, the territory of Peru was inhabited by Indians - Quechua. In the XIV century. one of the Quechuan tribes - the Incas - was conquered by numerous Indian tribes living in the territory of modern Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. By the beginning of the XVI century. part of the territory of Chile and Argentina was part of the Inca state. From the tribe of conquerors, a military nobility was formed, and the word "Inca" acquired the meaning of a title. The center of the Inca power was the city of Cusco, located high in the mountains. Carrying out their conquests, the Incas sought to assimilate the conquered tribes, resettled them inland, planted the Quechua language, and introduced a single religion - the cult of the Sun. The Temple of the Sun in Cusco was a pantheon of regional gods. Just like the Maya and the Aztecs, the main unit of Inca society was the neighborhood community. Along with family allotments, there were "fields of the Inca" and "fields of the Sun", which were worked together and the harvest from them went to the maintenance of rulers and priests. From the communal lands, the fields of the nobility and elders were already distinguished, which were the property and were inherited. The ruler of Tauantisuyu, the Inca, was considered the supreme owner of all lands.
In 1532, when several dozen Spaniards undertook a campaign deep into Peru, a fierce civil war was going on in the state of Tahuantisuyu. The tribes of the northern Pacific coast conquered by the Incas supported the conquerors. Almost without resistance, F. Pizarro reached the important center of the Inca state - the city of Cajamarca, located in the highlands of the Andes. Here the Spaniards captured the ruler of Tawantisuya Atagualpa and imprisoned him. Although the Indians collected a huge ransom and filled the dungeon of the captive leader with gold and silver jewelry, ingots, and vessels, the Spaniards executed Atagualpa and appointed a new ruler. In 1535, Pizarro made a campaign against Cusco, which was conquered as a result of a hard struggle. In the same year, the city of Lima was founded, which became the center of the conquered territory. A direct sea route was established between Lima and Panama. The conquest of the territory of Peru dragged on for more than 40 years. The country was shaken by powerful popular uprisings against the conquerors. In remote mountainous areas, a new Indian state arose, conquered by the Spaniards only in 1572.
Simultaneously with the campaign of Pizarro in Peru in 1535-1537. adelantado Diego Almagro began a campaign in Chile, but soon had to return to Cuzco, which was besieged by the rebel Indians. An internecine struggle began in the ranks of the conquistadors, F. Pizarro, his brothers Hernando and Gonzalo and Diego d Almagro died in it. The conquest of Chile was continued by Pedro Valdivia. The Araucan tribes living in this country put up stubborn resistance, and the conquest of Chile was finally completed only in At the end of the 17th century, the colonization of La Plata began in 1515, the lands along the rivers La Plata and Paraguay were conquered. Detachments of conquistadors, moving from the southeast, entered the territory of Peru. In 1542, two streams of colonization joined here.
If at the first stage of the conquest the conquerors seized precious metals accumulated in previous times, then from 1530 in Mexico and in the territory of Peru and modern Bolivia (Upper Peru) the richest mines began to be systematically exploited. The richest deposits of precious metals were discovered in the Potosi region. In the middle of the XVI century. the mines of Potosi gave 1/2 of the world's silver production.
Since that time, the nature of colonization has changed. The conquerors refuse from the economic development of the conquered lands. Everything necessary for the Spanish settlers began to be brought from Europe in exchange for the gold and silver of the New World.
Only nobles were sent to the American colonies, whose goal was enrichment. The noble, feudal nature of colonization predetermined the fatal circumstance for Spain that gold in America's silver fell mainly into the hands of the nobility, accumulated in the form of treasures or spent to support Catholic conspiracies in Europe, on the military adventures of the Spanish kings. This new direction of colonial exploitation had a decisive influence on the formation of the Spanish colonial system.
Due to the peculiarities of the country's historical development (see Chapter 8), Spanish feudalism was characterized by some specific features: the supreme power of the king over the conquered lands, the preservation of free peasant communities, and the labor conscription of the population in favor of the state. An important role in the economy, along with the labor of feudally dependent peasants, was played by the slave labor of Muslim prisoners. At the time of the conquest of America, the socio-economic and administrative system of Spain turned out to be compatible with those forms of social organization that existed in the early class states of the New World.
The Spaniards preserved the Indian community in Mexico, Peru and in a number of other areas where there was a dense agricultural population and they used various forms of labor service for the community members in favor of the state to attract Indians to work in the mines. The Spaniards retained the internal structure of communities, crop rotations, and a tax system. Harvests from the "fields of the Inca" now went to pay taxes to the Spanish king, and from the "fields of the Sun" - to the church tithe.
The former elders (kasiks, kuraks) remained at the head of the communities, their families were exempted from taxes and duties, but they had to ensure the timely payment of taxes and labor for the mines. The local call was involved in the service of the Spanish king, which merged with the Spanish conquerors. The descendants of many of them were then sent to Spain.
All newly conquered lands became the property of the crown. Beginning in 1512, laws were passed prohibiting the enslavement of Indians. Formally, they were considered subjects of the Spanish king, had to pay a special tax "tributo" and serve a labor service. From the first years of colonization, a struggle unfolded between the king and the conquistador nobles for power over the Indians, for the right to own land. During this struggle in the late 20s of the XVI century. there was a special form of exploitation of the Indians - the encomienda. It was first introduced in Mexico by E. Cortes. The encomienda did not give the right to own land. Its owner - the encomendero - received the right to exploit the community Indians who lived on the territory of the encomienda.
The encomendero was entrusted with the duty to promote the Christianization of the population, to monitor the timely payment of "tributo" and the performance of labor service in mines, construction, and agricultural work. With the creation of the encomienda, the Indian community was included in the Spanish colonial system. The lands of the community were declared its inalienable property. The formation of forms of colonial exploitation was accompanied by the creation of a strong bureaucratic apparatus of the colonial administration. For the Spanish monarchy, this was a means of fighting against the separatist tendencies of the conquistadors.
In the first half of the XVI century. in general terms, there was a system of government of the Spanish colonies in America. Two viceroyalties were created: New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Venezuela and the Caribbean) and the viceroyalty of Peru, which covered almost the rest of South America, with the exception of Brazil. Viceroys were appointed from the highest Spanish nobility, they went to the colonies for three years, they did not have the right to take their families with them, buy land and real estate there, and engage in business. The activities of the viceroys were controlled by the "Council of the Indies", whose decisions had the force of law.
Colonial trade was placed under the control of the "Seville Chamber of Commerce" (1503): it carried out customs inspection of all goods, collected duties, and supervised emigration processes. All other cities in Spain were deprived of the right to trade with America bypassing Seville. Mining was the main industry in the Spanish colonies. In this regard, it was the responsibility of the viceroys to provide the royal mines with labor, the timely receipt of income to the treasury, including the poll tax from the Indians. The viceroys also had full military and judicial power.
The one-sided development of the economy in the Spanish colonies had a detrimental effect on the fate of the indigenous population and the future development of the continent. Until the middle of the XVII century. there was a catastrophic decline in the number of indigenous people. In many areas, by 1650, it had decreased by 10-15 times compared with the end of the 16th century, primarily due to the diversion of the able-bodied male population to the mines for 9-10 months a year. This led to the decline of traditional forms of agriculture, a decrease in the birth rate. An important reason was the frequent famine and epidemics that mowed down entire areas. Since the middle of the XVI century. the Spaniards began to settle the Indians in new villages closer to the mines, introducing a communal structure into them. In addition to government work, the inhabitants of these settlements had to work the land, provide their families with food and pay "tributo". The most severe exploitation was the main reason for the extinction of the indigenous population. The influx of immigrants from the metropolis was insignificant. In the middle and second half of the XVI century. mainly Spanish nobles moved to the colony, peasant emigration to Peru and Mexico was actually prohibited. So, in 1572, there were 120 thousand inhabitants in Potosi, of which only 10 thousand were Spaniards. Gradually, a special group of Spanish settlers formed in America, who were born in the colony, lived there permanently, having almost no ties with the metropolis. They did not mix with the local population and constituted a special group called Creoles.
Under the conditions of colonization, there was a rapid erosion of Indian ethnic groups and tribal communities, the displacement of their languages by Spanish. This was largely facilitated by the resettlement of Indians from different areas in the villages near the mines. Representatives of different tribes spoke different languages, and gradually Spanish became their main language of communication. At the same time, there was an intensive process of mixing of Spanish settlers with the Indian population - miscegenation, the number of mestizos rapidly increased. Already by the middle of the XVII century. in many areas a large mulatto population appears from the marriages of Europeans with black women. This was typical of the Caribbean coast, Cuba, Haiti, where the plantation economy dominated and where African slaves were constantly imported. Europeans, Indians, mestizos, mulattoes, blacks existed as closed racial and ethnic groups, which differed greatly in their social and legal status. The emerging caste system was enshrined in Spanish law. The position of a person in society was primarily determined by ethnic and racial characteristics. Only the Creoles were relatively full-fledged. Mestizos were forbidden to live in communities, own land, carry weapons, and engage in certain types of crafts. At the same time, they were exempted from labor service, from paying "tributo" and were in a better legal position than the Indians. This largely explains the fact that in the cities of Spanish America, mestizos and mulattoes made up the majority of the population.
On the coast of the Caribbean Sea and on the islands, where the indigenous people were exterminated at the very beginning of the conquest of America, the Negro and mulatto population prevailed.
Portuguese colonies.
The colonial system that developed in the Portuguese possessions was notable for its significant originality. In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared this territory the possession of the Portuguese king. In Brazil, with the exception of certain areas on the coast, there was no settled agricultural population, a few Indian tribes, who were at the stage of tribal system, were pushed into the interior of the country. The absence of deposits of precious metals and significant human resources determined the originality of the colonization of Brazil. The second important factor was the significant development of merchant capital. The beginning of the organized colonization of Brazil was laid in 1530, and it took place in the form of economic development of coastal regions. An attempt was made to impose feudal forms of land tenure. The coast was divided into 13 captaincies, the owners of which had full power. However, Portugal did not have a significant surplus population, so settlement of the colony was slow. The absence of peasant settlers and the paucity of the indigenous population made it impossible for the development of feudal forms of economy. The areas where the plantation system arose based on the exploitation of Negro slaves from Africa developed most successfully. Starting from the second half of the XVI century. the import of African slaves is growing rapidly. In 1583, 25,000 white settlers and millions of slaves lived in the entire colony. The white settlers lived mainly in the coastal strip in rather closed groups. Here miscegenation has not received a large scope; the influence of Portuguese culture on the local population was very limited. The Portuguese language did not become dominant, a peculiar language of communication between the Indians and the Portuguese arose - "lengua geral", which was based on one of the local dialects and the main grammatical and lexical forms of the Portuguese language. Lengua Geral was spoken by the entire population of Brazil for the next two centuries.
Colonization and the Catholic Church.
An important role in the colonization of America was played by the Catholic Church, which, both in Spanish and Portuguese possessions, became the most important link in the colonial apparatus, the exploiter of the indigenous population. The discovery and conquest of America was seen by the papacy as a new crusade, the purpose of which was to be the Christianization of the indigenous population. In this regard, the Spanish kings received the right to manage the affairs of the church in the colony, direct missionary activities, and found churches and monasteries. The church quickly turned into the largest landowner. The conquistadors were well aware that Christianization was called upon to play a large role in consolidating their dominance over the indigenous population. In the first quarter of the XVI century. representatives of various monastic orders began to arrive in America: the Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and later the Jesuits, who gained great influence on La Plata and in Brazil. Groups of monks followed the detachments of the conquistadors, creating their own settlements - missions; mission centers were churches and houses that served as dwellings for monks. Subsequently, schools for Indian children were created in the missions, and at the same time a small fortified fortress was built, which housed the Spanish garrison. Thus, the missions were both the outposts of Christianization and the border points of the Spanish possessions.
In the first decades of the conquest, Catholic priests, carrying out Christianization, sought to destroy not only local religious beliefs, but also to eradicate the culture of the indigenous population. An example is the Franciscan Bishop Diego de Landa, who ordered the destruction of all the ancient books of the Mayan people, cultural monuments, the very historical memory of the people. Soon, however, Catholic priests began to act in other ways. Carrying out Christianization, spreading Spanish culture and the Spanish language, they began to use elements of the local ancient religion and culture of the conquered Indian peoples. Despite the cruelty and destruction of the conquest, the Indian culture did not die, it survived and changed under the influence of Spanish culture. Gradually, a new culture took shape based on the synthesis of Spanish and Indian elements.
Catholic missionaries were forced to promote this synthesis. They often erected Christian churches on the site of former Indian shrines, used some images and symbols of the former beliefs of the indigenous population, including them in Catholic rites and religious symbols. So, not far from the city of Mexico City, on the site of a destroyed Indian temple, the Church of the Virgin Mary of Guadalupe was built, which became a place of pilgrimage for the Indians. The church claimed that the miraculous appearance of the Mother of God took place at this place. Many icons and special rituals were dedicated to this event. On these icons, the Virgin Mary was depicted with the face of an Indian woman - a "dark-skinned Madonna", and in her very cult, echoes of former Indian beliefs were felt.
Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean.
In the second half of the 16th - early 17th century. Spanish navigators made a number of Pacific expeditions from the territory of Peru, during which the Solomon Islands (1567), South Polynesia (1595) and Melanesia (1605) were discovered. Even during the journey of Magellan, the idea arose of the existence of the "South Continent", part of which were the newly discovered islands of Southeast Asia. These assumptions were expressed in the geographical writings of the early 17th century, the mythical mainland was mapped under the name "Terra incognita Australia" (unknown southern land). In 1605, a Spanish expedition set off from Peru, it included three ships. During the voyage to the coast of Southeast Asia, islands were discovered, one of which A. Kiros, who was at the head of the squadron, mistook for the coast of the southern mainland. Abandoning his companions to the mercy of fate, Quiros hurried back to Peru, and then went to Spain to announce his discovery and secure the rights to manage new lands and receive income. The captain of one of the two ships abandoned by Kyros - the Portuguese Torres - continued sailing and soon found out that Kyros was mistaken and discovered not a new mainland, but a group of islands (New Hebrides). To the south of them stretched an unknown land - the real Australia. Sailing further west, Torres passed through the strait between the coast of New Guinea and Australia, later named after him. Having reached the Philippine Islands, which were the possession of Spain, Torres informed the Spanish governor of his discovery, this news was transmitted to Madrid. However, Spain did not have at that time the forces and means for the development of new lands. Therefore, the Spanish government kept all information about the discovery of Torres secret for a whole century, fearing the rivalry of other powers.
In the middle of the XVII century. exploration of the coast of Australia began the Dutch. In 1642, A. Tasman, sailing from the coast of Indonesia to the east, rounded Australia from the south and passed along the coast of the island, called Tasmania.
Only 150 years after Torres traveled, during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), when the British, who fought against Spain, captured Manila, documents about the discovery of Torres were found in the archives. In 1768, the English navigator D. Cook explored the islands of Oceania, re-discovered the Torres Strait and the east coast of Australia; subsequently, the priority of this discovery was recognized by Torres.
Consequences of the Great geographical discoveries.
Great geographical discoveries of the XV-XVII centuries. had a huge impact on world development. It is known that many earlier Europeans visited the coast of America, traveled to the shores of Africa, but only the discovery of Columbus laid the foundation for constant and diverse relations between Europe and America, opened a new stage in world history. A geographical discovery is not only a visit by representatives of any civilized people to a previously unknown part of the earth. The concept of "geographical discovery" includes the establishment of a direct connection between the newly discovered lands and the centers of culture of the Old World.
The great geographical discoveries significantly expanded the knowledge of Europeans about the world, destroyed many prejudices and false ideas about other continents and the peoples inhabiting them.
The expansion of scientific knowledge gave impetus to the rapid development of industry and trade in Europe, the emergence of new forms of the financial system, banking and credit. The main trade routes moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean. The most important consequence of the discovery and colonization of new lands was the "price revolution", which gave a new impetus to the initial accumulation of capital in Europe and accelerated the formation of the capitalist structure in the economy.
However, the consequences of colonization and the conquest of new lands were ambiguous for the peoples of the metropolises and colonies. The result of colonization was not only the development of new lands, it was accompanied by monstrous exploitation of the conquered peoples, doomed to slavery and extinction. During the conquest, many centers of ancient civilizations were destroyed, the natural course of the historical development of entire continents was disrupted, the peoples of the colonized countries were forcibly drawn into the emerging capitalist market and, through their labor, accelerated the process of formation and development of capitalism in Europe.
The text is printed according to the edition: History of the Middle Ages: In 2 vols. T. 2: Early modern times: I90 Textbook / Ed. SP. Karpov. - M: Publishing House of Moscow State University: INFRA-M, 2000. - 432 p.
