Rhetoric is a theory of eloquence. The concept of oratory

Expression "oratory" has several meanings. Under the oratory, first of all, we mean a high degree of mastery of public speaking, a qualitative characteristic of oratorical speech, skillful mastery of a living persuasive word. It is the art of building as well as publicly delivering a speech with the aim of delivering the desired impact on the audience.
The art of oratory is also called the historically established science of eloquence and the academic discipline that sets out the foundations of oratory.
Many modern researchers consider oratory as one of the specific types of human activity, which should be mastered by everyone who is professionally connected with the oral word.
The term "oratory" has Latin roots. Its synonyms are Greek words: rhetoric, eloquence. Throughout its centuries-old history, oratory has been used in various spheres of society. It has always found the broadest application in jurisprudence and political activity. Many lawyers and politicians were renowned speakers.
It must be borne in mind that oratory has always served and serves the interests of certain social groups, classes, individuals. It can equally serve both the truth and the lie, be used for moral or immoral purposes. To whom and how the oratory serves - the main question that is solved throughout the history of the development of science, starting with Ancient Greece. Therefore, in oratory, the morality of the orator is very important, his moral responsibility for the content of the speech.
Oratory is a historical phenomenon.
Each epoch has its own requirements for speakers, assigns certain responsibilities, has its own rhetorical ideal. However, in general, oratory has specific features:
1) complex synthetic character. Philosophy, logic, pedagogy, linguistics, aesthetics, ethics are the sciences on which oratory is based;
2) heterogeneity. Historically, depending on the scope of application, it was divided into different types and genera. In Russian rhetoric, the following main types of eloquence are distinguished: socio-political, academic, judicial, social and everyday, spiritual. Each genus unites certain types of speech, taking into account its functions, as well as the situation, purpose and topic.
History shows that democratic forms of government and active participation of citizens in the political life of the country are an important condition for the emergence and development of oratory, free exchange of views on vital issues. Hence the name of oratory as "the spiritual brainchild of democracy." It is not surprising that today, in connection with the democratic processes taking place in the country, there is a new surge of interest in rhetoric.

Many professions of people that are associated with the constant pronunciation of speeches cannot do without knowledge of a special kind of science, like the art of eloquence. It is safe to say that oratory is the most important lever of culture. Knowing the basics of public speaking, they are successful in building their careers.

Public speaking today is considered as a kind of direction in science and art, because it is capable of influencing both the sensations and thoughts of a person, changing his worldview.

Such a concept as oratory is recognized as the direction of the creative activity of public speaking, in which both rhetoric and the techniques of acting and psychological techniques that contribute to persuasion are best combined.

Everyone has found himself in situations where words alone are not enough to convince him of his position. The basics of eloquence in such situations play an important role in achieving a goal or proving the correctness of your position. The art of persuasion plays an important role today.

Oratory is understood as a type of dialogue that addresses a group of listeners with a clear purpose to convince and give a definite concept of the specified problem. Speransky wrote: "eloquence is a gift to shake souls, to pour passions into them and to convey to them the image of his concepts."

Facts about the origin of oratory

The first attention to the art of oratory began to be paid back in ancient Greece. The history of oratory began much earlier. But it was the inhabitants of Hellas who attached meaning and a definite concept to such art. Many philosophers have used various techniques to achieve the correct and interesting formulation of the speech for the interlocutor.

For example, Demosthenes filled his mouth with stones and rehearsed on the seashore, trying to speak louder than the surf. This science is based on the principles of persuasion and the effectiveness of speech.

Among the famous works of Aristotle, there is a work called "rhetoric", which is devoted specifically to the art of eloquence.

All the achievements in the art of oratory of antiquity were adopted by the venerable theorists of the Middle Ages. To win the attention and love of the public, they used various techniques, including:

• location;
• finding;
• memorization.

Among the great orators of this time are Martin Luther, Thomas Aquinas, Pierre Abelard. Their quotes and statements have remained in history and are still relevant today.

The history of oratory has special features in each of the states. Sometimes eloquence was aimed at achieving specific goals, persuasion. Oratory in Russia had one more additional purpose: using eloquence, one can lead a person to goodness.

Rhetoric and oratory today

Disciplines are at the core of contemporary public speaking. These are philosophy, psychology, linguistics, aesthetics, rhetoric, ethics. They are closely related to each other. A clear connection can be traced in the rhetoric-grammar-logic trio:

• knowledge of rhetoric gives coherence and consistency of thoughts in speech;
• grammar is manifested in the correct use of words and their forms;
• logic provides thoroughness and semantic coherence of speech.

Since ancient times, correct speech has been considered the basis of success. Such thoughts were confirmed by well-known philosophers and scientists, for example, Aristotle stated: "eloquence is a worker of persuasion." This statement is still true. After all, achievement in building a career in many areas of activity depends on the ability to persuade and convince your customers, colleagues and clients. Today, as in the past, speakers place emphasis on the following skills:

• to simulate the intonation and timbre of the voice in accordance with the current situation;
• the correctness of intonation when pronouncing phrases;
• improving the culture of speech in general.

When choosing a profession, it is always worth remembering that speakers were not born with an inherent talent; the ability to speak and make persuasive speeches should be constantly trained and studied essential points and basic rules.

Rhetoric is a science that is on an equal footing with chemistry or physics, and with an effort, every person can master it. Anyone can master the basics of oratory, but to apply them in practice, inserting the necessary words and quotes, probably only purposeful and talented. Such a science is within the power of everyone.

Types of oratory

Public speaking and culture have never been homogeneous. At different times, depending on the profession and era, it had different forms of oratory.

The modern teaching of oratory is perceived as a separate science and classifies it according to features and implies manifestations and forms. Some divide oral speech into monologue and dialogical speech, and some subdivide such art into emotional and rational speech.

There is a classification into genera and types of oratory, depending on the areas of activity in which it is applied. Each such category unites different styles and types of speech, depending in which area of \u200b\u200blife it will be used. One thing is clear that public speaking is important as a social phenomenon.

Eloquence is subdivided into:

• Socio-political eloquence, which includes political and diplomatic speeches, reports that are related to politics, economy and social life of society.
• Academic eloquence. This group includes lectures, reports and messages that are designed to convey cognitive and scientific information to listeners. The presentation of scientific works is kept in a certain style.
• Judicial eloquence represents accusatory and judicial speech. This type of oratory is a guarantee of his career.
• Social and everyday oratory includes congratulatory, anniversary or memorial speeches.
• Theologically - church art is represented by sermons in cathedrals and churches.

This classification fully reflects the art of oratory of the existing world, but this is far from a complete classification. The genera and types of oratory in society are represented by a substantial list.

Among the most popular oratory groups today are eloquence, which is used on radio and television, advertisements, speeches by politicians and diplomats, responses to press conferences, and so on. Without knowing the rules and concepts of each group, it is impossible to put together an effective performance. Culture and conversation skills are very important in such cases. They are always based on rhetoric and culture of conversation.

Public speaking and career

As already noted, mastery of the theory of oratory plays a role in building a career and moving up the career ladder. Knowing these rules is useful for any person who works in modern companies. Starting from the manager and ending with the CEO. A person must speak correctly and competently in business communication, there are a lot of reasons for this.

A company manager spends a lot of time in business negotiations with clients, as well as with employees of other companies and colleagues. Why is it taking so long? A person cannot correctly, clearly and concisely convey the desired idea and spends a lot of time on explanations. But, knowing the basics of oratory, you can quickly and clearly convey an idea, and not break mutual understanding in the team due to a simple misunderstanding.

It is also worth noting that young leaders sometimes struggle with their subordinates for a simple reason. He does not know the basics of ethics and aesthetics of communication, causing a storm of discontent among employees. Oratory, the culture of dialogue and rhetoric are essential for organizing work in a team of subordinates. Simple rules are needed.

There are many situations that every office worker faces during the working day, when eloquence is important:

• Speaking at management meetings with a progress report or presentation. The graphic presentation of the results is supported by clear speech and explanation. The success of a particular company depends on the impression made.
• Report at a meeting among their employees. The productivity of work and the speed of making appropriate decisions depends on how well employees are able to articulate tasks and formulate thoughts. The presentation and report must be clear and clear.
• Spontaneous business communication. A person will have constant business conversations throughout the working day, in addition to the planned events. Conversations are worth conducting, both with the company's customers and with employees within the team. The culture and skill of conducting such conversations always affects a career. Leaders love outgoing, educated, and communicative employees, and without these skills, you can easily lose your job.
• Interview. The first impression plays a huge role in employment, and the ability to speak about oneself and the culture of speech are considered an important component of it.

As you can see, ordinary situations that are associated with business communication require from a person the skills of correct and competent rhea, and eloquence. But after all, a huge number of professions do not exist without oratory, and the success of people who choose such specialties depends on the possession of oratorical skills.

Not owning the art of public speaking, no lawyer will achieve success. It is very important for him to have the skills and abilities that will help to correctly, competently and concisely state his position, especially during a judicial discussion. What matters is the correct emotional color. The oratory of a lawyer is considered the key to his career.

The tricks and subtleties of public speaking

Everyone knows that rhetoric offers secrets of oratory that help to better influence the audience in order to achieve their goals before speaking.

• Speaking to an audience should not be lengthy and tedious (this does not apply to lectures and other scientific reports). The information is presented clearly and concisely. On average, the length of a speech should not exceed 20 minutes.
• A simple trick from rhetoric, which consists in creating some intrigue, helps to retain and attract attention. At the beginning of the speech, you can attract attention with the words “once I ...” or “something happened to me”. Such quotes will generate interest in the audience and the speaker in the eyes of the audience. This is science. Unsurprisingly, speakers were considered schemers.
• Despite the seriousness of the upcoming speech, scientific terms or exact facts should always be diluted with light humor. It is important to know when to stop, such jokes should not be made flat or vulgar, their goal is to cheer up the audience.
• Emotion is considered to be the fundamental moment in the performance. Rhetoric and the culture of conversation give it a special role. Its correct application is a difficult science, because if the manifestations of emotions seem to the audience to be feigned and unnatural, then the audience will not believe such a report, and the person will not inspire confidence in them.
• Silence at the right moment, a pause after a fully expressed thought is of great importance in a speech. Such moments help the listener to turn on thinking and reflect on the information received. Such a trick is used in moments when he is lost in order to collect his thoughts and continue. The science of eloquence talks about such moments, and the significance of their application.
• The resulting theory of oratory and rhetoric is always supported by practical skills. If you want to become a sought-after speaker and learn how to make convincing and competent speeches. You should not give up the situation to speak in public, even if the listeners are relatives and guests at the table.

In conclusion, it should be noted that oratory and rhetoric are important for every person, like a science. The culture of speech, its correctness and literacy help not only in work, but also in constant communication.

The term oratory (Latin oratoria) is of ancient origin. Its synonyms are the Greek word rhetoric (gr. Rhetorike) and Russian eloquence. Here are the dictionary entries to them from the seventeen-volume "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language":
Rhetoric - 1. Oratory, theory of eloquence // Academic subject that studies the theory of eloquence // Textbook, setting out the foundations of this theory.
Transferred. Showiness, external beauty of speech, bombast.
In the old days it was the name of the junior class of the theological seminary.
Eloquence - 1. Ability, ability to speak beautifully, convincingly; oratorical talent And skillful speech, built on oratorical techniques; oratory.
Outdated. Science studying oratory; rhetoric.
The expression of public speaking also has several meanings. Under the oratory, first of all, is understood a high degree of mastery of public speaking, a qualitative characteristic of oratorical speech, skillful mastery of a living word. Public speaking is the art of constructing and publicly delivering a speech in order to deliver the desired impact on the audience.
A similar interpretation of oratory was adopted in ancient times. For example, Aristotle defined rhetoric as "the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject."
In "Private Rhetoric" N. Koshansky we read:
Oratory, floridness is the art of acting on the mind, passions and will of others with the gift of a living word.
M. Speransky in "The Rules of Higher Eloquence" notes:
... eloquence is a gift to shake souls, pouring into them your passions, and to communicate to them the image of your concepts.
The list of such definitions could be continued.
The art of oratory is also called the historically established science of eloquence and the academic discipline that sets out the foundations of oratory.
Traditionally, eloquence has been viewed as an art form. He was often compared with poetry and acting (Aristotle, Cicero, MV Lomonosov, A. F, Merzlyakov, V. G. Belinsky, A. F. Koni, etc.).
However, as G. Z. Apresyan rightly notes, the understanding of eloquence as a form of art, and often literature, should not mislead anyone. The researcher analyzes what is common and different in poetry, drama, 1 acting, acting, on the one hand, and oratory1, on the other, and concludes that the concept of "art" in relation to eloquence, if not entirely arbitrary, nevertheless requires a number of reservations of fundamental importance,
G. "Z. Apresyan stresses the close connection of the oratorical non-
art with science. He notes that even ancient philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, considered eloquence in the system of knowledge as a way of knowing and interpreting complex phenomena. Later, F. Bacon, in his work "Experiments", classified rhetoric as the art of "communicating knowledge." M. Speransky in "The Rules of Higher Eloquence" asserted that oratory should be evidence-based, reasonable, bring people knowledge.
What allows, according to G. Z. Apresyan, to consider oratory in connection with science?
First, the oratory uses the discoveries and achievements of all sciences and at the same time widely promotes and popularizes them.
Secondly, many ideas or hypotheses were originally presented orally, in public speeches, lectures, scientific reports, messages, and conversations.
Thirdly, oratory is based on the categorical system of the relevant sciences, which provides a mechanism for argumentation, analysis and judgments, proofs and generalizations.
Thus, in eloquence, art and scientific knowledge constitute a complex fusion of relatively independent ways of influencing people. Oratory is a complex intellectual and emotional creation of public speech.
Many modern researchers consider oratory as one of the specific types of human activity.
What caused the emergence of oratory? Many of his theorists tried to answer this question.
The objective basis for the emergence of oratory as a social phenomenon was the urgent need for public discussion and resolution of issues of public importance. To substantiate this or that point of view, to prove the correctness of the ideas and provisions put forward, to defend one's position, one had to be proficient in the art of words, be able to convince the audience and influence their choice. ...
History shows that the most important condition for the emergence and development of oratory, the free exchange of views on vital issues, the driving force
progressive ideas, critical thought are democratic forms of government, active participation of citizens in the political life of the country. It is no coincidence that oratory is called "the spiritual brainchild of democracy."
This was discovered in ancient Greece. A good example is the comparison of the two most significant city-states - Sparta and Athens, which had different state structures.
Sparta was a typical oligarchic republic. It was ruled by two kings and a council of elders. The people's assembly was considered the supreme body of power, but in fact it had no meaning. Plutarch, telling the biography of Lycurgus, the legendary legislator, tells about the order of the meetings in Sparta. The place where the meetings were held had no shelter or any decoration, since, in the opinion of the rulers, this does not contribute to sound judgment, on the contrary, it causes only harm, occupies the mind of the assembled with trifles and nonsense, distracts their attention.
Plutarch notes an interesting detail. When the people subsequently began to change the approved decisions by "various kinds of exceptions and additions", the kings adopted a resolution: "If the people decide wrong, the elders and kings should be disbanded," he distorts and misrepresents the best and the most useful. This procedure for conducting state affairs gave the aristocrats the opportunity to almost uncontrollably resolve all issues and did not contribute to the wide participation of citizens in government.
Political life in Athens developed in a different way, which in the middle of the 5th century BC. became the largest economic, political and cultural center of ancient Greece. The system of slave-owning democracy was established here. Three main institutions were of great importance: the assembly of the people, the council of five hundred, and the court.
The main role was played by the assembly of the people (ecclesia), which legally possessed complete supreme power. Every 10 days, Athenian citizens gathered in the square of their city and discussed important state affairs. Only the national assembly could decide to declare war and conclude peace, to elect the highest due
persons, on the issuance of various resolutions, etc. All other state bodies were subordinate to the People's Assembly.
Between sessions of the People's Assembly, current affairs were considered by a council of five hundred (bule). Council members were elected by lot from among citizens who were at least 30 years old, 50 people from each of the 10 districts located on the territory of the policy.
Court cases, as well as legislative activity, were dealt with by the jury (helium). It was quite numerous. It consisted of 6 thousand jurors, which excluded the danger of bribery of judges. There were no special state prosecutors in Athens. Any citizen could initiate and support charges. There were no defenders at the trial. The defendant had to defend himself.
Naturally, with such a free democratic system in Athens, citizens often had to speak in court or the people's assembly, to take an active part in the affairs of the policy. When discussing issues between parties in the people's assembly, opposing parties in the court often waged a fierce struggle. And in order to successfully conduct a case in court or successfully speak in a public assembly, one had to be able to speak well and convincingly, defend one's position, refute the opponent's opinion, that is, mastery of oratory and the ability to argue was the first necessity for the Athenians.
According to historians, the barracks Spartan state did not leave anything worthy to its descendants, while Athens, with its democratic disputes in the squares, in court and at popular assemblies, in a short time put forward the greatest thinkers, scientists, poets, created immortal works of culture.
As the researchers emphasize, the oratory develops most actively during critical epochs in the life of society. It is widely used when there is a historical need for the participation of the masses in the solution of important state issues. Public speaking helps to rally people around a common cause, convincing, inspiring and guiding them. Proof of this is the flourishing of regional speech during the Renaissance, during periods of social revolutions, when millions of working people are involved in the social movement. A new surge of public interest in public speaking is currently observed in connection with the democratic processes taking place in our country.
Throughout the centuries-old history of its development, oratory has been used in various spheres of society: spiritual, ideological, socio-political. It has always found the widest application in political activity.
Since ancient Greece, oratory and politics have been inseparable. Thus, all the famous orators of Ancient Greece were major political figures. For example, Pericles, who ruled Athens for 15 years. His name is associated with legislative measures that led to the further democratization of the Athenian state. According to researchers, the highest internal flowering of Greece coincides with the era of Pericles. They said about Pericles that "the goddess of conviction rested on his lips," that "he shot lightning arrows into the souls of his listeners."
Demosthenes, the most remarkable orator of ancient Greece, was also a prominent politician. The ancient Greek historian Plutarch wrote about him:
Demosthenes first turned to the art of speech in order to improve his own affairs, and later, having achieved skill and strength, he became the first already in competitions in the state field and surpassed all his fellow citizens who rose to the oratory.
Demosthenes was the defender of the Athenian slave democracy. For 30 years, with anger and amazing stubbornness, he made speeches against the Macedonian king Philip, the main enemy of Athens, urging citizens to end all strife among themselves and unite against Macedonia. Demosthenes' speeches made a great impression on the listeners. It is said that when Philip received the delivered speech of Demosthenes, he said that if he had heard this speech himself, he would probably have voted for the war against himself.
Demosthenes, who worked hard to prepare himself for social activity (from his biography it is known that he suffered from many physical disabilities) and devoted all his oratory skills to serving the motherland, was able to correctly determine the social nature of oratorical speech * In the famous speech "On the Wenche", in which he opposed the representative of the pro-Macedonian party Aeschines, Demosthenes emphasized the connection between oratory and politics:
Not words, Aeschines, and not the sound of a voice constitute the glory of the orator, but the direction of his policy.
Oratory was also a major political force in ancient Rome.
The ability to convince the audience was highly valued by people who were preparing for a political career and saw themselves in the future as rulers of the state. It is no coincidence that in the middle of the 2nd century BC. Greek rhetoricians appeared in Rome and opened the first schools of rhetoric there, young people flocked to them. But the Greek rhetorical schools were not accessible to everyone: the lessons of the rhetoricians were not cheap and it was possible to study in them only with a perfect knowledge of the Greek language. Only children of aristocrats could practically attend Greek schools, who were then supposed to become the head of state. Therefore, the government did not obstruct the Greek rhetoricians and treated their schools favorably. But when in the 1st century BC. a school with teaching rhetoric in Latin was opened, the Senate was worried * It was impossible to allow representatives of other classes to take up the weapons, which their sons were still learning to wield * And in 1992 * the edict "On the prohibition of Latin rhetorical schools" was issued. It was written there:
We were informed that there are people who have introduced a new type of obstacle and to whom young people are going to school; they gave themselves the name of Latin rhetoricians; the young men sit with them all day. Our ancestors established what to teach their children and what schools it is desirable for them to go to. These innovations, established contrary to the customs and morals of our ancestors, are not pleasing to us and seem to be wrong.
An oratory career in ancient Rome was both honorable and profitable * One of the Roman historians wrote;
Whose art can be compared in glory with oratory? Whose names do parents impart to their children, whom does the simple ignorant crowd know by name, whom they point a finger at? - to the speakers, of course.
The famous orators of ancient Rome, like the ancient Greek ones, were famous political figures. So, one of the first Roman orators was the Roman statesman of the III-II centuries BC. Mark Cato the Elder. An implacable enemy of Carthage, Cato ended every speech in the Senate with a phrase that became winged: "And yet, I believe, Carthage must be destroyed." This expression is used as a call for a stubborn struggle against the enemy or any obstacle.
Outstanding speakers of the later period were famous statesmen and supporters of the agrarian reform - Tiberius and Kai Gracchi. Mark Antony, a Roman politician and military leader, also occupied a prominent place among the Roman orators.
But the greatest political figure of that time was Mark Tullius Cicero.
There are two arts, - wrote Cicero, - that can raise a person to the highest level of honor: one is the art of a good commander, the other is the art of a good orator.
This dictum reveals Cicero's view of the essence of oratory. Oratory is a function of politics.
As history shows, prominent political figures also became prominent speakers in subsequent periods.
It should be borne in mind that oratory has always served and serves the interests of certain social classes, groups, individuals. It can equally serve both truth and falsehood, be used for both moral and immoral purposes.
To whom and how oratory serves - this is the main question that was solved throughout the history of oratory, starting with Ancient Greece. And depending on the solution of this issue, the attitude towards oratory, to the science of oratory and to the orator himself was determined *
The moral position of the orator is perhaps the most important thing in oratory. It is important not only for a politician, but also for any speaker whose word can influence the fate of people, help make the right decision *
Let's note one more feature of oratory. It has a complex synthetic character * Philosophy, logic, psychology, pedagogy, linguistics, ethics, aesthetics - these are the sciences on which oratory is based. Specialists of different profiles are interested in various problems of eloquence * For example, linguists develop a theory of the culture of oral speech, give recommendations to speakers on how to use the wealth of their native language. Psychologists study the issues of perception and impact of a speech message, deal with the problems of attention stability during a public speech, investigate the psychology of the speaker's personality, the psychology of the audience as a socio-psychological community of people. Logic teaches the speaker to express his thoughts consistently and harmoniously, to build a speech correctly, to prove the truth of the propositions put forward, and to refute the false statements of opponents.
Oratory has never been homogeneous * Historically, depending on the scope of application, it was divided into various genera and types * In Russian rhetoric, the following main types of eloquence are distinguished: socio-political, academic, judicial, social, everyday, spiritual (theological and church) * Each genus unites certain types of speech, taking into account the function that speech performs from a social point of view, as well as the situation of the speech, its topic and purpose *
Socio-political eloquence includes speeches on the issues of state building, economics, law, ethics, culture, produced in parliament, at rallies, public meetings, meetings, etc .;
to the academic - educational lecture, scientific report, review, communication;
to the court - speeches made by the participants in the trial - the prosecutor, the lawyer, the accused, etc .;
to social and everyday life - welcoming, anniversary, drinking, memorial speeches, etc .;
to theological and ecclesiastical - sermons, speeches at the council.

In the conditions of increased opportunities for self-determination of the individual, oral speech acquires special significance. The 21st century, according to all forecasts, should become humanitarian, that is, one where culture, spirituality will play a leading role, affirming the dignity and value of the human person.

Public speaking is deeply rooted in the humanitarian tradition of humankind. Today the demand for rhetorical ideas and skills is enormous. The need for universal rhetorical education is ripe. Rhetoric requires a meaningful attitude to speech. A conscientious attitude to the word will help make a person sane, able to get along and negotiate with other people. As B. Shaw noted, the state is a community of intelligent individuals endowed with the “divine gift of articulate speech,” and it must be governed by reasonable methods that are based not on a “command”, an order, but on persuasion by word. Any leadership in any area is largely accomplished through communication, through contacts with people. Since ancient times, people have sought to understand the secret of the impact of the living word. Is this an innate gift or the result of long, painstaking training and self-education? The answer to many questions is given by a special science - rhetoric. The authority of this science in antiquity, its influence on the life of society and the state were so great that it was called "the art of controlling minds" (Plato) and was put on a par with the art of a commander and a poet. Cicero said that "there are two arts that can put a person on the highest level of honor: one is the art of a commander, the other is the art of a good orator." Plutarch also spoke about this: "The art of speech is like a second body, an instrument irreplaceable for a husband who does not intend to vegetate in nothingness and idleness."

Ancient theories of eloquence are included in the golden fund of rhetorical science. And, of course, to understand the essence of eloquence, it is necessary first of all to get acquainted with the views of the ancient rhetoricians. In ancient rhetorical science, one can name the names of researchers who took a leading place in the development of the theory of eloquence. These are Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian and some others. It is their theoretical research that constitutes the platform on which further research was based.

Oramatory art ( eloquence, the art of eloquence) - the art of public speaking for the purpose of persuasion. Oratory is a harmonious combination of rhetoric, acting techniques (presentation) and psychological techniques. Oratory and the properties of oratory is studied by the science of rhetoric.

Natural oratory is common in everyday life. Imagine a situation: one person walks along the road, not seeing the danger threatening him, and the other, raising his voice, warns him about it. Another example. One person fell into the water, and the other raises a cry so that those around him come to the rescue. Examples of natural eloquence can be found in villages, where people communicate loudly and emotionally, almost shouting to one another ("across the street") or in the market, where everyone communicates something about their product. Such expressions of eloquence do not require special training. Vote in such cases it rises naturally, under the influence feelings and the relevant circumstances.

There are situations when a person needs to say something beautifully and convincingly, but there are no necessary emotions at the moment. This requires special self-management skills, which can be acquired in the process of teaching public speaking in public speaking schools or in special trainings. Oratorical eloquence, as a special kind of art, originated in ancient Greece. No other ancient culture - neither Egyptian, nor Akkadian, nor Chinese, nor Indian - pays such close attention to rhetoric as the Greek, and does not provide high examples of the content and stylistic perfection of dialectics and the art of the spoken word. Oratory teaches how to make ordinary speech oratorical. The traditions of modern oratorical speech go back to the ancient rhetoric of Ancient Greece and Rome.

Oratorical speech is a type of monologue speech used in a situation where the speaker addresses a large audience for the purpose of persuasion ... Speech speaker has its own characteristics of building composition and style, as well as a special ratio of language and non-linguistic means of communication. There are several main qualities that distinguish oratory from other types of speech.

• 1. The orator addresses the people with an oratorical speech - not only to convey information to the listener, but also to receive a response in the form of interest (to convince) or any action (to induce). Such speech always has an agitational character. For this, the speaker must be inspired by the subject of his speech and put into it what he considers necessary and useful for his listeners.
• 2. In order for the speech to touch and interest the audience, it is important authority speaker or his special psychological attitude. In order to induce the listeners to perform some actions, the orator himself first of all makes an effort that requires a special exertion of will. This effort is felt in the orator's speech and communicated to his audience, prompting them to take action.

Since ancient times, people have sought to understand the secret of the impact of the living word. Is this an innate gift or the result of long, painstaking training and self-education? The answer to many questions is given by a special science - rhetoric. The authority of this science in antiquity, its influence on the life of society and the state were so great that it was called "the art of controlling minds" (Plato) and was put on a par with the art of a commander and a poet. Cicero said that "there are two arts that can put a person on the highest level of honor: one is the art of a commander, the other is the art of a good orator." Plutarch also spoke about this: "The art of speech is like a second body, an instrument irreplaceable for a husband who does not intend to vegetate in nothingness and idleness."

The terms "rhetoric" (Greek retorike), "oratory" (Latin orator - "to speak"), "florid" (obsolete, Old Church Slavonic), "eloquence" are synonymous.

Each of us perceives the word "rhetoric" differently. For one, it is associated with the desire to master the art of oratory, for another - it acts as a synonym for idle talk, rhetoric, the third - perceives the words "rhetoric", "eloquence", "oratory" as synonyms.

Let's consider the relationship between these concepts. The most ancient of them is eloquence - “red (beautiful) speech”. When are we especially eloquent? When something particularly "hurts" us, there is an interest in persuasion. Hence, we can conclude that eloquence is a natural gift that any person is endowed with to varying degrees. Such a gift can be defined as the innate ability to create more or less "contagious" speech, which is perceived as going to the heart and guided by the heart. A truly eloquent person always expresses what he himself feels, in the truth of which he unconditionally believes. Addressing directly to the hearts of his listeners, he does not need any special techniques or laws. The effectiveness of his speech is determined by the sincerity of his address to the audience.

Sincerity and communication are important conditions for a speaker's success, but they cannot replace skill. The famous American actor Jefferson once accurately remarked: "Making a bright speech is one thing, but making it bright is another." The speaker no longer necessarily has to feel and experience for himself what he inspires to others. But he must clearly imagine what the listeners can or should feel, realize or do when perceiving his speech. He should think about under what circumstances, for what type of listeners and for the achievement of what goals, certain techniques, means of persuasive speech are appropriate. In this he differs from a simply eloquent person. This is already art - "oratory," skill. The speaker should highlight the techniques of eloquence, analyze their relevance and, by imitation, recreate them in their own speech, taking into account the age, mental, emotional-volitional and other qualities and capabilities of their listeners. The effectiveness of the orator's speech is determined by the perfection of the speech skills and abilities he has already mastered through imitation of speech skills and abilities, the creative ability to include them in communication at any time when the real situation of the speech requires it.

The skills necessary for preparing and delivering a speech, techniques and methods of persuading different audiences, the ability to manage oneself and listeners and many other skills and abilities are given by rhetoric. Many guides on rhetoric recommend that this term "rhetoric" be assigned two meanings - narrow and broad. On the one hand, we still do not have another term for the name of a complex science that studies oratory. It is the subject of "rhetoric" in the narrow sense. On the other hand, the object of rhetoric can be any kind of speech communication, considered from the point of view of the implementation of a pre-selected influence on the message recipient (listener). This is the subject of "rhetoric" in a broad sense.

The modern interpretation of rhetoric extends it to the theory of persuasive communication.

Rhetoric is the science of ways of persuasion, various forms of predominantly linguistic influence on the audience, taking into account the characteristics of the latter and in order to obtain the desired effect; the science of the conditions and forms of effective communication.

Modern rhetoric is presented as the theory and skill of effective (expedient, influencing, harmonizing) speech. The subject of modern rhetoric is the general patterns of speech behavior operating in various situations of communication, spheres of activity, and the practical possibilities of using them in order to make speech effective.

Rhetoric is the science of how to create a speech act. To achieve a result in speech activity, one must master the art of persuasion. And this is a whole science, which has its own laws. He who does not know these laws understands well what he is talking about, but does not realize what he is doing with his speech. Therefore, a whole system of practical training of the necessary skills and abilities is being created, which in fact ensure a high level of mastery of the interaction between the speaker and the audience.

The concept of "rhetoric" is much broader than the concept of "oratory". It covers a wide range of knowledge, skills and abilities from the emergence of an idea to the direct speech process.

Rhetorical theory arose in antiquity and is still developing as a generalization of the skill of eloquence, comprehension of the rhetorical practice of our time. Modern rhetoric considers the problems of the best mutual understanding between people in the process of communication, communication, constructive solutions to emerging conflicts.

Oratory. Lectures.

Topic 1. The subject and functions of public speaking

In scientific literature, the concepts of "rhetoric", "eloquence", "skill in public speaking", "oratory" are often used as related. And this allows us to call them identical, synonyms. "Rhetoric" (from the Greek. rheto-ri-ke) - oratory. In ancient times, due to its influence on youth education, social life and various forms of literature, rhetoric functioned as a predecessor of pedagogy and a rival of philosophy. The latter often appeared in the form of rhetoric. The rhetoric, which apparently arose in Sicily, was brought into a harmonious system by the sophists. It is known about the existence of a textbook on the rhetoric of the sophist Gorgias, which was opposed by Plato, who did not agree with him in his understanding of rhetoric. Aristotle dealt with rhetoric from a logical as well as a political point of view and left an essay on this topic. The Stoics also paid attention to rhetoric, which finally took a firm place in the curriculum of higher education and existed as a special discipline until the 19th century. The last flowering of antique rhetoric experienced in the so-called second sophistry, approximately at the beginning of the II century ”*.

Meanwhile, there are no fundamental objections and the position of supporters to differentiate the above concepts, since in a certain context it is justified and necessary. It is shared, in particular, by the Russian philosophical classics, which consistently distinguishes between the art of speech (eloquence, the skill of public speaking), its real practice (oratory) and the system of knowledge and theories about it (rhetoric).

It must be admitted that the terms in question, over their centuries-old history, have never had an unambiguous interpretation. We can only state that oratory is the art of practical verbal interaction, which provides us with the opportunity to masterfully use the word as a tool of thought and persuasion. The field of rhetorical activity knows no boundaries. How to structure your lecture for a teacher? How to convince the electorate to vote for this or that candidate? How to conduct a scientific discussion? How to speak in the courtroom? What words should you use to declare your love? Rhetoric helps to answer these and many other questions, the knowledge of which, in turn, forms the foundations of oratory as an important social, spiritual and moral activity of an individual and society.

In history, the understanding of the subject of rhetoric, its functions, internal structure and relationship with other areas of knowledge and components of human culture has repeatedly undergone significant changes. In particular, when trying to establish the subject of rhetoric, we have to reckon with the fact that for two and a half thousand years of its existence, hundreds of formulations have been used to define it; it is customary to reduce them into at least three groups of definitions.

The first, conventionally called classical, or Greek, treats rhetoric as "the art of persuasion" (a central concept for philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle).

The second group of definitions is more related to the cultural traditions of Ancient Rome. The most definite formulation is given here by Quintilian: rhetoric is "the art of speaking well" (" ars bene dicendi"). Since this period, rhetoric has consistently increased interest in the literary and linguistic component of the text and a tendency has been formed, which later served as one of the main reasons for the crisis of ancient rhetoric.

The third group of definitions, characteristic of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance period, interprets rhetoric as "the art of decoration" (" ars ornandi"). The emergence of this group, in fact, is a natural result of the second trend - the tendency to strengthen the aesthetic component of speech - and objectively leads to the disintegration of the unity of the content of the logos (thought) and its expression (language).

Not being able to describe in detail and comprehensively here the indicated groups of definitions *, let us pay attention to the fact that they bring them closer together and at the same time characterize rhetoric as an amazing sociocultural phenomenon. The rhetoric of antiquity, like the rhetoric of subsequent eras, is a combination of various kinds of philosophical, artistic and life-meaning aspirations of deeply thinking and deeply feeling people who are outstanding in the field of their professional activities, forming a system of values \u200b\u200bof a particular historical era. This is why rhetoric is an integral part of culture. Moreover, considering speech as a primary given, primarily of humanitarian culture, it can be argued that it is the norm of its existence in culture. Consequently, one of the key functions of rhetoric is the replenishment of the cultural heritage of the individual and society, the approval of ideas and ideas that a particular historical community considers worthy of study and application.

The second function of rhetoric is most characteristic of modern society, in which the involvement of oral speech in the mass media is especially great. Rhetorical science is interested in the factors of speech influence, the search for argumentation, the psychology of the audience, and the "hindrances" that impede the targeted impact on the audience. At the same time, another function of rhetoric is being realized - to be an intermediary between people, to establish their mutual understanding, while preserving the cultural component of speech.

In other words, we are talking about the informative and persuasive functions of rhetoric. The essence of the informative function is to increase the general awareness of the audience, to promote "the transition from maximum to minimum entropy, from uncertainty to certainty of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe subject of speech" *. The increase in the information component of public speech is not just a cognitive, but a deeply sociocultural process that characterizes the current state of society. The purpose of the persuasive function of rhetoric is to influence the views, opinions, attitudes of the audience. As a result of the implementation of this function, the foundations of belief in old ones are strengthened or qualitatively new attitudes are formed and thereby an intrapersonal restructuring of the motives of activity occurs. An individual who has been influenced by oral speech either begins to fight more actively for previous beliefs, or receives an impetus for activity in a specific area of \u200b\u200bsocial relations.

With all the obviousness of the allocation of these functions of rhetoric, I think, it is possible to single out such as ideological, educational, pedagogical and educational and others.

In particular, with regard to the pedagogical and educational function of rhetoric, it was unusually accurately expressed by A. Chekhov, who wrote: “Both in ancient times and in modern times, oratory was one of the strongest levers of culture ... All the best statesmen in the era of state prosperity, the best philosophers , poets, reformers were at the same time the best orators ”**. At the same time, oratory in its best examples has always constituted and still constitutes the unity of thought and word. Rhetoric is a form of public thinking, a certain creative process of thoughts and feelings, carried out primarily through a word addressed to the audience. It forms the need for a meaningful attitude to speech. And if we talk about the cultural growth of an individual, then no one doubts the influence of rhetoric here.

The speaker's speech conveys his personality, individuality, spirituality, his connection with the socio-political, cultural life of society. A comprehensive analysis of the speeches of outstanding speakers shows us the depth and originality of their ideas, the variety of genres and topics they use, which, in turn, reflect the range of their interests, the logic of the development of their thoughts, the linguistic and compositional features of their speech.

Nowadays, many speak in public, give lectures, hold talks. The speech activity of people has increased significantly. At the same time, the relevance of this topic is multiplied by the regrettable fact that in our social life - in everyday communication of people, in science, pedagogy, in the education system as a whole, in social and political activities, in the field of jurisprudence, etc. - we observe a steady tendency, which is gaining more and more acceleration every year, towards a decrease in the level of speech culture: the coarsening of the language, the loss of its figurative beauty and strength, the disappearance of polite phrases, clogging up with verbal rubbish and alien terminology. These phenomena are dangerous already because they are the first sign of the spiritual impoverishment of society. On the other hand, tongue-tied language testifies to the weakness or complete absence of independent work of thought. It can be stated that talks about the spiritual revival of Russian society will remain fruitless until the revival of its speech culture begins. And for this, of course, it is necessary to study the theory of oratory, analyze the speeches of outstanding orators, and transfer theoretical knowledge into your own practice.

Even the ancient Greek thinker Plato emphasized that rhetoric, like any genuine art, is a creative activity that requires careful and comprehensive preparation. This preparation begins with the study of sections of the relevant science. The constituent parts (sections) of oratory are the invention (definition of the topic of speech), disposition (distribution of the "material" of speech), memorial elocution (giving the speech the necessary style, memorizing it) and direct presentation. These sections of rhetorical science came to us from ancient times. Forming the classical canon, they have not lost their significance and relevance to this day, although in modern literature they are not always distinguished so clearly *.

A good speaker needs to work hard on personal self-improvement and speaking. According to Plato, the orator should go through a special school of oratory, which would teach him to write speeches correctly, proportionately and effectively. And the Roman lawyer, statesman and the greatest orator, who wrote many works on rhetoric, Mark Tullius Cicero considered the most important conditions for the formation of a real orator not only natural talent, but also, most importantly, the study of oratory (theory) and exercises (practice). Since the theory of eloquence is an important philosophical and psychological doctrine, Cicero noted, it requires the most serious attitude towards itself.

In the applied aspect, the rhetorical heritage and the oratory itself are extremely diverse. From antiquity to the present, the "technology" of this art has been improving, in an immense number of rhetorical treatises there are secrets that can reveal the rich possibilities hidden in human speech behavior. In this regard, the classical division of speeches into judicial, deliberative and indicative speeches can be considered in relation to different spheres in order to appreciate the possibilities of private rhetoric in the judicial, political, academic, socio-political, spiritual, everyday and other spheres of eloquence.

A special role is played by oratory in the professional activity of a lawyer. In this case, it should be noted that in some universities special courses are taught on the professional activity and professional speech of a lawyer **. A lawyer is not only a person with a legal education, a lawyer. This is a practical figure in the field of law, realizing the high mission of the law in order to achieve a proper rule of law. Being the crown, the final result of the action of law, the latter, as it were, closes the chain of basic socio-political phenomena from the field of the legal superstructure (law - legality - rule of law), where, in fact, the rule of law is “the real, complete and consistent implementation of all the requirements of legality, ideals and principles law, the rule of law, first of all, real and complete provision of human rights ”*. The intersection of rhetoric and the sphere of legal regulation of public relations is also diverse. Even ancient thinkers rightly believed that the eloquence of a true orator should serve the lofty and noble goals of the struggle for general prosperity, for true justice and true legality, for creative activity. They saw in the jurist-orator a man-citizen, skillfully mastering the word, subordinating everything to the public mission, combining in himself a deep knowledge of laws, exceptional honesty, incorruptibility, noble wisdom, patriotism, high culture.

Topic 2. Historical and theoretical foundations of public speaking

It is traditionally believed that rhetoric appeared in the era of antiquity. The importance of oratory in the political life of the Greek states (especially in the 5th century BC) was exceptionally great, therefore it is not surprising that the schools of eloquence were widespread at that period. A politician had to speak at a council meeting and at popular meetings, a commander - before soldiers, a private person - before a court, as well as at festivals, friendly meetings, commemorations, etc. Therefore, already the early period of antiquity was marked by the search for the conditions for the effectiveness of speech and the desire to theoretically substantiate the possibility of teaching and mastering eloquence.

The first known textbook on rhetoric, historians believe, belonged to Corax of Syracuse, who was one of the first to teach eloquence (c. 476 BC). This textbook was later brought to Greece by Gorgias, a disciple of Coraxus, who arrived in Athens around 427 BC.

In Athens, rhetoric was developed by Gorgias and other sophists, most notably Thrasimachus of Calhedon and Protagoras, who made it an important part of higher education. For the first time, rhetoric became a subject completing the course of general education under Socrates, who placed it at the head of encyclopedic general cultural education.

Although throughout the history of ancient society, sophistry and rhetoric were closely related, they opposed each other in understanding communication as the goal of language. So, if sophistry did not consider communication as the goal of speech at all, then rhetoric was a technique for achieving success in communication. However, it was precisely the close connection with sophistry that made rhetoric the direct target of the philosophical criticism of Plato, who, in general, was not inclined to distinguish sophistry from rhetoric.

Calling rhetoric skill, servility to base passions, Plato strove to substantiate the theory of eloquence with dialectics (logic). This theory was expounded by him in "Phaedrus", where the orators are invited, firstly, to raise to a single idea that which is scattered everywhere, so that, giving a definition to each, make the subject of instruction explicit. Secondly, to divide everything into types, into natural components, while trying not to break up any of them.

Excessive abstractness in this issue of Plato's reasoning forced Aristotle *, who developed and systematized the logical theory of eloquence, to significantly soften the attitude of philosophy to rhetoric in order to continue the path from its logical foundations to practical eloquence. In general, Aristotle viewed rhetoric as a necessary and useful skill to protect oneself and help justice. In the fundamental work "Rhetoric" that has come down to us, Aristotle outlined his vision of the foundations of eloquence and put forward the achievement of plausibility as his task.

In particular, Aristotle's treatise opens with a statement of the correspondence between dialectics (logic) and rhetoric as regards the means of proof: how in dialectics there is guidance (induction) , a syllogism and an apparent syllogism, so in rhetoric there is an example, an entimeme and an apparent enttimeme. Just as an example is like an induction, an enthymeme is similar to a syllogism - it is an inference not from necessary (like a syllogism), but from probable propositions. Unlike his teacher Plato, Aristotle sought to separate rhetoric and sophistry and explored the relationship linking rhetoric with dialectics and politics. According to Aristotle, rhetoric is a branch of both the science of morals (politics) and dialectics. The philosopher believed that rhetoric can be defined as the ability to prove, the ability to find possible ways of persuading about a given subject. Like dialectics, rhetoric remains a methodology, a science of methods of proof, but it is not limited to direct proof of one or another thesis. Dividing all speeches into deliberative, laudatory and judicial, Aristotle devoted the first book of his "Rhetoric" to enumerating the general provisions on the basis of which speeches of each type should be built.

Consequently, both in the aspect of form and in the aspect of content, rhetoric, according to Aristotle, is closely related to philosophy, which, in fact, distinguishes it from sophistry, allegedly not based on any consistent philosophical concept. At the same time, he considered rhetoric as a theory of oral eloquence, opposing it in the treatise "Poetics" to the theory of literature. If the goal of eloquence is persuasion, then the goal of literature is imitation. Literature depicts events that should be obvious without instruction, while eloquence represents the thoughts contained in speech through the speaker and in the course of his speech. On the whole, Aristotle's theory of eloquence differs in fundamental aspects: it is philosophical rhetoric, rhetoric as a probabilistic logic used by orators, mainly for political purposes; it is also the rhetoric of spoken language, which is radically different from the theory of literature.

Simultaneously with the development of the problem field of theoretical rhetoric of the highest flowering in Greece in the second half of the 5th - early 4th centuries. BC. achieves practical eloquence (Demosthenes and other philosophers-orators, later included in the number of ten outstanding Attic rhetoricians) **. After the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Greece lost its political sovereignty. At the same time, practical eloquence is torn away from the most important area of \u200b\u200bits application - the game of political forces, which, in fact, led to its rapid decline. The stylistic form of speech began to be valued higher than its content. In the cities of Asia Minor, a new type of eloquence arises - Asianism, which is as artificial as its stylistic antipode - Atticism of the 1st century BC, tending to the classicism that has gone down into history. Although rhetorical theory was continuously improved and its system was carefully developed, the connection with practice was gradually lost. At the same time, rhetoric became an important academic discipline, claiming, like philosophy, general educational status. In particular, the classical scheme of a rhetorical act was canonized:

inventio - “finding, inventing what to say”;

dispositio - "arrangement, ordering of the invented";

elocutio - "expression, decoration with words";

memoria - "memorization";

actio - "utterance, action".

Subsequently, rhetoric began to have a significant impact on ancient literature, highlighting the grace of the artistic form and the desire to achieve external effects. Another flowering of Greek eloquence experienced in the 2nd century AD, during the so-called second sophistry.

A special period in the development of rhetoric is associated with the oratory of Ancient Rome. The anonymous treatise "To Herennius", the works of Cicero and Quintilian, became the theoretical understanding of Roman eloquence.

It is generally accepted (as can be seen, in particular, from the analysis of the surviving fragments of pre-literary sacred poetry) that the Romans had a natural rhetorical talent. Together with the Greek education system, the Romans took over in the II century BC. and Greek rhetoric, which, due to its known practical usefulness for social and political life, soon became the most important subject of education for every noble citizen of Rome. At the same time, in patriotic circles of Roman society, resistance to Greek eloquence as a foreign art is growing, the subject of which is in the external grace of verbal expression, and not in the depth of concrete content. This movement was led by Cato the Elder, the greatest orator of the early republican period. It is believed (his numerous speeches and letters have been preserved in excerpts) that he left an instruction in rhetoric for his son, the main idea of \u200b\u200bwhich is contained in the following expression: “Do not let things go, but words will be found” (“ Rem tene, verba sequentur»).

How strong, powerful the opposition to Greek rhetoric was, is indirectly evidenced by the fact that in 161 BC. all the Greek teachers of eloquence were removed from Rome. However, already in the second half of the II century BC. Greek rhetoric is finally established in Rome, receiving a specific coloring.

The treatise "To Herennius" is an ancient Roman textbook of rhetoric, notable for its systematic nature. He is also known for the fact that it was in him that one of the first classifications of rhetorical figures was given. In particular, in addition to 19 figures of thought and 35 figures of speech, the author identifies 10 additional figures of speech in which the language is used in an unusual way (words are used in a figurative sense, there is a semantic deviation) and which will later acquire the name "tropes" (lat. tforopos - turn). The problem of the difference between a trope and a figure, which is significant for the subsequent development of rhetoric, also goes back to the treatise under consideration.

Mark Tullius Cicero, who was awarded the honorary title of "Father of the Nation" by the Roman Senate, lived and worked during the political turmoil of the end of the republican period. Cicero's truly brilliant rhetorical talent is evidenced not only by over fifty completely preserved speeches, but also by his works on the subject of rhetoric, in which he sought to combine the theoretical positions and prescriptions of Greek rhetoric with the practice of Roman eloquence firmly attached to social and political life *.

By the way, it was precisely because of his enthusiasm for public speeches directly related to politics that Cicero was doomed to a martyr's death. According to ancient chronicles, Caesar's death at the hands of conspirators, many of whom were close friends of Cicero, aroused in him joy and hope for the restoration of the former republican system. But then he took an active part in the opposition of the Senate to Mark Antony, an ardent Caesarian. Mark Antony, grandson of Cicero, was a brave warrior, but a licentious and unprincipled man. Cicero, who at first tried to maintain good family relations with him, soon changed his position and attacked his grandson in a series of angry speeches, which he called "Philippics" (in imitation of the speeches of Demosthenes against the Macedonian king Philip, father of Alexander the Great). It is believed that in these speeches special emphasis was placed on the debauchery of Mark Antony, incompatible with the moral character of a statesman. Antony did not forgive his grandfather for this. And when the troops of the triumvirate (Octavian, Mark Antony and Mark Lepidus), having mastered the situation, arrived in Rome, one of the first victims of the proscriptions announced by the triumvirs was Cicero. Cicero might have escaped death if he had left for Greece in time, but he could not - or, it seems, did not want - to do so. The assassins sent by Mark Antony overtook Cicero near Cayeta, where his family estate was. His head and right hand were cut off (it is reported that when Cicero's head was taken to the imperial chambers, Anthony indulged in drunkenness and debauchery; at this time, one of the heterosexuals, pulling out the tongue from the head of the dead Cicero, pinned him to the table with a button and, laughing, announced to the participants of the orgy , they say, from now on "this organ" will not darken the life of Anthony and his friends). Subsequently, the severed head of Cicero, by order of Mark Antony, was exhibited at a forum in Rome. This cruel desecration of the "father of the nation" shocked Roman society and largely determined the subsequent fall of the regime of Mark Antony.

As for the oratory of Cicero, let us pay attention to the following. In accordance with Roman rhetorical tradition, Cicero put forward the ideal of a well-rounded orator-philosopher, combining the qualities of a statesman and a politician. The ideal orator, according to Cicero, is a person who combines in his personality the subtlety of the dialectician, the thought of a philosopher, the language of the poet, the memory of a lawyer, the voice of a tragedian and, finally, the gestures, facial expressions and grace of great actors. He also took an independent position in the dispute between Asians and Atticists that broke out in Rome. Cicero's speech still remains the classical norm of the Latin language.

Cicero's theory gravitates towards the peripatetic tradition in rhetoric. Although in the dialogue "About the speaker" he singles out 49 figures of thought and 37 figures of speech, he does it rather casually, since he is definitely occupied with other problems. Like Aristotle, he is interested in a metaphor, which seems to him the prototype of any adornment of speech, enclosed in a single word. That is why Cicero considers metonymy, synecdoche, catachreza as varieties of metaphor, and allegory as a chain of expanded metaphors. But most of all he again, like Aristotle, is interested in the philosophical foundations of eloquence, which he describes, generally following the doctrine of the articulation of speech.

According to the indicated teaching, the preparation of a speech is divided into five parts:

Finding (invention) , or the discovery of evidence, comes down to highlighting the subject of discussion and establishing those common places, based on which the proof should be built;

The location (disposition), or the establishment of the correct order of evidence, comes down to dividing speech into a preface, a story (statement of circumstances), proof (subdivided, in turn, into determining the topic, actually proving one's arguments, refuting the arguments of opponents and retreating), conclusion;

Verbal expression (elocution), or the search for a language suitable for the found subject of speech and evidence, consists in the selection of words, their combination, the use of figures of words and thoughts, the achievement of the necessary qualities of speech: correctness, clarity, relevance, brightness (the Stoics also added to them brevity);

Memorization, which consists in the use of mnemotechnical means in order to firmly keep the subject of speech and selected evidence in memory;

Utterance, which is the control of voice, gestures and facial expressions during speech, so that the speaker's behavior corresponds to the distinctive merits of the subject of speech.

Let's pay attention to the fact that different parts of the theory of articulation of speech, which formed the basis of the ancient canon of a rhetorical act, developed unevenly. So, in Greek rhetoric, the greatest attention was paid to the invention, somewhat less - to disposition and elocution, and the role of the latter became more and more significant. It is interesting that Cicero also devoted a special treatise to finding (the invention). His rhetoric (like , however, the treatise "To Herennius") is characterized as an attempt to combine the Hellenistic doctrine of finding with the doctrine of statuses discovered in Roman judicial eloquence.

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