“Lexicology as a branch of the science of language Lexicology (gr. Lexikos - related to tin, logos - teaching) is a branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of the language, or vocabulary. ... "

-- [ Page 1 ] --

Lexicology as a branch of the science of language

Lexicology (gr. Lexikos - related to tin, logos - doctrine) is a branch of science

about a language that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary.

The vocabulary of a language is an internally organized set of lexical

units related to each other, functioning and developing according to their inherent

Russian language laws.

In lexicology, 1) the word as an individual unit of language, its meaning is studied;

2) the place of the word in the lexical system of the language; 3) the history of the formation of modern vocabulary; 4) the relationship of the word to active or passive vocabulary; 5) the place of the word in the system of functional styles of the modern Russian language (neutral, scientific, business, etc.). Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language in its temporary development, since over time various changes occur in the vocabulary of the language, and also identifies the reasons for these changes.

Synchronous (descriptive) lexicology (gr. Sin - together and chronos - time) the current state of the lexical system. Diachronic (historical) lexicology (gr. Dia - through, through and chronos) studies vocabulary in a historical aspect.

One of the main sections of lexicology is semasiology (rp. Stasia - meaning, logos - teaching), or semantics (gr. Sta - sign), which studies all issues related to the meaning of a word, as well as changes in the meaning of a word. Onomasiology (gr.

o noma - name and logos) studies the principles and patterns of naming phenomena and objects; etymology (gr. etymon - truth and logos) - the origin of words and turns of speech; lexicography (gr. lexicon - dictionary and graph - writing) - compiling dictionaries. In a broad sense, lexicology also includes the doctrine of stable combinations of words - phraseology.

Word as a unit of the lexical system of the Russian language. Word functions (nominative, generalizing).

A word is the smallest unit of speech. It has an external form - a sound shell: a sound or a complex of sounds, shaped according to the laws of a given language, and an internal content - a lexical meaning. The meaning (or semantics) of a word relates it to a specific concept. Consequently, a word is a complex of sounds or one sound that has a definite meaning fixed by the linguistic practice of society. The meaning of the word should be generally recognized and obligatory for the members of a given society, only in this case mutual understanding of people is possible.

The word is a unity of lexical and grammatical meanings.

The grammatical meaning of a word is a meaning that expresses the relationship of a word to other words in a phrase and a sentence: attitude to a person, reality, time, communicated, for example, the meaning of gender, number, case, face, time, etc. (compare I draw - I will draw: time value).

The main function of the word is it: (According to Luria)

1) designating (nominative) role. The word denotes an object, action, quality, or attitude. Thanks to this, a person's world doubles, and he can deal with objects that are not directly perceived and are not part of his own sensory experience.

2) The word helps to analyze the properties of objects, introduces it into the system of connections and relationships.

Compare, for example, word-formation analysis of a word, which establishes known connections between objects, phenomena:

Table - table - table - capital.

3) Each word enriches things, assigns them to a certain category, being an instrument of abstraction, which is the most important operation of consciousness.

Polysemy (polysemy of the word). Words are unambiguous and ambiguous. Direct and figurative meaning of the word. Types of figurative meanings (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche) The meaning of a word can be direct and figurative. The direct meaning of a word is a lexical meaning in the proper sense, without emotionally expressive shades superimposed on it, it is a direct nomination. The figurative meaning is secondary, derivative, arising on the basis of the similarity of objects in shape, color, character, function performed, association by contiguity: donkey - "animal" and "stubborn person". The figurative meaning is always motivated.

The meaning of a word will change during the functioning of the word in speech: 1) the word acquires a new (or new) meaning: mouse (computer);

2) the meaning of the word expands: ace (initially only about the pilot, now about other masters, for example, a football player-ace);

3) narrowing the meaning of the word: stench (the original meaning is smell, now it is a bad smell).

According to the presence of meanings, words are divided into unambiguous and polysemous.

An unambiguous word (monosemic) has one meaning: taxi, typhoon, whirlwind, grasshopper, etc. Nouns (taiga), adjectives (potayoy), verbs (to uncork), adverbs (ready), etc. can be unambiguous. The polysemantic word (polysemic) has several meanings: stream - 1) "rapidly flowing water mass, river, stream"; 2) "line production"; 3) "a group of students with whom they conduct some classes in a certain queue with the same, similar groups."

The ability of a word to have several meanings is called polysemy, or polysemy (gr. Poly smos - polysemous). Despite the ambiguity, the word is a semantic unity, which is called the semantic structure of the word.

At the moment of occurrence, the word is always unambiguous. A prerequisite for the use of a word in a figurative sense is the similarity of phenomena or their contiguity, as a result of which all meanings of a polysemantic word are related. There are two main types of figurative meaning of the word:

1) metaphorical transfer is carried out on the basis of the similarity of external features: in shape, location of objects, color, taste, as well as in the similarity of functions of objects, etc. For example: caterpillar - 1) butterfly larva, usually worm-like with several pairs of legs; 2) a wide chain worn on the wheels of a tractor, tank, etc. to increase the cross-country ability of the machine;

2) metonymic transfer is the transfer of the name according to the contiguity of phenomena, their interconnection (spatial, temporal, etc.): steel - 1) solid silver metal; 2) steel products. A kind of metonymy is synecdoche - transfer of meaning, when the name of the whole is used to name a part of the whole, and vice versa:

All flags will visit us (A. Pushkin).

Formation of figurative meanings of words By the similarity of objects By contiguity (proximity) or phenomena of objects or phenomena in shape: a spruce needle, a smoke ring by material, products made from it:

by color: gold hair, emerald steel clinked, silverware darkened grass by action: airplane wing by action and result: received five for an essay by impression: evil wind, in whole and in part: put black thoughts in a vase jasmine a quick glance, assessed : according to the personality of the author and his vague answer to works: read Pushkin, bought by size: a sea of ​​flowers of Tolstoy, saw Rembrandt head, etc.). New, unexpected variants of the use of words in a figurative sense are called individually author's. Expressions based on the figurative meaning of words and imparting imagery and expressiveness to speech are called tropes: A liquid gilding sunset sprayed gray fields (S. Yesenin) - a metaphor; ... the hammer and sickle Soviet passport (V. Mayakovsky) is an epithet.

Homonymy. Types of homonyms: homophones, homoforms, homographs.

Lexical homonyms (gr. Homo s - the same, o puta - name) are words that have the same form (sound, spelling), but different meanings: pomegranate1 “southern tree, as well as its round fruit of sweet and sour taste”; garnet2 “semi-precious stone, predominantly dark red”.

Full lexical homonyms are words that are the same in all grammatical forms: seal1 "sea pinniped mammal" and seal2 "cat";

peel1 “peel something, peel off” and peel2 “beat hard, pound”.

Incomplete (or partial) lexical homonyms belong to the same part of speech, but have a mismatch in some grammatical forms: ripen1 (matures) “sing, mature” and mature2 (see) “look, look, see”.

Homonymous words do not have any associative connection inherent in the meanings of a polysemantic word.

Phonetic homonyms (or homophones) are words that have the same sound shell, but different spellings: gin (noun) - genie (noun); beg (ch.) - belittle (ch.), etc. Homophones can belong to either one or different parts of speech:

drizzle (n.) - drizzle (n.), in a row (n.) - in a row (nar.). Homophones conditionally include words and phrases that have a sound coincidence: in place - instead of, that mark - Tamarka, etc.

Grammatical homonyms (or homoforms) are words that coincide in sound and spelling only in certain grammatical forms: courts (noun ship in R. of the plural) - courts (noun of the court in R. of the plural) .), oven (noun) - oven (h.f. in n.f.), etc.

Graphic homonyms (or homographs) are words that have the same spelling, but differ in stress, due to which they are pronounced differently:

property (a distinctive feature of something) - a property (relationship of kinship to blood, and arising between the relatives of the spouses).

Ways to differentiate homonyms and ambiguous words:

1) synonyms for words and comparison of synonyms among themselves: platform1 - platform and platform2 - action program

2) selection of related (one-root) words and comparison of word forms: braid1 - braid, braid and braid2 - mow;

3) the establishment of the lexical compatibility of words, as well as their syntactic compatibility: it is clear 1 - the sky and clear 2 - a question, a situation;

4) the use of etymological information: tick1 "nervous disease" (from French), tick2 "wood species" (from English), tick3 "fabric" (from Dutch).

The existence of polysemy and homonymy creates certain difficulties in the use of words. The specific meaning of the word is revealed in the context, so the context must ensure the correct understanding of the word, otherwise it can lead to ambiguity. For example, in context, the learners listened to the teacher's explanations does not reveal the meaning of the word listened (listened from beginning to end or turned a deaf ear).

Synonymy. The concept of synonyms and synonyms. Single root synonyms.

The types of differences between synonyms (synonyms are ideographic, stylistic, emotional-evaluative, etc.). Linguistic and contextual synonyms.

Lexical synonyms (gr. Synnymos - the same name) are words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or stylistic coloring, or both and sounding differently: well-being, prosperity , prosperity, prosperity; scream, yell, yell, bawl, overstrain; uncertainly, hesitantly, unsteadily.

Synonyms are grouped together. The dominant of the synonymous series is a stylistically neutral and semantically most capacious word, which is the main, pivotal in the series: awkward, awkward, awkward, angular, awkward, wrong, clumsy; run, rush, rush, fly. The dominant determines the general interpretation of a dictionary synonymous entry and is a semantic reference point for other members of the series. The value of each synonym is compared with the value of the dominant. In terms of the number of words, the synonymous series are not the same: assembly - installation (2), evasively - vaguely - diplomatically (3), sugary - cloying - oily - sweet - sweet - sugar - honey - honey - treacle (9), etc.

The following groups of synonyms are distinguished:

1. Semantic (ideographic) synonyms differ in shades of meaning:

hot, sultry, scorching express varying degrees of intensity of the manifestation of the sign;

explaining, broadcasting, speaking emphasize different ways of doing things.

2. Stylistic synonyms, denoting the same phenomenon of reality, have a different sphere of use or different stylistic coloring: province (neutr.), Wilderness (colloquial), sad (neutr.) - abrupt (folk-poetical); father (neutr., lit.) - father (outdated)

3. Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in lexical meanings and stylistic coloring: to lose weight - to grow thin; famous - notorious; demand is an ultimatum.

4. Absolute synonyms (doublets) - words that have no semantic or stylistic differences: because - because; hippopotamus - hippopotamus, etc.

According to the word-formation composition, synonyms single-root (investigation - investigation) and multi-root (blind - blind) are distinguished.

Synonyms can differ in lexical compatibility: a person works (works) - the machine works (but does not work!); spelling literacy - business awareness.

Polysemous words in different meanings are included in different synonymous series:

fresh - clean (shawl), cool (wind), vigorous (human), new (magazine), unsalted (cucumber).

The reasons for the formation of synonyms in Russian:

1) the desire to fully comprehend the phenomenon of reality, discover a new one and give it a name: aerobics - shaping;

2) penetration into the language and the development of foreign language vocabulary: saying - an aphorism, enthusiastic - exalted;

3) replenishment of synonymous ranks of dialect and vernacular vocabulary: recently

- hope, just now, the other day;

4) the development of the polysemy of the word: near - close (path), limited (person);

5) the appearance of synonyms as a result of word-formation processes:

copy - photocopy;

6) the desire to give the statement a different emotional coloring: to die - to bend, to gather.

Contextual synonyms are words whose meaningful convergence occurs only under the conditions of a certain context (outside the context, they are not synonyms). In most cases, contextual synonyms are expressively colored, since their main task is not to name a phenomenon, but to characterize it. For example, in certain contexts, the verb speak (say) can have synonyms to throw, utter, drop, blur, chop off, freeze, give out, bend, screw in, etc.

Lexical synonym functions:

1) meaningful - serve to differentiate meanings (cry - cry);

2) style-discriminating - indicate the style, sphere of use: to implement (interstyle) - materialize (bookish);

3) actually stylistic - express emotional and expressive meanings:

cure (neutr.) - heal (book).

Lexical synonyms help to clarify, supplement ideas about objects, phenomena of reality, to characterize them brighter and more versatile. The richer the synonymous series, the richer the language, the richer the possibilities for the creative use of the language.

The stringing of synonyms underlies the gradation - the figure of speech, in which the synonyms are arranged so that the degree of expression in them of the sign increases (ascending gradation) or decreases (descending gradation): His voice, already weak and weak, becomes barely audible, and then and completely indistinguishable (M. Alekseev) Antonymy. The concept of antonyms. Linguistic and contextual antonyms. Types of antonyms in the semantic essence of the opposite and in structure (antonyms denoting opposite qualities, states, and antonyms denoting oppositely directed actions, properties, signs;

antonyms are multi-root, single-root, intraword).

Lexical antonyms (gr. Anti ... - against, about puta - name) are words that are opposite in meaning: straightness - curvature, dark - light, chill - warm up, long - short, etc. The antonymic row is made up of words belonging to the same part of speech. Official relations can also enter into antonymic relations (for example, prepositions: to - from, to - from, with - without). However, the words enter into antonymic relations:

1) in the meaning of which there is a shade of quality: high - low, straight - curve;

2) naming emotions: smile - frown;

3) indicating the state: warm - cold;

4) denoting temporal and spatial relations: yesterday - today, in front - behind, there - here, north - south;

5) naming actions: speed up - slow down, get up - sit down;

Do not have an antonymous pair:

1) words with a specific objective meaning (in the direct meaning): cat, wardrobe, etc .;

2) proper names: Moscow, Taimyr;

3) numerals: one hundred, eleventh, two thirds;

4) most pronouns: me, they, ours, etc.

By structure, antonyms are divided into:

1) different roots: poverty is a luxury, active is passive, to blame is to defend, now is tomorrow;

2) one-root: happiness - unhappiness, gratifying - bleak, to arrive - to fly away.

Single-root antonyms arise as a result of derivational processes, therefore they are also called lexical-grammatical or lexicological-educational. As a rule, they are formed as a result of attaching prefixes with the opposite meaning: в- - from-, for- - from-, on- - with-, over- - under-, under- and first parts of complex words such as easy- and hard, micro and macro, mono and poly, etc.: undernourishment - overeating, microcosm - macrocosm, monologue - dialogue.

Sometimes, in the process of functioning in speech, the word changes its meaning to the opposite, this phenomenon is called enantiosemia, or intrasemantic antonymy (gr. Enantios - opposite, opposite): see something-l-1) “look from beginning to end” 2) “not notice , do not perceive "; make a reservation - 1) "to say it by accident", 2) "specially note in advance."

A polysemantic word, depending on the meaning and lexical compatibility, can enter into different antonymic series: fresh - 1) warm (wind), 2) rotten (a piece of meat), 3) old, yesterday (newspaper number), 4) dirty (scarf) and etc .; runs - 1) creeps (about a person), 2) stretches (about time).

Antonyms are linguistic and contextual (or speech). Linguistic antonyms are based on the semantic opposite, which appears regularly and does not depend on usage (nomadic - sedentary, recognize - deny).

Contextual antonyms are an occasional phenomenon, limited by the framework of the context:

Soon from swallows - into a witch! Youth! Let's say goodbye the day before ... (Color) Antonyms are most often used in the text in pairs, expressing the most diverse shades of meanings - comparison, opposition of opposite phenomena, properties, qualities, actions, etc .:

My faithful friend! my enemy is insidious!

My king! my slave! native language!

(V. Bryusov)

Such pictorial and expressive means are based on antonymy, such as:

1) figurative comparison: My rudeness is much lighter than yours, comrade Tumanov, if I may say so, politeness. (N.A. Ostrovsky);

2) antithesis (opposition): Houses are new, but prejudices are old ... (A.S. Griboyedov);

3) oxymoron (connection of the incompatible): Only ominous darkness shone for us.

(A. Akhmatova) Paronymy.

Paronyms (gr. Para - near, o puta - name) are words that are similar in sound, often single-root, but different in meaning or partially coinciding in meaning:

bony - bony, well-fed - nourishing, jubilee - jubilee, diplomat - graduate - diploma student, etc. Paronyms can be of different roots: mediocre - untalented, escalator - excavator. The reason for the appearance of heterogeneous paronyms is the accidental convergence of words in sound, which is more often observed in borrowed words: Indian - Indian, Korean - Korean.

Single root paronyms can differ:

1) meaning or shade of meaning: effective (catchy, bright) and effective (effective, efficient);

2) lexical compatibility: spruce (cones, paws, forests) - Christmas trees (decorations, toys, bazaars); tenant (house) - inhabitant (city);

3) syntactic compatibility: certification (of relatives, administration - what?) - certification (of documents);

4) lexico-syntactic compatibility; to put on (what: a hat, a coat) - to put on (whom: a doll, a child);

5) stylistic coloring: daring (neutral) - daring (high).

Often in speech there is a confusion of paronyms, which leads to speech errors: bony fish, put on a jacket, etc. To prevent such errors, one should compare paronymic pairs, find out the similarities and differences of paronyms.

The rules for the normative use of paronyms and their compatibility are enshrined in the dictionaries of paronyms.

Differentiation of vocabulary from an expressive-stylistic point of view. Interstyle (stylistically neutral) and stylistically colored vocabulary The modern Russian literary language is characterized by stylistic diversity, that is, it has a wide system of means that provide verbal communication in various spheres of human activity. The system of styles of the literary language can be represented in the form of a diagram.

Functional styles of language book styles colloquial style scientific official-journalistic literary style business style artistic style Styles differ in the sphere of use, the leading function of speech (communication, message, influence, etc.), the main type of speech (description, narration, reasoning), the type of speech ( oral and written), but the most noticeable differences in the use of vocabulary and phraseology. Depending on the scope of use, two groups of words can be distinguished; 1) stylistically neutral or interstyle vocabulary, and 2) stylistically colored (or marked) vocabulary, subdivided into book vocabulary (scientific, business, journalistic) and colloquial. Colloquial vocabulary is adjacent to colloquial vocabulary, but is outside the literary language.

Words can not only name objects, phenomena of reality, but also express an attitude towards these phenomena, give them an assessment. According to the presence or absence of an emotional or expressive assessment, words are divided into emotionally expressive colors (sophisticated, sophisticated, global, patriotism, grace, etc.) and neutral (earth, study, football, rainy, sometimes, etc.). The difference in the stylistic coloring of such words is revealed when comparing: life - vegetation, walk - rush, sculpture - a statue, short - lapidary, etc. The sphere of using words that have an emotionally expressive coloring is limited.

In explanatory dictionaries, there are special labels indicating the stylistic characteristics of words:

book. - book word, used for written, book presentation:

manuscript, affliction, unshakable, omen, etc .;

high. - high, gives speech a shade of solemnity, elation, characteristic of publicistic, oratory, poetic speech: to be of good courage, inextinguishable, obstacle, time, life-giving, etc .;

official - official, characteristic of the speech of official relations:

unclaimed, non-payment, failure to appear, order, etc.;

colloquial - colloquial, used in oral, colloquial speech: master, shrew, minister, vain, etc.;

simple. - colloquial, typical of oral urban spoken language, as well as used for stylization ("literary vernacular"): to be ashamed of, money, at a loss, to get used to, etc .;

disapproved - disapproving: leap, disguise, fooling, etc .;

neglected - scornful: ugly, papcun, miser, etc.;

joke. - humorous: warrior, adorer, christen (call);

iron. - ironic: muslin (young lady);

bran. - abusive: idiot, ugly, bastard, etc.

Consequently, the stylistic coloring of a word can, on the one hand, indicate the sphere of use, on the other, the emotional-expressive content of the word, its evaluative function. All this creates a two-dimensional stylistic coloration of the word.

Ways of development and sources of formation of the lexical system of the modern Russian language.

Formation of the vocabulary of the Russian language is a long and complex process. There are words in the language that appeared in antiquity and are still functioning, there are words that have come into active use relatively recently, there are those that have ceased to be in common use, but are found in literature. Thus, constantly active processes take place in the vocabulary: something dies off in it and something new is born.

Due to the development of political, economic, cultural relations between peoples and states, words from other languages ​​constantly penetrate into our language.

From the point of view of origin, two layers can be distinguished in the Russian language: native Russian vocabulary and borrowed one. Borrowing of words is observed in all periods of development.

Reflection in the vocabulary of the processes taking place in society.

As a social phenomenon, language is the property of all people belonging to one collective. In the vast majority of cases, the collective of people speaking the same language ("linguistic community") is an ethnic collective (nation, nationality, tribe). Every human society is heterogeneous in its composition. It is divided into layers or classes, divided into small groups, within which people are united by some sign, for example, a common profession, the same age, level and nature of education, etc. This differentiation of society is reflected in the language in the form of certain features, socially conditioned subsystems.

Language is closely related to the development of society. The state of the language and its vocabulary depends on the state of society. Under feudalism, each possession of a feudal lord or monastery was a kind of state, and this contributed to the emergence of small territorial dialects, which are characterized by lexical differences: the same objects can be called differently in dialects (kuren and izba). As the forms of the historical community of people (tribe, union of tribes, nationality, nation) consolidate, the internal organization of the language and its unity grows.

The question of the nature of the relationship between language and society is very complex, multifaceted, and there are different points of view on this matter. It is believed that the social nature of a language is revealed only in the external conditions of its existence, depends on the conditions in which the speakers of this language live. But the deepest look at this problem allows us to assert that the social nature of a language is revealed not only in the external conditions of its existence, but also in the very nature of the language (in its vocabulary, in grammatical possibilities, in the level of development of styles). So, for example, "the changing names of fantastic artificial people and real" smart "machines - homunculus - robot - computer - seem to mark a special linguistic mark of a step in the development of science and technology from the mythical Pandora to the real computer." Under the influence of socio-political factors, plural forms appear, in such, for example, abstract nouns as initiative (peace initiatives), reality (post-war realities, new realities), agreement (partial agreements).

The influence of society on language can obey not only laws of an objective nature, but also be the result of the conscious activity of people, i.e. be the result of a specific language policy. Language policy as a conscious, active and organized influence on the language is manifested, for example, in the normalizing activity of scientists (the creation of normative dictionaries and grammars, reference books;

improving spelling; use for propaganda of the norms of the media, etc.).

Language reacts to all changes in the public and individual consciousness, reflects them. First of all, this manifests itself, of course, in the vocabulary of the most massive and large-circulation publications, i.e. newspapers and magazines.

This can be illustrated by the processes that characterized the vocabulary of the mass media in the 1980s and 1990s, a time that was one of the turning points in the development of our social consciousness.

During these years, the words that were previously extremely rare in their use, which were, as it were, on the periphery of the language, became active: charity, mercy, repentance, gymnasium, lyceum, stock exchange, action, market, etc.

The socio-economic and political transformations of the last decade have led to the replenishment of our vocabulary with many borrowings, mainly Englishisms: broker, dealer, marketing, manager, speaker, sponsor, supermarket, etc.

Our vocabulary has significantly expanded due to the fact that all kinds of technical innovations came into our life, our everyday life from the West, and with them their names: display, cartridge, pager, player, printer, fax, etc.

In the last decade, many words of religious themes have returned to active use, which for a long time were used in the literary language, mostly in a figurative sense, as a means of expressing irony, disapproval of the designated, such, for example, as: lamb, anathema, evangelize, lean, righteous , rite, rite, etc. At present, the words of this group are increasingly acting as evaluatively neutral names, even when they are not used in their direct meaning.

The rethinking of historical experience, the reassessment of the previous categories of consciousness led to changes in the evaluative properties of many words. These changes are taking place in three directions.

1. Words that were evaluatively neutral become evaluative words. So, mainly in sharply negative contexts after the beginning of perestroika, previously neutral words began to be used: apparatus (administrative apparatus), department, departmental (departmental interests), nomenklatura (nomenklatura workers), privileges, elite.

2. Words that had evaluativeness lose it.

In completely neutral contexts, the formerly negative-evaluative words dissident, Sovietologist are now used (see, for example, newspaper headlines:

"Meeting with Sovietologists", "On Sovietologists and Americanists"). Before our very eyes, they have lost their former - sharply negative - evaluativeness of the word opposition, faction.

3. The word changes its value to the opposite. Such a fate has been experienced in our time by words associated with communist ideology and formerly positively evaluative, and now increasingly used in negative evaluative contexts: Soviet, bright future.

Old and new in vocabulary. Outdated vocabulary. Types of obsolete words: historicisms, archaisms. New vocabulary (neologisms). Causes and ways of the emergence of new words.

Each period of language development is characterized by a certain ratio of active and passive vocabulary, since what was relevant for one era may lose its relevance in the future, and words may become passive.

For example, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the following names of vehicles were common: horse-drawn tram (a railroad in a city with horse-drawn traction), chaise (light semi-covered road carriage), drogs (a long cart without a body, as well as a funeral carriage), carriage ( light open double crew), etc., and today the vocabulary includes the words limousine, sedan, hatchback, convertible (types of cars, depending on the body structure).

The active stock also includes words that have a limited scope of use (terms, professional vocabulary), but denoting concepts and phenomena that are relevant for a given period of language development: ecology, computer, design, etc.

Some words that have become obsolete can reactivate and become common: governor, seminary, gymnasium, lyceum, police, etc. Others are actively used for a short time, and then immediately begin to become obsolete (perestroika, voucher) Outdated words include historicisms and archaisms ...

Obsolete words historicism archaisms words, obsolete words denoting concepts, objects, because objects, phenomena that exist at the present time have disappeared from life;

the phenomena that they designated; not displaced from active use have synonyms in modern language: in other words; have synonyms in a tavern (inn), a maid in a modern language: kuafer (hairdresser), drovni candy (candy), carla (dwarf), daughter (room servant), (peasant sleigh). (daughter).

Thematic groups of historicisms:

1) the names of old clothes: underwear, yarmulke, epancha, dushegreyka, etc.; 2) names of monetary units: imperial, polushka, five dollars;

3) old titles, titles, job titles: nobility, excellency, governor, hussar, rider, batman;

4) the name of weapons and items of military life: ax, brush, redoubt;

5) administrative names: volost, county, province;

6) the names of the phenomena of social life: farm laborer, kulak, Cominternist, self-employed, duel;

7) the names of the letters of the old alphabet: Izhitsa, Az, Yat, etc.

Archaisms

- & nbsp– & nbsp–

Reasons for the transition of words to the passive stock of the language:

1) extra-linguistic (extralinguistic) associated with changes in the cultural, economic, social spheres;

2) proper linguistic, associated with the presence of functional varieties of language and speech, synonymous connections (primarily with the presence of stylistic synonyms), etc.

The role of obsolete words in the Russian language is diverse. Historicisms in special, scientific literature are used for the most accurate description of a certain period of the country's development. In works of fiction, they recreate the flavor of the era.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly updated with new words. New words - neologisms - appear in the language to designate some new concept, phenomenon. Examples of neologisms of our time are the words summit, valeology (the doctrine of a healthy lifestyle), casting, Internet, modem, tender, supermodel, capri pants (cropped trousers), flashmob (“instant crowd” action), fast food, etc.

Terminological systems are being actively replenished with new words:

transfer, advice note, clearing (economics), lifting, scrub, phytomilk, peeling (cosmetology). Neologisms reflect the changes observed in various spheres of life: moderator, tutor, distance student, bachelor's degree, master's degree (education), security, presentation, monitoring, euro (social life), etc. Many of these words pass into active vocabulary. For example, the terms that arose in the 50s-70s of the XX century, associated with the development of cosmonautics, cosmonaut, cosmodrome, cosmovision, telemetry, spacecraft, etc., due to their relevance, very quickly became common.

Methods for the formation of neologisms:

1) from the elements available in the language: snowmobile, video double;

2) borrowing: diving, rafting;

3) education in Russian of words on the basis of borrowed words: PR - PR, PR, PR;

4) semantic transformations, the development of polysemy: a mole (a liquid that cleans up blockages in pipes), a mouse (computer), a shuttle (a small trader in imported goods), etc.

Neologisms proper lexical lexical-semantic individual-author

Words that have arisen for words, in which words created by writers, new names have developed new by publicists, public meaning: collapse (sharp concepts, phenomena, actions: figures with a certain copier, botox, printer, fall in the course of the stylistic purpose of a laptop; national currency); (perform an expressive dog function): verse (M.

Words formed by (@ sign);

stroke (a means for leaderism to normative models from Gorky), (E.

already existing in the language: correction of the entry) and Evtushenko), (V.

missile carrier, off-road vehicle dr. Mayakovsky) and others.

Individual-author's neologisms (or occasionalisms) perform only an expressive function, rarely pass into the literary language and receive popular use. Like linguistic neologisms, occasionalisms are formed according to the laws of the language, according to models from the morphemes available in the language, therefore, even taken out of context, they are understandable: to multi-storey, get loose, chambered (V. Mayakovsky.); blaze, witchcraft (herbs), (S. Yesenin), etc.

In different periods, the activity of the appearance of neologisms of different thematic groups is not the same.

Periods of appearance of neologisms:

1) the post-October period: new words of social and political themes came to the language (Bolshevik, Leninist, Party organizer, Komsomol, Pioneer, Octobrist, factory, local committee, Red Navy, NEPman, etc.), new nomenclature names (USSR, Sovnarkom, KPSS, etc.) ;

2) during the period of industrialization and collectivization: words reflecting changes in the economic life of the country (GOELRO, food detachment, equalization, surplus appropriation, collective farm, state farm, VDNKh, five-year plan, etc.) associated with the development of science and technology (milling machine, asphalt worker, nuclear power plant, ZIL, GAZidr.), Words related to the development of culture and education (workers' school, reading room, educational program, bibliophile, etc.);

3) The Great Patriotic War: words associated with wartime events and naming people by occupation (siege, fireman, sanitary instructor, etc.), denoting the names of weapons and front-line household items (lighter, rocker, funeral, Annushka (plane), igniters etc.), names of actions (raid, beep, etc.);

4) post-war period: words related to the development of sciences included in terminological systems (narcologist, resuscitator, biogen, transplantation, etc.) associated with the process of space exploration (astronaut, landing on the moon, lunar rover, cosmodrome, etc.), associated with development sports (badminton, biathlon, karting, etc.), naming household items, clothes (jeans, Pepsi, jewelry, etc.), new colloquial words (group, skate, three-ruble note, etc.);

5) late XIX - early XX centuries: words related to computerization and the development of new information technologies (computer, printer, scanner, disk drive, browser, portal, etc.); economic terms (leasing, logistics, consulting, broker, barter, etc.); words of social and political topics (GKChP, CIS, pressure, impeachment, inauguration, etc.).

The origin of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The concept of the primordial Russian vocabulary. Primordially Russian vocabulary from the point of view of the time of its origin. Borrowed vocabulary.

The reasons for borrowing it in another language.

Primordially Russian vocabulary Based on the similarity of words, roots, affixes, phonetic and grammatical features, the similarity of origin, the relationship of languages ​​is established. A single early Slavic ethnic community used the common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language (about the 7th century AD), which dates back to an even earlier Indo-European proto-language, which gave rise to the modern Indo-European language family. The Indo-European family includes a Slavic group: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian), West Slavic, South Slavic languages. In the Russian language, it is possible to distinguish layers of primordial Russian vocabulary, different in origin and time of appearance: Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper.

There are many words in the Russian language that appeared in antiquity and constitute a layer of the primordial vocabulary.

Vocabulary of the Russian language Primordial Russian vocabulary Borrowed vocabulary

- & nbsp– & nbsp–

Common Slavic words Indo-European words Primordially Russian vocabulary (words that arose after the separation of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​in the 16th century)

Formed by the suffixes -chik-, -chik- (drummer), Names

Ovk (a) (strike), -sh (a) (major), -nouns (eminence), -shin (a) (corvee)

Composite: head teacher, Sberbank, physical education

On -ost-: impressionability, entertaining

Formed from verbs without the help of suffixes:

transition, shout

With suffixes -chat-, -chiv-: ciliated, livable Names sweet and sour, adjectives - complex adjectives:

North Russian Verbs-formed from verbs with the prefix and the postfix -sy: burst into tears, see adverbs - formed from adjectives with the prefix po and suffixes -i, -th, -m: comradely, in English, in summer, to yours, all derivative conjunctions and prepositions: because, in Service parts, continuation, instead of speech, Indo-European words were inherited by the ancient languages ​​of the Indo-European language family after the collapse of the Indo-European linguistic community (until the 3rd - 2nd centuries BC).

The similarity of these words is found in many Indo-European languages: Russian. three, Ukrainian three, S.-Horv. three, Czech women. ti, English, three, lat. tres, isp. tres. This is the oldest layer in the original Russian vocabulary. Indo-European words include:

some kinship terms: brother, daughter, mother, sister, son;

names of animals: bull, wolf, sheep;

names of plants, food products, all kinds of vital concepts: willow, water, meat, day, firewood, smoke, name, month;

numerals: two, three, ten;

names of actions: protect, be (eat), carry, command, believe, twirl, see, give, share, wait, live, have, bear;

names of signs and qualities: barefoot, dilapidated;

prepositions: without, before, etc.

Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) vocabulary is the words inherited by the Old Russian language from the language of the Slavic tribes (the period from the 3rd - 2nd centuries BC, when the Indo-European proto-language, or the base language, collapsed until the 6th century AD) ...

Common Slavic words reveal phonetic and semantic similarities in the languages ​​of the South, West and East Slavic: Russian. banner, bulg. zname, czech, zname, polish. znami.

Common Slavic words make up a relatively small part of the modern dictionary, but they constitute its core, since they are the most commonly used. Common Slavic vocabulary includes:

the names of agricultural implements and other tools of production: harrow, rake, scythe, hoe, sickle, plow; needle, hammer, knife, saw, ax, awl, as well as spear, bow, arrow, bowstring;

names of products of agricultural labor, plants, etc.: rye, cereals, flour; birch, tree, viburnum, cabbage, maple, cranberry, flax, linden, wheat, rye, apple, barley;

names of animals, fish, birds, insects: otter, hare, mare, cow, fox, elk;

a snake, a lizard; tench, eel; woodpecker, magpie, swift; mosquito;

names of parts of the human body: thigh, eyebrow, head, tooth, hand, skin, knee, face, forehead, leg, nose, shoulder, arm, body, ear;

kinship terms: grandson, godfather, mother-in-law, father-in-law, aunt;

the names of dwellings, utensils and many other vital concepts: door, house, road, hut, porch, bench, stove, floor, ceiling, canopy; spring, winter, summer, autumn; clay, iron, gold; kalach, porridge, jelly; evening, night, morning; century, hour; oak grove, frost, spark, forest, pit;

abstract vocabulary: excitement, grief, deed, good, evil, thought, happiness, etc.

East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary is words that arose from about the 6th to the 14th - 15th centuries. only in the language of the Eastern Slavs. These are words common to Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. The East Slavic names include the names of various qualities, properties, actions: lively, brown, sharp-sighted, dark;

buzz, wander, excite, shake, excuse, beckon;

kinship terms: uncle, nephew;

household names: strap, samovar, hook, string, basket;

names of animals: squirrel, viper, bullfinch, cat, finch;

counting units: forty, ninety; thirteen;

words with a temporary meaning: today, now.

The Russian vocabulary itself is words that have arisen since the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality (since the XIV century) and are being born (and not appearing, because words can also appear by borrowing) in the language at the present time. The names of actions are actually Russian: to shine, fawn, dilute, swagger, somersault, button up, clown around, make mistakes;

names of household items, food products: tub, wallpaper, tiles, pendulum, stuffed cabbage, jacket;

natural phenomena, plants, birds, fish, animals: ice, rooster, honey agaric, dodder, seal, reed;

names of signs of objects, signs of actions, states: ordinary, shy, gloomy, cautious, wholesale, headlong, jabbing;

names of persons by occupation: boyfriend, pilot, fireman, racer;

names of abstract concepts: pleasure, caution, result;

expressive-evaluative names of a person: piglet, ogelnik, chubby, dunce;

abbreviations: GOST, KPSS, university, etc.

As part of the Russian vocabulary proper, new words appear in the following ways:

1) in the process of word formation: to navigate - from the word landmark (borrowed.);

2) as a result of semantic transformations of words already in the language (the emergence of homonyms as a result of the disintegration of polysemy, the formation of a new, figurative meaning): class, party, pioneer, etc.

At any stage of language development, vocabulary from other languages ​​inevitably gets into it. Borrowing is one of the ways to develop the lexical system of the Russian language. Borrowing of foreign language vocabulary occurs as a result of the development of political, economic, cultural, scientific ties between peoples and states. The morpheme can also be borrowed: the prefixes a-, super-, counter-, post-, etc .;

suffixes -ism, -ist, -cy, etc.

Once in the Russian language, foreign words can undergo complete assimilation, so that they are perceived by native speakers as Russians: croutons, school, beets, etc., and they can retain signs, often phonetic, of their native language: pcs in the root morphemes of words borrowed from German or Dutch languages ​​(German:

curtain, standard, assault, fitting; goll .: storm, steering wheel); combination j - from English (jam, jumper, jeans). If, in the process of borrowing, a foreign language vocabulary is assimilated, russified, then a foreign language word undergoes graphic, phonetic, grammatical, and semantic changes. This process is called mastering. Graphic mastering - the transfer of a foreign language word in writing by means of the Russian alphabet - is observed in words borrowed from languages ​​that have a different graphics system: English. feetness - Russian. fitness. Phonetic assimilation is a change in the sound appearance of a word as a result of its adaptation to new phonetic conditions: the greatcoat is pronounced [n'e] like Russian words. Grammatical mastering

Is the adaptation of a foreign language word to the grammatical system of the Russian language:

for example, in English cakes is plural, and in Russian cake is singular. When borrowing, it is possible to change the part of speech: Russian. out (noun) - eng. out (pl.).

Borrowings are divided into two groups: 1) from the Slavic languages ​​(Old Church Slavonic, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Czech, Polish, etc.); 2) from non-Slavic languages ​​(Greek and Latin languages, Western European, Turkic, etc.

Languages). According to the time of appearance in the Russian language, borrowings are divided into early (the period of existence of the Common Slavic and Old Russian languages) and later (borrowings that supplemented and replenish the Russian vocabulary proper). The most ancient borrowings include words that came into the Russian language, in particular, from the Old Church Slavonic, Finnish, Tatar and Greek languages. In different periods, borrowings from different languages ​​are active: after the adoption of Christianity - from the Old Church Slavonic, in the Peter's era - from German and Dutch); single borrowings are also possible (Japanese geisha, sakura, etc.).

From the Scandinavian languages, a few words related to business and everyday vocabulary entered Russian: brand, hook, tiun, sneak, anchor; names of fish: shark, herring, stingray;

personal names: Askold, Igor, Oleg, Rurik, etc.

The names of fish, natural phenomena and flora, national dishes, etc. are borrowed from the Finno-Ugric languages: flounder, sprat, smelt, navaga, herring, salmon; blizzard, tundra; fir; dumplings; sledges and others; geographical names:

Kandalaksha, Kineshma, Klyazma, Kostroma, Totma, Sheksna (the word-formation element -ma indicates the Finnish origin of the toponym).

Similar works:

“Scientific and practical journal founded in 1996 SCIENTIFIC NOTES of the St. Petersburg named after VB Bobkov of the branch of the Russian Customs Academy № 3 (47) APEC: ISSUES OF ANTI-CORRUPTION Fyodorov A.V. The article examines the anti-corruption component of the activities of the APEC Intergovernmental Forum for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the history of the formation of the anti-corruption policy of this economic forum and its current state. The article deals with the ... "

“Issue 2 SPIRITUAL-MORAL AND HEROIC-PATRIOTIC EDUCATION IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF PATRIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS Not for the sake of glory, for the good of the Fatherland! Issue 2 SPIRITUAL-MORAL AND HEROIC-PATRIOTIC EDUCATION IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF PATRIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS During the implementation of the project, state support funds are used, allocated as a grant in accordance with the order of the President of the Russian Federation dated March 29, 2013 No. 115-rp. . "

"A. I.Sobolevsky ANCIENT COMEDY, POLITICS, HISTORY OF ARISTOPHAN AND HIS TIME CLASSICS OF PHILOLOGY Moscow L ab irint Sergei Ivanovich SOBOLEVSKY. Aristophanes and his time. (Series "Ancient heritage".) - Moscow, Labyrinth, 2001. - 416 p. Editorial Board of the ANTIQUE HERITAGE series L. S. Ilyinskaya, A. I. Nemirovsky, O. P. Tsybenko, V. N. Yarkho Editors: G. N. Shelogurova, I. V. Peshkov Artist: V. E. Graevsky Computer set: H. Ye. Eremin The famous Russian classical philologist Sergei Ivanovich Sobolevsky ... "

“Parvin Darabadi. Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor of the Department of International Relations of Baku State University, author of more than 100 scientific, educational, methodological and popular scientific works on the problems of military-political history, geopolitics, conflictology. Among them are the monographs: Military problems of the political history of Azerbaijan at the beginning of the twentieth century (1991), Geopolitical rivalry in the Caspian region and Azerbaijan (2001), Geohistory of the Caspian region and geopolitics ... "

“Aleksey Sidorov Course of Patrology Introduction Patrology as a Science The term patrology (ie the doctrine of the Church Fathers) was first used by the Protestant scholar J. Gerhard (d. 1637), who wrote an essay called Patrology, or a work about life and the writings of the teachers of the ancient Christian Church, which was published after his death in 1653. Already in this name, the characteristic features of the emerging science are outlined, which is both a church historical science and a science ... "

“THE HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY I.А. Holosenko PITIRIM SOROKIN AS A HISTORIAN OF SOCIOLOGY One of the currently fashionable theorists of the "world system", the American sociologist I. Wollerstein, speaking in 1996 at one of the St. ... However, later, not noticing the anecdotal nature of the situation, he mentioned that his very first scientific article was devoted to the sociology of Pitirim ... "

“HISTORY OF THE EAST in six volumes Main Editorial Board RB Rybakov (chairman), LB Alaev, K.Z.Ashrafyan (deputy chairmen), V.Ya.Belokrenitsky, D.D. Vasiliev, G.G. Kotovsky , R.G.Landa, V.V. Naumkin, O.B. Nepomnin, Yu.A. Petrosyan, K.O.Sarkisov, I.M.Smilyanskaya, G.K. Shirokov, V.A. Yakobson Moscow Publishing firm "Vostochnaya literatura" RAS HISTORY OF THE EAST East at the turn of the Middle Ages and modern times, XVI-XVIII centuries. Moscow Publishing company "Eastern Literature" RAS UDC 94/99 BBK 63.3 (0) 4 + 63.3 (0) 5 ... "

“Grigory Ayvazyan Chairman of the NGO“ Assembly of Azerbaijani Armenians ”, lecturer at YSU ABOUT SOME ASPECTS OF COVERING THE HISTORY OF ETHNIC ORIGIN OF THE ARMENIANS OF GARABAKH In Azerbaijani historiography, the issue of the ethnic origin of the Armenians of Karabakh, the historical Armenian provinces, has long been one of the defining aspects of Utika and Artsakh ... Interest in the issue of the ethnic origin of the Armenians of Karabakh and, in general, the Armenians of Eastern Transcaucasia, as well as Zangezur and Tavush in ... "

“Legal and actual situation of national minorities in Latvia. Demography, language, education, historical memory, statelessness, social problems Collection of articles edited by Vladimir Buzaev Latvian Human Rights Committee Riga, 20 The collection was published with the assistance of the Fund for Support and Protection of the Rights of Compatriots Living Abroad. Editor: Vladimir Buzaev Publisher: Averti-R, SIA Layout: Vitaly Drobot ISBN 978-9934-8245-8-6 © Averti-R, SIA, 20 Editor's foreword ... "

“No.1 (18) Series“ Philology. Language theory. Language education ”Moscow №1 (18) Philology. Theory linguisTics. of linguisTic educaTion Moscow Editorial board: V. V. Ryabov Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Chairman of the Rector of Moscow State Pedagogical University S.L. Atanasyan Ph.D. in physics and mathematics, professor, vice-rector of Moscow State Pedagogical University Pishchulin N.P. Doctor of Philosophy, Professor, Vice-Rector of Moscow State Pedagogical University Rusetskaya M.N. Candidate of Pedagogy, Associate Professor, Vice-Rector of Moscow State Pedagogical University Editorial Board: Radchenko O.A. Doctor of Philology ... "

“D. Anastasyin, I. Voznesensky THE BEGINNING OF THREE NATIONAL ACADEMIES The external reason that prompted the authors to stand up for the facts was the recent anniversaries - noted and silenced: the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences turned 60, the Belarusian - 50, and the first (soon liquidated) Academy of Sciences of Georgia and Estonia - 50 and 40. The topics of our article are the beginning of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR (1928 - 31), the failed Georgian (1930 - 31) and "bourgeois" Estonian (1938 - 40) academies. The special responsibility and importance of the Ukrainian theme make ... "

“Trimingham JS Sufi Orders in Islam JS Trimingham JS Trimingham Sufi Orders in Islam Translation of Aza Stavisky SUFIS BROTHERHOOD: A COMPLEX NODE OF PROBLEMS Significant and interesting research by contemporary English scholar JS Trimingham (died March 6, 1987 in age 83) Sufi orders in Islam, offered to the attention of readers in Russian translation, already by its name leads to an extensive labyrinth of problems. The author is the first in Islamic studies ... "

“RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES AND NS TITU T SCIENCES AND NF ORM A TSII ON COMMUNICATION AT WOMAN THE PATRIOTIC WAR OF 1812 IN CONTEMPORARY HISTORIOGRAPHY COLLECTION OF REVIEWS AND ABSTRACTS Center MOSCOW 2 BBC Series 47.3 MOSCOW 2 BBK Series 47.3 Scientific and Information Research Department of History Managing Editor - Cand. ist. Sciences O.V. Bolshakova Responsible for the issue - Cand. ist. Sciences M.M. Mints The Patriotic War of 1812 in modern ISO 82 toriography: Sat. reviews and ref. / RAS. INION. Centre..."

“Igor Vasilyevich Pykhalov For what was imprisoned under Stalin. How they lie about "Stalin's repressions" Series "Dangerous Story" Text provided by the publishing house http://www.litres.ru/pages/biblio_book/?art=12486849 Igor Pykhalov. For which they imprisoned under Stalin. How they lie about "Stalinist repressions": Yauza-press; Moscow; 2015 ISBN 978-5-9955-0809-0 Annotation 40 million deaths. No, 80! No, 100! No, 150 million! Following Goebbels' behest: "the more monstrous you lie, the sooner they will believe you," the "liberals" overestimate the real ... "

“SPEECH by the Chairman of the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation S. V. Stepashin at the ceremonial meeting dedicated to the 350th anniversary of the establishment of state financial control in Russia and the 15th anniversary of presidential control (Moscow, Kremlin, October 12, 2006) Dear Dmitry Anatolyevich! Dear colleagues and friends! First of all, I would like to congratulate everyone on our common, great professional holiday. 350 years of state financial control in Russia and 15 years since the establishment of control ... "

"ACT of the state historical and cultural expertise of scientific and project documentation: Section Ensuring the safety of cultural heritage objects as part of the project Construction of a 500 kV overhead line Nevinnomyssk Mozdok-2 under the title" 500 kV overhead line N ^ Vinnomyssk Mozdok with the expansion of the 500 kV Nevinnomyssk SS and the 330 kV Mozdok SS (construction of a 500 kV outdoor switchgear) "in the Prokhladnensky district of the KBR. State experts on the conduct of the state historical and cultural ex: test: State autonomous institution of culture ... "

“Kabytov PS, Kurskov N.A. THE SECOND RUSSIAN REVOLUTION: FIGHT FOR DEMOCRACY ON THE MIDDLE VOLGA IN RESEARCH, DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS (1917 - 1918) Samara State University 2004 Kabytov P.S., Kurskov N.A. _ 3 THE SECOND RUSSIAN REVOLUTION: THE STRUGGLE FOR DEMOCRACY ON THE MIDDLE VOLGA IN RESEARCH, DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS (1917 - 1918) 3 Samara State University 2004 _ 3 P.S. Kabytov, N.A. Kurskov * Samara zemstvo, land committees and preparation of the agrarian reform in 1917 _ 14 From the biography ... "

"Scientific-methodical and theoretical journal SOCIOSPHERE No. 3 2010 FOUNDER of LLC Scientific Publishing Center" Sociosphere "Editor-in-Chief - Boris Anatolyevich Doroshin, Ph.D. release), Antipov M.A., candidate of philosophical sciences, Belolipetskiy V.V., candidate of historical sciences, Efimova D.V., candidate of psychological sciences, Saratovtseva N.V., candidate of pedagogical sciences, associate professor .... "

“State budgetary educational institution of the city of Moscow Moscow International Gymnasium ANALYSIS OF THE WORK OF THE STATE BUDGETED EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF THE CITY OF MOSCOW MOSCOW INTERNATIONAL GYMNASIUM FOR 2013/2014 ACADEMIC YEAR Moscow 2013 - 2014 academic year PEDAGOGICAL SCHOOL IN 2013-2014 HUMAN PEDAGOGY In order to improve the scientific and methodological support of the educational process in the gymnasium, the following worked ... "
The materials on this site are posted for review, all rights belong to their authors.
If you do not agree that your material is posted on this site, please write to us, we will delete it within 1-2 business days.

The structure of the vocabulary is considered in two aspects: the systemic relations between lexical units and the stratification of the vocabulary. Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language as a system of systems. The groups of words that form a system can differ in volume, in what lies at the basis of their generality (form or content), in the degree of similarity of forms or meanings of lexical units, in the characteristics of relations (paradigmatic or syntagmatic) between lexical units. The minimal groupings of individual lexical units, based on the similarity of form, form homonyms (see Homonymy) or paronyms (with incomplete similarity; see Paronymy); when relying on the content, groupings of words are distinguished based on conceptual logical relations or paradigmatic type - equivalence (synonyms), opposition (antonyms, conversions: "give" - ​​"receive"), juxtaposition (semantic series: "pine" - "birch" - "Oak", "warm" - "hot"), inclusions (hyper-hyponymic relations: "tree" - "birch"; see Hyponymy), or syntagmatic type (object - sign, part - whole, etc.) ...

Lexicology also explores larger groupings of words - fields, which are also formed on the basis of form (for example, a nest of words) or content and are built on the basis of paradigmatic or syntagmatic relations. The totality of paradigmatic and syntagmatic fields forms a thematic field that reflects a certain sphere of extra-linguistic reality (for example, means of transport, animal husbandry, art, etc.). When taking into account the form and content (polysemy, synonymy, word-formative connections, etc.), not a single part of the vocabulary is isolated, relations are established between any lexical units.

The lexical composition of the language is heterogeneous and stratified. It distinguishes categories of lexical units for various reasons: according to the sphere of use - common (interstyle) and stylistically marked vocabulary, used in certain conditions and spheres of communication (poetic, colloquial, scientific, professional vocabulary, vernacular, argotisms, regionalisms, dialectisms); in connection with the study of variants of literary languages ​​- their specific vocabulary; for emotional coloring - neutral and emotionally colored (expressive) vocabulary; from a historical perspective - neologisms, archaisms (see Obsolete words); by the origin of words or the realities they denote - borrowings, xenisms (designations of other people's realities), barbarism, internationalism; in relation to the language system and functioning - active and passive vocabulary, potential words, occasionalisms. The lexical system is the least rigid of all the subsystems of the language, the boundaries between the groupings of words are fuzzy, the same word can, in different meanings and uses, refer to different categories of lexical units.

When studying vocabulary in its functioning, the following problems are considered: frequency of vocabulary in texts; vocabulary in speech, in the text, its nominative function, contextual shifts in meanings and features of use (many of the lexicological categories are refracted in a peculiar way in speech, in connection with which they distinguish between linguistic and speech synonyms, antonyms; lexical polysemy and homonymy in speech is usually eliminated or takes the form puns or semantic syncretism); the compatibility of words, which is considered at the semantic levels (compatibility of the concepts denoted by these lexical units: "stone house", "fish swims") and lexical (compatibility of lexemes: "give a lecture", but "make a report"). There are free and connected combinations, and within the latter - idiomatic, which is the subject of the study of phraseology.

Lexicology examines the ways of replenishing and developing the vocabulary of the language, distinguishing 4 ways of creating nominations, three of which are based on the use of internal resources of the language - the creation of new words (see Word formation), the formation of new meanings (polysemy, transfer of meanings, and the patterns of filiation of meanings are studied) , the formation of word combinations, and the fourth - on attracting the resources of other languages ​​- borrowings (lexical borrowings and tracing papers). The factors and forms of integration of borrowed words are investigated.

An important aspect of lexicology is the study of words in their relation to reality, since it is in words, in their meanings that the life experience of a collective in a certain era is directly fixed. In this regard, such problems as vocabulary and culture, the problem of linguistic relativity (the influence of vocabulary on the “vision of the world”), linguistic and extralinguistic components in the meaning of a word, background vocabulary, etc. are considered.

There are general, specific, historical, comparative and applied lexicology. General lexicology establishes general patterns of structure, functioning and development of vocabulary, private lexicology examines the vocabulary of one language.

Historical lexicology examines the history of words in connection with the history of objects, concepts, institutions designated by them. Historical lexicology data are widely used in historical science. Historical lexicology provides a description of the dynamics of the vocabulary (or part of it) or a static description of a slice of the historical state of the language. The subject of research can be a single word or a lexical system (conceptual field), the history of words as such, or the forms of semantic changes (for example, a narrowing of meaning), processes in the semantic structure of words (for example, the study of the development of words with an abstract meaning, the process of synonymization, the emergence of proper names etc.). In its direction, historical and lexicological research can be semasiological (changes in the meanings of words or groups of words are studied) or onomasiological (changing the method of naming an object). In view of the systemic relations within the lexicon, when studying a group of words, both aspects are present simultaneously, since the study of changes in the meaning of one word is impossible without studying the evolution of the designation of a concept common to a group of words.

Comparative lexicology examines the vocabulary in order to identify the genetic relationship of languages, structural and semantic similarities and differences between them (regardless of relationship), or in order to derive common lexicological (more often semantic) patterns. Matching can concern any aspect of the vocabulary. Individual words can be compared, but it is more important to compare groups of words (or fields), for example, verbs of motion, terms of kinship, etc., which shows how the designation field (objective reality) is differently segmented by lexical means of different languages, which aspects of objects are recorded in the meanings of words in different languages. Of great interest for comparative lexicology is the comparison of the functioning of broad lexicological categories in two languages: synonymy, antonymy, types of polysemy, phraseology, the ratio in the meaning of general and particular words, logical and emotional, etc. The data of comparative lexicology are widely used in applied sections of linguistics ( lexicography, translation), as well as in ethnography.

Applied lexicology covers mainly 4 areas: lexicography, translation, linguopedagogy and speech culture. Each of these areas enriches the theory of lexicology. For example, lexicography encourages to deepen the problem of the meaning of a word, improve its description, highlighting meanings, study compatibility, etc. Translation provides a great deal of material for comparative lexicology, word problems in teaching a native and non-native language sharpen a number of general scientific issues (word and context, collocation, synonymy - word choice, vocabulary and culture). At the same time, each of them uses the provisions and conclusions of lexicology, however, lexicological categories receive specific refractions in them; for example, the problems of highlighting the meanings of a word, phraseology in lexicography are solved in different ways depending on the type of dictionary.

Lexicology uses general linguistic research methods (see. Method in linguistics). The most commonly used methods are: distributive (determining the boundaries of a word, its morphological structure, differentiating meanings, etc.), substitutions (studying synonymy, word meanings), component-positive (determining the structure of the meaning of lexical units, the semantic structure of a word as a whole, analyzing semantic fields, changing the meanings of lexical units, updating the value of a unit in the context), transformational (in word formation, when identifying the semantic load of a word in a context by folding or expanding syntactic structures, when determining the meaning of a lexical unit). Quantitative-statistical methods are added to the qualitative methods (determining the frequency of a lexical unit, its syntagmatic connections, etc.; see Quantitative methods in linguistics).

These lexicology are used in many related disciplines: psycholinguistics (the study of word associations, etc.), neurolinguistics (types of aphasia), sociolinguistics (the study of the linguistic behavior of a group), etc. Some aspects and types of lexical units are studied in special sections of linguistics (see Onomastics, Phraseology, Culture of speech, Stylistics, Word formation, etc.).

[History of lexicology]

Lexicology emerged as a separate branch of linguistics later than some others, such as grammar. Even in the 20th century. some early trends in structuralism denied the need to isolate lexicology, either on the grounds that vocabulary was allegedly poorly structured, or because linguistics should not be concerned with semantics at all, which is the core of lexicology (L. Bloomfield's school).

A number of problems of lexicology were discussed long before its formation as a special branch of linguistics. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, questions of semantics and word structure were considered. Ancient rhetoric also paid attention to the artistic function of the word. The development of lexicography in Europe in the 16-18 centuries. stimulated the development of lexicology. In the prefaces to explanatory dictionaries (for example, the Dictionary of the French Academy, 1694, the English dictionary of S. Johnson, 1755), a number of lexicological categories were noted (synonymy, collocation, primary and derived words, etc.). The term "lexicology" was first introduced by the French encyclopedia of D. Diderot and J.L. D'Alembert in 1765, where lexicology is defined as one of two (along with syntax) sections of the study of language. The authors saw the task of lexicology in the study of words outside their specific use in speech, in the study of the general principles of the organization of the vocabulary of the language. They distinguished in lexicology the study of the external form, meanings and etymology of words (by which word formation was also understood). In treatises on the style of the 18th century. the ways of forming figurative meanings of words were outlined in more detail. The first works on comparative historical linguistics (RK Rask, F. Bopp) laid the foundations of comparative lexicology. In the 19th century. The main area of ​​lexicological research in Europe was semantics: the internal form of the word (W. von Humboldt), the general patterns of the formation and evolution of word meanings (A. Dharmsteter, G. Paul) were studied, historical lexicology was greatly developed. The achievements of semasiology were generalized and developed in the work of M. Breal (1897), where semasiology appeared as a special section of the science of language. Lasted into the 20th century. the development of semasiology was aimed, on the one hand, at identifying the general semantic laws of the evolution of word meanings with the involvement of data from logic or psychology (E. Cassirer, H. Cronasser, S. Ullman, G. Stern and others), which subsequently led to the development of semantic universals , on the other hand, on the study of the history of words in connection with the history of objects (the school of Words and Things, characteristic, in particular, of dialectology). The onomasiological direction in lexicology, which contributed to the study of word groups, was described in the book by B. Cuadri (1952).

The idea of ​​the consistency of linguistic phenomena, more and more penetrating into lexicology, was reflected primarily in the theory of lexical fields, built on paradigmatic (J. Trier) and syntagmatic (W. Porzig) principles. Completion of field theory is the thesaurus representation of the organization of the dictionary (C. Bally, R. Hallig, W. von Wartburg). The problem of the general theory of the word as a unit of language was developed, discussions continued regarding the distinguishability of the word and its criteria (Bally, A. Martinet, J. H. Greenberg and others), its semantics (C. K. Ogden, A. Richards, K. Baldinger) ... The study of the correlation of vocabulary with the non-linguistic world, the history of words in the history of society (P. Lafargue; French sociological school: A. Meillet, E. Benveniste, J. Matore, M. Cohen), vocabulary and structure of consciousness of speakers (E. Sapir , B. Wharf, L. Weisgerber). Linguists of the Prague school have identified functional differentiation of vocabulary.

[Lexicology in Russia and the USSR]

Soviet linguists, proceeding from the position that the word is the basic unit of language, made a great contribution to the general theory of the word, to the definition of its boundaries, its relationship with the concept (A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherba, Vinogradov, A. I. Smirnitsky, R. O. Shor, S. D. Katsnelson, O. S. Akhmanova, Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky); special attention is paid to the semantic aspect of the word (L. A. Bulakhovsky, V. A. Zvegintsev, D. N. Shmelev, B. Yu. Gorodetsky, A. E. Suprun and others). The achievement of Soviet lexicology is the development of a typology of word meanings (Vinogradov), the doctrine of lexical and semantic variants of a word (Smirnitsky), and an intermediate link in the development of word meanings (Budagov). Thanks to these studies, the problem of word polysemy received a reliable theoretical basis,

Investigating the word as a unit of language and the vocabulary in its synchronicity, Soviet linguists conduct research in the field of etymology (ON Trubachev), historical lexicology (Filin), and the history of the vocabulary of the literary language (Yu.S. Sorokin). There are numerous monographic studies on many categories of lexicology: synonymy, antonymy, internationalism, terminology, phraseological units, etc. Exploring all layers and aspects of the vocabulary of different languages, Soviet linguists in the 70-80s. special attention is paid to the problems of vocabulary consistency, including lexical paradigmatics (Shmelev, A.A. Ufimtseva, Yu.N. Karaulov), lexical semantics in connection with the general theory of nomination and reference, the interaction of vocabulary with other levels of language, primarily with syntax (Y.D. Apresyan), psycholinguistic aspects of vocabulary (study of lexical associations, etc.), comparative study of vocabulary of different languages ​​(Budagov, V.G. Gak). Of great practical and theoretical importance is the study of interaction in the vocabulary of the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR (Yu. D. Desheriev, IF Protchenko). The methodology of lexicological research is being actively developed (M. D. Stepanova, N. I. Tolstoy, E. M. Mednikova and others).

• Smirnitsky A.I., Lexicology of the English language, M., 1956;
• Akhmanova OS, Essays on general and Russian lexicology, M., 1957;
• Zvegintsev V.A., Semasiology, M., 1957;
• Budagov RA, Comparative semasiological studies. (Romance languages), M., 1963;
• Katsnelson S. D., Content of the word, meaning and designation, M.-L., 1965;
• Stepanova M. D., Methods of synchronous analysis of vocabulary, M., 1968;
• Weinreich U., On the semantic structure of language, trans. from English, in the book: "New in linguistics", v. 5, M., 1970;
• Makovsky M. M., Theory of lexical attraction, M., 1971;
• Shansky N. M., Lexicology of the modern Russian language, 2nd ed., M., 1972;
• Doroshevsky V., Elements of lexicology and semiotics, M., 1973;
• Apresyan Yu. D., Lexical semantics, M., 1974;
• Stepanova M. D., Chernysheva I.I., Lexicology of the modern German language, M., 1975;
• Karaulov Yu. N., General and Russian ideography, M., 1976;
• Vinogradov V.V., Selected works, t. 3, Lexicology and lexicography, M., 1977;
• Hack V.G., Comparative lexicology, M., 1977;
• Lopatnikova N. N., Movshovich NA, Lexicology of modern French, M., 1982;
• Quadri B., Aufgaben und Methoden der onomasiologischen Forschung, Bern, 1952;
• Ullman S., The principles of semantics, 2nd ed., Glasgow-L.-Oxf., 1959;
• Weinreich U., Lexicology, "Current Trends in Linguistics", The Hague, 1963, v. 1;
• Rey A., La lexicologie. Lectures, P., 1970;
• Lyons J., Semantics, v. 1-2 Camb. 1977;
• see also literature under articles

Lecture 5

Lexicology, phraseology

Word as the main nominative unit of language, its differential features.

Lexical meaning of the word and concept.

The lexical system of the language.

The concept of a phraseological unit Types of phraseological units.

Lexicology as a branch of linguistics.

Lexicology(column lexis- word + logos- teaching) is the section of linguistics that studies the word as a unit of the vocabulary of the language (vocabulary) and the entire lexical system (vocabulary) of the language. The term vocabulary (gr. lexikos- verbal, vocabulary) serves to indicate the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings: to define the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language (book vocabulary), in a separate work (the vocabulary of "The Lay of Igor's Campaign"); you can talk about the vocabulary of a writer (the vocabulary of Pushkin) and even one person (the speaker has a rich vocabulary).

Lexicology studies the patterns of the functioning and development of the vocabulary of the language, develops the principles of stylistic classification of words, the norms of literary word use in its relation to vernacular, issues of professionalism, dialectisms, archaisms, neologisms, normalization of lexicalized phrases.

Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronic(gr. syn - together + chronos - time), then she examines the vocabulary of the language in its modern state, and historical, or diachronic (gr. dia - through + chronos - time), then her subject is the development of the vocabulary of the given language. Distinguish also general lexicology, which examines the vocabulary of different languages, identifies general patterns and the functioning of their lexical systems, and private lexicology examining the vocabulary of one language. Subject comparative lexicology is the vocabulary of one language in comparison with other languages ​​in order to detect similarities and differences.

All sections of lexicology are interconnected: data of general lexicology is necessary when studying the vocabulary of a particular language to understand the deep essence of lexical units, their connection with the cognitive structures of consciousness; many lexical phenomena require a historical commentary to clarify the features of their semantics and use; information from comparative lexicology helps to understand many signs and patterns of the functioning of the vocabulary of a particular language, such as, for example, common lexical composition, borrowing, interference, and others.

Lexicology occupies an equal place among other linguistic disciplines and is inextricably linked with them, for example, with phonetics: units of lexicology are signs of the connection established by our thinking between the complexes of the sounds of human speech and what these complexes are called in the surrounding world, the nomination of objects of reality. Among the linguistic disciplines, lexicology is most closely associated with grammar... In order to accurately determine the meaning of a word, its paradigmatic and syntagmatic connections with other words, the role in the text, need to know grammatical status of this word (part of speech, general category meaning, basic morphological features and syntactic function), in turn, the general category meaning of this or that part of speech is realized in the particular lexical meanings of specific words as lexicon units. The formation of many grammatical forms of a word directly depends on the features of its lexical meaning, for example, short forms and forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives. The combination of words in a phrase and a sentence also depends on the characteristics of these words as tokens.

Question 1

Lexicology as a science about the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Sections of lexicology

Lexicology - from the Greek. leksis, leksicos - word, expression; logos - teaching. This science examines the vocabulary (lexical) composition of the language in different aspects. Lexicology examines the vocabulary of a language (vocabulary) from the point of view of what a word is, how and what it expresses, how it changes. Lexicology adjoins phraseology, which is often included in lexicology as a special section.

Lexicology is divided into general, specific, historical and comparative. The first, called in English general lexicology, is a section of general linguistics that studies the vocabulary of any language, that which refers to lexical universals. General lexicology deals with the general laws of the structure of the lexical system, the functioning and development of the vocabulary of the languages ​​of the world.

Private lexicology studies the vocabulary of a particular language. Private lexicology (special lexicology) deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one, in our case, English, language. So, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while private lexicology will deal with the peculiarities of English synonyms or antonyms.

Both general and specific vocabulary problems can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached from a synchronic or diachronic point of view. The synchronic approach assumes that the characteristics of a word are considered within a certain period or some one historical stage of their development. This vocabulary study is also called descriptive lexicology. Diachronic, or historical, lexicology (historical lexicology) deals with the study of the historical development of the meanings and structure of words.

Comparing the lexical phenomena of one language with the facts of another or other languages ​​is occupied by contrastive lexicology. The purpose of such studies is to trace the paths of intersection or divergence of lexical phenomena inherent in the languages ​​chosen for comparison.

Historical lexicology traces changes in the meanings (semantics) of an individual word or a whole group of words, and also examines changes in the names of objects of reality (see below about the etymology). Comparative lexicology reveals the similarities and differences in the articulation of objective reality by lexical means of different languages. Both individual words and groups of words can be compared.

The main tasks lexicology are:

*) definition of a word as a significant unit vocabulary ;

*) characteristics of the lexical-semantic system, that is, the identification of the internal organization of linguistic units and the analysis of their connections (the semantic structure of a word, the specifics of distinctive semantic features, the patterns of its relationship with other words, etc.).

The subject of lexicology, as the very name of this science implies, is the word.

Sections of lexicology:

Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of a language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, ways of nomination.

Semasiology - studies the meaning of the vocabulary units of the language, types of lexical meanings, the semantic structure of the lexeme.

Phraseology - studies phraseological units.

Onomastics is the science of proper nouns. The largest subsections can be distinguished here: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographic objects.

Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.

Lexicography - deals with the compilation and study of dictionaries. It is also often referred to as applied lexicology.

The concept of the term "modern Russian literary language".

Traditionally, the Russian language has been modern since the time of A.S. Pushkin. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of the Russian national language and the literary Russian language. The national language is the language of the Russian people, it covers all spheres of speech activity of people. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept. Literary language is the highest form of language existence, an exemplary language. This is a strictly standardized form of the national national language. A literary language is understood as a language processed by word masters, scientists, public figures.

Question 2

The word is the basic unit of language. Word signs. Definition of a word. Types of words. Word functions

A word is the main structural and semantic unit of a language, serving to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, having a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each language. The characteristic features of the word are integrity, distinguishability and free reproducibility in speech.

Given the complexity of the multidimensional structure the words, modern researchers, when characterizing it, use a multidimensional analysis, point to the sum of a variety of linguistic features:

· Phonetic (or phonemic) design and the presence of one main stress;

Lexical and semantic significance the words, its separateness and impermeability (impossibility of additional inserts inside the words without changing its meaning);

· Idiomatic (otherwise - unpredictability, unmotivated naming or incomplete motivation);

· Attribution to certain parts of speech.

In modern lexicology of the Russian language, the short definition proposed by D.N.Shmelev seems to be quite motivated: word- This is a unit of the name, characterized by an integral form (phonetic and grammatical) and idiomatic.

There are several types of words. According to the method of nomination, four types of words are distinguished: independent, official, pronominal, and interjections.

Phonetically, words are distinguished: one-hit, unstressed, multi-hit, complex.

According to the morphological feature, words are distinguished: changeable, unchangeable, simple, derivative, complex.

By motivation: unmotivated and motivated.

According to the semantic and grammatical feature, words are grouped into parts of speech.

From the point of view of structural integrity, words are distinguished as whole and segmented.

Semantically, the words are single-valued and polysemous, absolute and relative, requiring additions and transitive verbs. In a sentence, a word enters into subtle semantic relations with other words and elements of the composition of the sentence (intonation, word order, syntactic functions).

FUNCTIONS OF THE WORD

communicative function

nominative function

aesthetic function

language function

communication function

message function

action function

IMPACT FUNCTION. Its implementation is a voluntative function, i.e. expression of the will of the speaker; the function is progressive, i.e. messages to the expression of expressiveness; the function is emotive, i.e. expression of feelings, emotions.

FUNCTION COMMUNICATIVE. The purpose of the word to serve as a means of communication and communication;

FUNCTION NOMINATIVE. The purpose of a word is to serve as a name for an object;

COMMUNICATION FUNCTION. The main function of the language, one of the sides of the communicative function, which consists in the mutual exchange of statements by the members of the linguistic community.

MESSAGE FUNCTION. The other side of the communicative function is to convey some logical content;

FUNCTION AESTHETIC. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of artistic expression;

LANGUAGE FUNCTION. Using the potential properties of language means in speech for different purposes.

Question 3

Lexical meaning of the word. Lexical meaning structure

Lexical meaning - the correlation of the sound shell of the word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. The lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most essential ones that help to distinguish one object from another. The lexical meaning reveals the signs by which the general properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes the differences that distinguish a given object, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: "African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs," that is, those features that distinguish the giraffe from other animals are listed.

Question 4

Types of lexical values

Comparison of different words and their meanings makes it possible to distinguish several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

By the way of nomination, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.

*) The direct (or main, main) meaning of a word is such a meaning that is directly related to the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings, respectively:

1. "A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs."

2. "Colors of soot, coal".

3. "Seethe, gurgle, evaporating from strong heat" (about liquids).

These values ​​are stable, although historically they can change. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language meant "throne", "reign", "capital".

The direct meanings of words least of all others depend on the context, on the nature of the connections with other words. Therefore, they say that direct meanings have the greatest paradigmatic conditioning and the least syntagmatic coherence.

*) Figurative (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.

So, the word table has several figurative meanings:

1. "A piece of special equipment or part of a machine with a similar shape": operating table, raise the machine table.

2. "Food, food": rent a room with a table.

3. "A department in an institution in charge of some special circle of affairs": information desk.

The word black has such figurative meanings:

1. "Dark as opposed to something lighter called white": black bread.

2. "Darkened, darkened": black from sunburn.

3. "Kurnoy" (only full form, obsolete): black hut.

4. "Gloomy, bleak, heavy": black thoughts.

5. "Criminal, malicious": black treason.

6. "Not the main, auxiliary" (only the full form): the back door in the house.

7. "Physically hard and unskilled" (full form only): black work, etc.

The word boil has the following figurative meanings:

1. "Manifest to a strong degree": work is in full swing.

2. "Show something with force, to a strong degree": seethe with indignation.

As you can see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly correlated with the concept, but come closer to it according to various associations that are obvious to speakers.

Figurative meanings can retain imagery: black thoughts, black betrayal; seethe with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit. In reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are individual in nature.

However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, the figurativeness is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative names such as a pipe elbow, a teapot spout, a clock, etc. In such cases, they speak of extinct imagery in the lexical sense of the word, of dry metaphors.

Direct and figurative meanings are highlighted within one word.

According to the degree of semantic motivation, unmotivated meanings (non-derivative, primary) are distinguished, which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the composition of the word; motivated (derivatives, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and derivational affixes. For example, the words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. The words canteen, table, eat, build, perestroika, anti-perestroika, whiten, whiten, whiteness are inherent in motivated meanings, they are, as it were, "produced" from a motivating part, derivational formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derivative basis (Ulukhanov I.S. Word-formation semantics in the Russian language and the principles of its description M., 1977. S. 100-101).

For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to single out their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes the ancient relationship of the word with other words, makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis allows you to highlight the historical roots in the words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with the words live, drink, eye, twist, ear, drag (envelop). Thus, the degree of motivation for a particular meaning of a word may not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with a philological background, while to a non-specialist, the semantic connections of this word seem lost.

As far as possible lexical compatibility, the meanings of words are divided into free and non-free.

The first ones are based only on subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink is combined with words for liquids (water, milk, tea, lemonade, etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, running, night. The consistency of words is governed by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts denoted by them. Thus, the "freedom" of combining words with unrelated meanings is relative.

Non-free meanings of words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and proper linguistic factors. For example, the word win is combined with the words victory, superior, but not combined with the word defeat. You can say to lower your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you cannot - “lower your hand” (leg, briefcase).

Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned.

The first ones are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: sworn enemy, bosom friend (you cannot swap the elements of these phrases).

Syntactically determined meanings of a word are realized only if it performs an unusual syntactic function in a sentence. So, the words log, oak, hat, acting as the nominal part of the compound predicate, acquire the meanings "stupid person"; "stupid, insensitive person"; "a sluggish, uninitiated person, a muddler."

V.V. Vinogradov, who was the first to distinguish this type of meanings, called them functionally-syntactically conditioned. These values ​​are always figurative and by the way of nomination they are referred to as figurative values.

As part of syntactically determined meanings, words are also distinguished constructively limited meanings, that is, those that are realized only under the conditions of a certain syntactic structure. For example, the word vortex with the direct meaning "gusty circular movement of the wind" in a construction with a noun in the form of the genitive case acquires a figurative meaning: a whirlwind of events is "rapid development of events."

By the nature of the functions performed, lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is nomination, naming phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the emotional-evaluative (connotative) sign is predominant. For example, in the phrase “tall” person, the word “tall” indicates great growth; this is its nominative meaning. And the words lanky, long in combination with the word man not only indicate great growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive synonymous meaning and are among the expressive synonyms for the neutral word high.

By the nature of the relationship of some meanings with others in the lexical system of the language, the following can be distinguished:

1) the autonomous meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and designating mainly specific objects: a table, a theater, a flower;

2) the correlative meanings that are inherent in words opposed to each other on any grounds: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age;

3) deterministic meanings, that is, those "which, as it were, are conditioned by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants ..." (Shmelev D.N. Word meaning // Russian language: Encyclopedia. M., 1979 . P. 89). For example: a nag (compare stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse); beautiful, wonderful, great (cf. good).

Question 5

Polysemy in modern Russian. Direct and derived lexical meaning. Types of name transfer

Polysemy(from the Greek rplkhuzmeYab - "polysemy") - polysemy, the presence of a word (unit of language) two or more interrelated and historically determined meanings.

In modern linguistics, grammatical and lexical polysemies are distinguished. So, the shape of the 2 person unit. h. Russian verbs can be used not only in their own personal, but also in a generalized personal meaning. Wed: " Well, you will shout down everyone!" and " You won't shout down". In such a case, one should speak of grammatical polysemy.

Often, when they talk about polysemy, they mean, first of all, the polysemy of words as vocabulary units. Lexical polysemy is the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena of reality (associatively related to each other and forming a complex semantic unity). For example: sleeve - sleeve("Part of the shirt" - "branch of the river"). The following relationships can be established between the meanings of a word:

metaphor

For example: horse - horse("Animal" - "chess piece")

metonymy

For example: dish - dish("Type of dishes" - "portion of food")

synecdoche

A distinction should be made between polysemy and homonymy. In particular, the word "key" in the meanings "spring" and "musical sign" are two homonyms.

Question 6

Homonymy in modern Russian. Types of homonyms. Paronyms and paronomases

(Greek homфnyma, from homуs - the same and уnyma - name), the same sounding units of the language, in the meaning of which (in contrast to the meanings of polysemantic units) there are no common semantic elements. Word-building and syntactic indicators are not decisive objective criteria for distinguishing homonymy from polysemy. Lexical O. arise: as a result of the sound coincidence of words of different origin, for example, "lynx" (running) and "lynx" (animal); as a result of the complete divergence of the meanings of a polysemous word, for example, "peace" (universe) and "peace" (absence of war, hostility); with parallel word formation from the same stem, for example, "troika" (horses) and "troika" (mark).

1. Sometimes words are spelled differently, but they sound the same, due to the laws of the phonetics of the Russian language: doc - great dane ;cat - code ;rock-horn ;pillar - pillar ;carry - carry ;to dissolve - to take away(stunning voiced consonants at the end of a word or in the middle of it, before the subsequent voiceless consonant, leads to a coincidence in the sound of the words); weaken - weaken ;stay - arrive ;multiply - multiply(reduction NS in an unstressed position determines the same sound of verbs), etc. Such homonyms are called phonetic homonyms, or homophones.

2. Homonymy also occurs when different words sound the same in any grammatical form (one or more): alley(verb participle redden)- alley(noun); guilt(offense) - guilt(gender singular unit of a noun wine);burners(gas) - burners(the game); ate(verb form there is)- ate(plural noun spruce);braid oblique)- braid(gender plural noun scythe);bark - bark - bark(case forms of the noun barking)- bark - bark - bark(forms of change of the verb bark);varnish(tbsp singular noun varnish)- varnishes(short form of adjective tasty);my(pronoun) - my wash);three(numeral) - three(imperative of the verb to rub). Such homonyms, which appear as a result of the coincidence of words in separate grammatical forms, are called grammatical homonyms, or homoforms.

A special group of homoforms are those words that have passed from one part of speech to another: directly(adverb) - directly(amplifying particle); exactly(adverb) - exactly(comparative union); although(gerunds) - although(concessionary union) and under. Homoforms also include numerous nouns that have arisen as a result of substantivating adjectives and participles. These are, for example, the names of all kinds of catering and trade establishments that can be read on signs walking along the streets of the city: Bakery and confectionery, Sandwich, Snack, Dumplings, Beer, Shot, Sausage, Canteen, Barbecue. The words of this group are distinguished from other homoforms by the fact that when they are declined both in the singular and in the plural in all case forms, they have a corresponding homoform - an adjective. However, a couple: noun, adjective namely homoforms, since the adjective forms have much more changes: the singular masculine and the singular neuter.

3. Homographs are words that are spelled the same, but have different sounds: roast(dish) - roast(summer), flour(for pies) - flour(torment); soar(in the sky) - soar(in a saucepan); sheet(diminutive to wire)- wire(delay, slowdown when doing something); thaw(verb participle conceal)- tAya(verb participle melt), etc. It should be noted that not all scientists attribute such words to homonyms, since their main feature - a different sounding - contradicts the general definition of homonymy.

4. Finally, the most numerous and most interesting and diverse group is made up of lexical homonyms, or homonyms proper, i.e. such words that coincide with each other in all grammatical forms and regardless of any phonetic laws: Boer(drilling tool) - Boer(a representative of the people inhabiting South Africa); dominoes(the game) - dominoes(fancy dress); rook(a boat) - rook(chess figure); scrap(a tool that breaks ice, asphalt) - scrap(broken or suitable only for recycling, most often metal objects); sailor suit(sailor's wife) - sailor suit(striped blouse worn by sailors); mandarin(citrus tree or its fruit) - mandarin(a major official in pre-revolutionary China); interfere(be a hindrance) - interfere(soup in a saucepan); cartridge(combat) - cartridge(chief), etc.

paronyms noun pl. h.

Words that sound similar, but differ in meaning.

"advisor" and "advisor"

"base" and "base"

paronomasia

A stylistic figure, consisting in a pun rapprochement of consonant, but different in meaning words.

(paronomasia)

"He is not deaf, but stupid."

Question 7

Ways of appearance of homonyms in the language. Criteria for distinguishing between the meanings of a polysemous word and homonyms

In the course of the historical development of the dictionary, the appearance of lexical homonyms was due to a number of reasons. One of them is semantic splitting, the decay of a polysemantic (polysemantic) word. In this case, homonyms arise as a result of the fact that initially different meanings of the same word diverge and become so distant that in modern language they are already perceived as different words. And only a special etymological analysis helps to establish their previous semantic connections according to some characteristics common to all meanings. In this way, even in antiquity, there appeared homonyms light - illumination and light - the Earth, the world, the universe.

The discrepancy between the meanings of a polysemantic word is observed in the language not only for the primordially Russian words, but also for words borrowed from one language. An interesting observation is provided by a comparison of the homonymy of etymologically identical agent - a representative of the state, an organization and an agent - the acting cause of certain phenomena (both words from the Latin language).

Homonymy can be the result of the coincidence of the sound of words, for example, to speak "to speak the teeth" (compare the conspiracy) and to speak (to speak, to start speaking ".

Many of the derivatives of homonymous verbs are partial lexical homonyms: the homonymy of the derived verbs to fall asleep from sleep and to fall asleep - from to fall asleep. The formation of such homonyms is largely due to the homonymy of derivational affixes.

Modern science has developed criteria for distinguishing homonymy and ambiguity, helping to separate the meanings of the same word and homonyms that arose as a result of a complete rupture of polysemy.

A lexical way of differentiating ambiguity and homonymy is proposed, which consists in identifying synonymous connections between homonyms and polysemantic. If consonant units are included in one synonymous row, then different meanings still retain semantic similarity and, therefore, it is too early to talk about the development of polysemy into homonymy. If they have different synonyms, then we have a homonymy. For example, the word root 1 in the meaning of "indigenous" has synonyms primordial, basic; a root 2 in the meaning of "root question" is a synonym main... The words main and main are synonymous, therefore, we have two meanings of the same word. Here's another example; word thin 1 "in the meaning of" not well-fed "forms a synonymous row with adjectives skinny, puny, lean, dry, a thin 2 - "devoid of positive qualities" - with adjectives bad, bad, bad... The words skinny, puny, etc. are not synonymous with the words bad, nasty. This means that the lexical units under consideration are independent, that is, they are homonymous.

The morphological method is applied to distinguish two similar phenomena: polysemous words and homonyms are characterized by different word formation. So, lexical units that have a number of meanings form new words using the same affixes. For example nouns bread 1 - "cereal" and bread 2 - "food product baked from flour", form an adjective with a suffix -n-; Wed respectively: grain shoots and bread smell. A different word formation is characteristic of homonyms. thin 1 and thin 2. The first has derivatives thinness, lose weight, thin; the second one - worsen, worsening... This convinces of their complete semantic isolation.

In addition, homonyms and polysemous words also have different forms; Wed thin 1 - thinner, thin 2 - worse .

Used and semantic to distinguish these phenomena. The meanings of homonymous words are always mutually exclusive, and the meanings of a polysemantic word form one semantic structure, maintaining semantic proximity, one of the meanings presupposes the other, there is no insurmountable border between them.

However, all three methods of differentiating ambiguity and homonymy cannot be considered completely reliable. There are cases when synonyms for different meanings of a word do not enter into synonymous relations with each other, when homonymous words have not yet diverged during word formation. Therefore, there are often discrepancies in the definition of the boundaries of homonymy and polysemy, which affects the interpretation of some words in dictionaries.

Homonyms, as a rule, are given in separate dictionary entries, and polysemous words - in one, with the subsequent highlighting of several meanings of the word, which are given under the numbers. However, in different dictionaries, sometimes the same words are represented differently.

So, in the "Dictionary of the Russian language" S. I. Ozhegov the words put- "put something, anywhere, somewhere" and put- "to decide, to decide" are given as homonyms, and in the "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language" (MAC) - as polysemous. The same is the difference in the interpretation of other words: duty- "duty" and duty- "borrowed"; harmony- "harmony, peace" and harmony"the structure of a piece of music"; glorious- "famous" and glorious- "very good, cute".

Question 8

Semantic field. Lexico-semantic group. Hyponymy as a special kind of relations between units of the semantic field

Semantic field- a set of linguistic units, united by some common semantic feature. This is the unification of linguistic units, carried out according to meaningful (semantic) criteria.

To arrange the fields, the dominant in the field is selected.

Dominant- a word that can serve as the name of the field as a whole. The dominant is included in the field.

Fields are synonymous and hyponymic... In a synonymous field, the dominant is part of the field along with other members of this field. If the dominant rises above other elements of the field, then such a field is called hyponymic.

Seme is a differential semantic feature.

One of the classic examples of a semantic field is a color designation field consisting of several color series ( Red – pink – pinkish – crimson ; blue – blue – bluish – turquoise etc.): the common semantic component here is "color".

The semantic field has the following main properties:

1. The semantic field is intuitively understandable to a native speaker and has a psychological reality for him.

2. The semantic field is autonomous and can be distinguished as an independent subsystem of the language.

3. Units of the semantic field are connected by one or another systemic semantic relationship.

4. Each semantic field is associated with other semantic fields of the language and together with them forms a language system.

Lexico-semantic group- a set of words related to the same part of speech, united by intra-linguistic links on the basis of interdependent and interrelated elements of meaning. So, to the lexical-semantic group of the lexeme Earth include words:

planet - globe - world;

soil - soil - layer;

possession - estate - estate - estate;

country - state - power.

Hyponymy (from the Greek Lurb - bottom, bottom, under and bputa - name) is a type of paradigmatic relations in vocabulary that underlies its hierarchical organization: the opposition of lexical units related to concepts whose volumes intersect, for example. a word with a narrower semantic content (hyponym; see) is opposed to a word with a broader semantic content (hyperonym, or superordinate). The value of the first is included in the value of the second, for example. the meaning of the word birch is included in the meaning of the word tree.

Question 9

Synonymy in modern Russian. Types of synonyms. Synonym functions

Synonyms are words that sound differently, but are the same or very close in meaning: need - need, author - writer, bold - brave, applaud - clap etc. It is usually customary to distinguish between two main groups of synonyms: conceptual, or ideographic, associated with the differentiation of shades of the same meaning. (enemy - enemy, wet - wet - wet), and stylistic, associated primarily with the expressive-evaluative characteristics of a particular concept (face - mug, hand - hand - paw) .

A group of synonyms made up of two or more words is called a synonymous series. There can be synonyms for nouns (work - work - work - occupation); adjectives (wet - wet - wet); verbs (run - hurry - hurry); adverbs (here - here); phraseological units (pour from empty to empty - carry water with a sieve) .

In the synonymous row, the leading word (dominant) is usually highlighted, which is the carrier of the main meaning: clothes - dress - suit - outfit .

Synonymous relationships permeate the entire language. They are observed between words (everywhere - everywhere), between word and phraseological unit (rush - run at breakneck speed), between phraseological units (neither this nor that - neither fish nor meat) .

The synonymous wealth of the Russian language includes various types synonyms, for example:

lexical synonyms, i.e. synonyms;

phraseological synonyms, i.e. phraseological units-synonyms;

syntactic synonyms, for example:

1) union and non-union complex sentences: I learned that the train arrives at six o'clock. - I found out: the train arrives at six o'clock;

2) simple sentences with isolated members and complex sentences: In front of me was a sandy shore strewn with shells. - Before me was a sandy shore strewn with shells;

3) compound and complex sentences: The messenger did not come, and they asked me to carry the letter. -The messenger did not come, so they asked me to carry the letter.

Exists also a special kind of synonyms - contextual synonyms. These are words that are not in themselves synonyms, but become them in a certain context, for example:

A strong wind freely flies over a wide distance ... So he picked up thin flexible branches - and fluttered leaves, started talking, making noise, rushing about emerald scattering in the azure sky.

Synonyms play a very important role in the language, because, conveying subtle shades, different sides of the concept, they make it possible to more accurately express a thought, more clearly present a specific situation.

The stylistic functions of synonyms are varied. The common meaning of synonyms allows you to use one word instead of another, which diversifies speech, makes it possible to avoid the annoying use of the same words.

The substitution function is one of the main functions of synonyms. Writers place great emphasis on avoiding annoying repetitions of words. For example, here is how N. Gogol uses a group of synonymous expressions with the meaning “to talk, to talk”: “The newcomer [Chichikov] somehow knew how to find himself in everything and showed himself an experienced secular person. Whatever the conversation was about, he always knew how to support him: whether it was a question of a horse factory, he spoke and about the horse farm; talked about good dogs, and here he reported very sensible remarks, interpreted whether regarding the investigation carried out by the treasury chamber - he showed that he was not unaware of the judicial tricks; was there any reasoning about the billiard game - and in the billiard game he did not miss; did they talk about virtue, and about virtue reasoned he is very good, even with tears in his eyes; about making hot wine, and he knew a lot about hot wine; about customs overseers and officials, and he judged them as if he were an official and overseer. "

Synonyms can also function as opposition. Alexander Blok, in an explanatory note to the production of Rose and Cross, wrote about Gaetan: “... not eyes, but eyes, not hair, but curls, not a mouth, but a mouth”. The same with Kuprin: "He, in fact, did not walk, but dragged himself, without raising his legs from the ground."

Question 10

Antonymy in modern Russian. Semantic classification of antonyms (M.R. Lvova, L.A. Novikova - at choice). Antonym functions

Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning: question - answer, stupid - smart, loud - quiet, remember - forget... They are usually contrasted on some basis: day and night - by time, light and heavy- by weight, up and at the bottom- by position in space, bitter and sweet- to taste, etc.

Antonymic relationships can be between words (North South), between words and phraseological units (to win is to be defeated), between phraseological units (to win is to be defeated) .

There are also different root and same root antonyms: poor - rich, fly in - fly away .

An ambiguous word in its different meanings can have different antonyms. So, the antonym of the word light meaning "insignificant by weight" is the adjective heavy, and in the meaning of "easy to learn" - difficult .

Main function antonyms(and linguistic and contextual speech) is an expression of the opposition, which is inherent in the semantics of such oppositions and does not depend on the context.

The opposite function can be used for a variety of stylistic purposes:

To indicate the limit of manifestation of quality, property, relationship, action:

· To actualize a statement or enhance an image, impression, and so on;

· To express the assessment (sometimes in comparative terms) of the opposite properties of objects, actions and others;

· For the approval of two opposite properties, qualities, actions;

· For the approval of one of the opposed signs, actions or phenomena of reality due to the denial of the other;

· For the recognition of a certain average, intermediate quality, property and so on, possible or already approved between two words opposite in meaning.

Question 11

Lexicon of the modern Russian language from the point of view of its origin. Borrowed vocabulary. Adaptation of borrowed vocabulary in modern Russian

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of originally Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources supplemented and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others - relatively recently.

The replenishment of the Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

1. New words were created from the derivational elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the primordial Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.

2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of the Russian vocabulary from the point of view of its origin can be schematically presented in the table.

Borrowed are words that came to the Russian language from other languages ​​at different stages of its development. The reason borrowing are close economic, political, cultural and other ties between peoples.

Mastering in a foreign language for them, borrowed words undergo semantic, phonetic, morphological changes, changes in the morphemic composition. Some words (school, bed, sail, loaf, chandelier, club) mastered completely and live according to the laws of the Russian language (that is, they change and behave in sentences like native Russian words), and some retain features borrowing(that is, they do not change and do not act as reconciled words), such as, for example, non-declining nouns (avenue, kimono, sushi, hokku, kurabye).

Stand out borrowing: 1) from Slavic languages ​​(Old Slavonic, Czech, Polish, Ukrainian, etc.), 2) from non-Slavic languages ​​(Scandinavian, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Germanic, etc.).

So, from the Polish language borrowed the words: monogram, hussar, mazurka, tradesman, guardianship, courage, jam, allow, colonel, bullet, donut, draw, harness; from Czech: polka(dance), tights, robot; from Ukrainian: borscht, bagel, kids, grain grower, schoolboy, chaise.

From the German language came the words: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, package, office, percentage, action, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, workbench, jointer, nickel, potatoes, onions.

From Dutch borrowed nautical terms: , harbor, pennant, berth, sailor, yacht, rudder, navy, Flag, navigator, boat, ballast.

The French language left a significant mark on the Russian vocabulary. From it, words for everyday use entered the Russian language: suit, jacket, blouse, bracelet, floor, furniture, office, buffet, salon, toilet, chandelier, lampshade, service, broth, cutlet, cream; military terms: captain, sergeant, artillery, attack, march, salute, garrison, sapper, landing, squadron; words from the field of art: stalls, play, actor, intermission, plot, repertoire, ballet, genre, role, stage.

In the last decade, in connection with the development of computer technology, a large number of words have entered the Russian language, borrowed from English: floppy disk driver, converter, cursor, file. Began to be used more actively borrowed the words reflecting changes in the economic and socio-political life of the country: summit, referendum, embargo, barrel, ecu, dollar. |

Borrowed words are recorded by etymological dictionaries of the Russian language.

A lot of new words come from other languages. They are called differently, most often - borrowings. The introduction of foreign words is determined by the contacts of peoples, which necessitates the naming (nomination) of new objects and concepts. Such words may be the result of the innovation of a particular nation in any field of science and technology. They can also arise as a consequence of snobbery, fashion. There are actually linguistic reasons: for example, the need to express polysemantic Russian concepts with the help of a borrowed word, to replenish the expressive (expressive) means of the language, etc. All words, getting from the source language into the borrowing language, go through the first stage - penetration. At this stage, words are still connected with the reality that gave rise to them. At the beginning of the 19th century, among the many new words that came from the English language were, for example, tourist and tunnel. They were defined in the dictionaries of their time as follows: a tourist - an Englishman traveling around the world (Pocket Dictionary of Foreign Words that became part of the Russian language. Published by Ivan Renofants. St. Petersburg, 1837), a tunnel - in London, an underground passage under the bottom of the Thames River (there same). When the word has not yet taken root in the borrowing language, its pronunciation and spelling options are possible: dollar, doller, dollar, for example: "By January 1, 1829, there were 5,972,435 dollars in the treasury of the United States of North America" ​​1 At this stage even a foreign language reproduction of a word in writing is possible. In Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin": "Before him a bloody roast-beef, / And truffles, the luxury of a young age ..." (Ch. I, XVI). Let's pay attention, the word truffle, written in Russian, seems to Pushkin already mastered language. Gradually, the word of a foreign language, thanks to its frequent use in oral and written form, takes root, its external form takes on a stable form, the word is adapted according to the norms of the borrowing language. This is the period of borrowing, or entering the language. At this stage, the strong semantic (meaning-related) influence of the source language is still noticeable.

At the stage of mastering a foreign language word among native speakers of one language, folk etymology begins to take effect. When a foreign word is perceived as incomprehensible, they try to fill its empty sound form with the content of a closely sounding and close in meaning original word. A famous example is spinjak (from the English pea-jacket - jacket) - an unfamiliar word, correlated in the popular mind with the word back. The last stage of penetration of a foreign word into the borrowing language is rooting, when the word is widely used among native speakers of the receiving language and is fully adapted according to the rules of the grammar of this language. It is included in a full-fledged life: it can overgrow with one-root words, form abbreviations, acquire new shades of meanings, etc.

Question 12

Calculation as a special type of borrowing. Exotisms and barbarisms

In lexicology kalka(from fr. calque- copy) - a special type of borrowing of foreign words, expressions, phrases. In the Russian language, there are two types of crippled words: derivational and semantic.

Word-formation tracing paper- these are words obtained by a "pomorphic" translation of a foreign word into Russian. Calca usually does not feel like a borrowed word, as it is composed of native Russian morphemes. Therefore, the real origin of such words is often unexpected for a person who first recognizes it. So, for example, the word "insect" is a tracing paper from Latin insectum (in-- on-, sectum- secory).

Other word-building cripples include words such as chronicler , painting(from Greek); hydrogen , adverb(from Latin); performance , peninsula , humanity(from German); subdivision , concentrate , impression , influence(from French), skyscraper (eng. skyscraper), semiconductor (from the English. semiconductor). Rzeczpospolita - literal translation from Latin into Polish the word Republic and translated into Russian - "common cause"

Sometimes tracing is partial: in the word workaholic (eng. workaholic) only the first part of the word is traced.

Semantic onions- these are Russian words that have received new meanings under the influence of the corresponding words of another language as a result of literalism in translation. So, for example, the meaning of "arouse sympathy" of the word touch came from French. Similarly, the origin of the meaning "vulgar, non-witty" in the word flat .

Exotisms- a group of foreign language borrowings denoting objects or phenomena from the life of another, usually overseas people. Unlike other barbarisms, due to its persistent ethnic association, ecosism, with rare exceptions, is not fully assimilated and usually remains on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language. Localisms, dialectisms and ethnographisms are close to exoticism, describing the life realities of a sub-ethnic group as part of a larger people (for example, the Szeklers (Szekei) and Chango (people) as part of the Hungarian people). Cooking and music are especially distinguished by their exotic vocabulary (the concepts of baursak, salsa, tacos, tam-tam, merengue, etc.)

Exotisms are translatable in principle, in extreme cases they can be translated descriptively, i.e. using expressions (for example, the English "nesting doll" to describe the Russian concept of "matryoshka"). However, due to the lack of an exact equivalent, their laconicism and uniqueness are lost in translation, therefore exoticisms are often borrowed entirely. Having entered the literary language, most of them still remain on the periphery of vocabulary, in its passive stock. Fashion also comes and goes to exoticism. In modern print and electronic media, including Russian-speaking, the problem of abuse of exotic vocabulary often arises. Thanks to cinema, some exotic concepts have spread quite widely and are often used in an ironic, figurative sense (shawarma, hara-kiri, samurai, tomahawk, machete, yurt, wigwam, chum, harem, etc.)

Foreign language inclusions (barbarisms)- these are words, phrases and sentences that are in a foreign language environment. Foreign language inclusions (barbarisms) are not mastered or incompletely mastered by their host language.

Question 13

Primordial vocabulary

The words of the primordial vocabulary are genetically heterogeneous. Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic and Russian proper are distinguished in them. Indo-European are words that, after the collapse of the Indo-European ethnic community (the end of the Neolithic era), were inherited by the ancient languages ​​of this language family, including the common Slavic language. So, for many Indo-European languages, some kinship terms will be common (or very similar): mother, brother, daughter; names of animals, plants, food: sheep, bull, wolf; pussy willow, meat, bone; actions: take, carry, order, see; qualities: barefoot, shabby and so on.

It should be noted that in the period of the so-called Indo-European linguistic community, there were differences between the dialects of different tribes, which in connection with their subsequent settlement, distance from each other, all increased. But the obvious presence of similar lexical layers of the very basis of the dictionary allows us to conventionally talk about the once single basis - the proto-language.

Common Slavic (or Proto-Slavic) are the words inherited by the Old Russian language from the language of the Slavic tribes, who by the beginning of our era occupied a vast territory between the Pripyat, the Carpathians, the middle course of the Vistula and the Dnieper, and later advanced to the Balkans and east. As a single (so called conditionally) means of communication, it was used approximately until the 6th-7th centuries of our era, that is, until the time when in connection with the resettlement of the Slavs, the relative linguistic community also disintegrated. It is natural to assume that during this period there were territorially separate dialectal differences, which later served as the basis for the formation of separate groups of Slavic languages: South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic. However, in the languages ​​of these groups, words are distinguished that appeared in the general Slavic period of the development of language systems. Such in Russian vocabulary are, for example, names associated with the flora: oak, linden, spruce, pine, maple, ash, mountain ash, bird cherry, forest, pine forest, tree, leaf, branch, bark, root; cultivated plants: peas, poppy, oats, millet, wheat, barley; labor processes and tools: weaving, forging, whipping, hoe, shuttle; dwelling and its parts: house, canopy, floor, shelter; with domestic and forest birds: rooster, nightingale, starling, crow, sparrow; food products: kvass, jelly, cheese, bacon; the names of actions, temporal concepts, qualities: mumble, wander, share, know; spring, evening, winter; pale, near, violent, cheerful, great, evil, affectionate, dumb, and so on.

East Slavic, or Old Russian, are words that, starting from the 6th-8th centuries, appeared only in the language of the Eastern Slavs (that is, the language of the Old Russian people, the ancestors of modern Ukrainians, Belarusians, Russians), united by the 9th century into a large feudal ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus ... Among the words known only in the East Slavic languages, the names of various properties, qualities, actions can be distinguished: blond, selfless, lively, cheap, musty, keen-sighted, brown, clumsy, gray, good; flounder, boil, wander, fidget, start, chill, boil, poke, wiggle, while away, rumble, swear; kinship terms: uncle, stepdaughter, nephew; household names: hook, twine, rope, hockey stick, brazier, samovar; names of birds, animals: jackdaw, chaffinch, kite, bullfinch, squirrel, viper, cat; account units: forty, ninety; words with a temporary meaning: today, after, now and many others.

Actually Russians are all words (with the exception of borrowed ones) that appeared in the language after it became, first, an independent language of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality (from the XIV century), and then the language of the Russian nation (the Russian national language was formed during the XVII -XVIII centuries).

Actually, many different names for actions are Russian: coo, influence, explore, loom, dilute; household items, food: spinning top, fork, wallpaper, cover; jam, stuffed cabbage, kulebyaka, flat cake; natural phenomena, plants, fruits, animals, birds, fish: blizzard, ice, swell, bad weather; bush; Antonovka; desman, rook, chicken, chub; the names of the attribute of the object and the attribute of action, state: convex, idle, flabby, painstaking, special, intent; suddenly, in front, in earnest, to the ground, briefly, in reality; names of persons by occupation: carter, racer, bricklayer, fireman, pilot, typesetter, adjuster; the names of abstract concepts: result, deception, obscurity, neatness, caution and many other words with the suffixes -ness, -ity, and so on.

Question 14

Old Slavicisms

Old Slavicisms constitute a special group of borrowed words. So it is customary to call words that came from the Old Slavonic language, the most ancient language of the Slavs. In the IX century. this language was a written language in Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia, and after the adoption of Christianity began to spread in Russia as a written, book language.

Old Slavicisms have distinctive features. Here is some of them:

1. Incompleteness, that is, combinations of ra, la, re, le in place of the Russian oro, olo, ere, barely (enemy - a thief, sweet - malt, milky - milk, breg - shore).

2. Combinations of ra, la at the beginning of the word in place of the Russians ro, lo (work - grain grower, boat - boat).

3. The combination of railway on the spot w (alien - alien, clothes - clothes, driving - I drive).

4. Ш in place of the Russian ch (lighting - candle, power - to be able, burning - hot).

5. Initial a, e, u instead of Russian l, o, y (lamb - lamb, one - one, young man - carry).

6. In the Russian language there are quite a lot of morphemes of Old Slavonic origin: - suffixes eni-, enst-, zn-, tel-, yn- (unity, bliss, life, guardian, pride);

Suffixes of adjectives and participles: eish-, aish-, asch-, uch-, om-, im-, enn- (kind, bitter, burning, running, led, guarded, blessed);

Prefixes: ex-, out-, down-, over-, pre-, pre- (repay, erupt, overthrow, excessively, despise, prefer);

The first part of complex words: good, God, evil, sin, great (grace, God-fearing, backbiting, fall into sin, generosity).

Many of the Old Church Slavonic words have lost their tinge of bookishness and are perceived by us as ordinary words of everyday speech: vegetables, time, sweet, country. Others still retain the stylistic connotation of "highness" and are used to give special expressiveness to speech (for example, A. Pushkin's poem "Anchar" or "Prophet", M. Lermontov's poem "The Beggar", etc.).

Question 15

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language from the point of view of active and passive stock

By frequency, they distinguish between active and passive vocabulary.

PHRASEOLOGY, a linguistic discipline that studies stable idiomatic (in a broad sense) phrases - phraseological units; many of the phraseological units of a particular language are also called its phraseology.

Most often, phraseological units are understood as stable phrases of the following types: idioms ( beat thumbs up ,drink bitter ,lead by the nose ,shot sparrow ,till you drop ,in full); collocations ( pouring rain ,decide ,grain of truth ,pose a question); proverbs ( the quieter you go, the further you'll get ,don't get into your sleigh); sayings ( It is for you ,Granny ,and St. George's Day ;the ice has broken!); grammatical phraseological units ( almost ;near ;whatever it was); phraseological schemes ( X he is in Africa X ;to all X's X ;X as X).

The term " phraseological unit"In relation to the term" phraseology "as a discipline that studies the corresponding means of language, does not raise objections. But it is imprecise as a designation of the linguistic means themselves, which are the object of phraseology; it is enough to compare the ratio of established terms: phoneme - phonology, morpheme - morphology, lexeme - lexicology (compare phraseme - phraseology).

In the educational and scientific literature, attempts have been made to define the concept of a phraseological object. For example, the following definition is given: phraseological turnover, or idiom". Signs of phraseological turns: direct meaning, figurative meaning, polysemy, emotional saturation.

Phraseological turnover - it is a reproducible linguistic unit of two or more stressed words, integral in meaning and stable in its composition and structure.

At the same time, the following features are distinguished: reproducibility, stability of composition and structure, constancy of lexical composition. The presence of at least two words in the unit, the stability of the word order, the impenetrability of most phraseological turns.

Q.20

Lexico-grammatical classification of phraseological units

Classification of phraseological phrases by composition.

One of the most characteristic features of the phraseological turnover as a reproducible linguistic unit is the constancy of its composition. Taking into account the nature of the composition of phraseological units (specific features of the words forming them), N.M. Shansky identified two groups of phraseological phrases:

phraseological phrases formed from words of free use belonging to the active vocabulary of the modern Russian language: "like snow on your head, in an hour a teaspoon, a friend of life, glance, green melancholy, stand with your chest, take by the throat";

phraseological phrases with lexical and semantic features, that is, those in which there are words of related use, words that are outdated or with a dialectal meaning: “goosebumps, I found them dumbfounded, the talk of the town, in the arms of Morpheus, upside down, do not care for the soul, fraught with consequences smash to smithereens like chickens in cabbage soup. "

5. Classification of phraseological phrases by structure.

As reproducible linguistic units, phraseological phrases always act as a structural whole of a composite nature, consisting of words that are different in their morphological properties and are in different syntactic relationships with each other. According to the structure of phraseological units, N.M. Shansky divided into two groups:

Corresponding to the proposal

Matching a combination of words

Phraseological turns, in structure corresponding to the proposal.

Among the phraseological units, according to the structure of the sentence, according to the meaning N.M. Shansky distinguishes two groups:

Nominative - phraseological units that call this or that phenomenon of reality: "the cat cried, his hands do not reach, the chickens do not peck where they look, the trail is gone", acting as a member of the sentence;

Communicative - phraseological units that convey whole sentences:

"Happy hours do not watch, hunger is not aunt, grandmother said in two, they carry water to the angry, my head is spinning, I found a scythe on a stone, don’t sit in your sleigh, you won’t spoil the porridge with butter", used either independently or as a structural part a more complex sentence.

Phraseological turns, in structure corresponding to a combination of words.

N.M. Shansky identifies the following typical groups of combinations

... "Adjective + noun"

A noun and an adjective can be semantically equal and both are semantic components: "golden fund, beaten hour, white night, Siamese twins, retroactively."

The semantic component is the noun, the adjective is used as an insignificant term with an expressive character: "a garden head, a pea jester, Babylonian pandemonium, green melancholy."

... "Noun + genitive noun"

Such phraseological phrases in meaning and syntactic functions are equivalent to a noun: “open secret, apple of discord, point of view, gift of words, palm.” Words in such phrases are semantically equal.

... "Noun + prepositional form of the noun"

These phraseological units in the lexical and grammatical relation are correlated with the noun, in all the dependent components are unchangeable, and the supporting ones form various case forms, have a strictly arranged order of the components: “the struggle for life, running in place, it's in the bag - Czech. ruka je v rukave, caliph for an hour, art for art. "

... "Preposition + name adjective + noun"

According to the lexical and grammatical meaning and syntactic use in the sentence, these phraseological units are equivalent to an adverb, their constituent words are semantically equal, the order of the components is fixed: "at a broken trough, in seventh heaven, with a clear conscience, according to old memory, from time immemorial."

... "Case-prepositional form of a noun + genitive form of a noun"

These phrases can be adverbial or attributive, in them the order of arrangement of the components of phraseological units is fixed: "forever and ever, to the core, in a suit of Adam, in the arms of Morpheus, in the prime of life, worth its weight in gold."

... "Prepositional-case form of a noun + prepositional-case form of a noun"

Phraseologisms of this group in terms of their lexical and grammatical meaning and syntactic functions are equivalent to an adverb, in them the nouns are tautologically repeated, the words forming them are semantically equal, the order of arrangement of the components is fixed: “from dawn to dawn, from cover to cover, from year to year, from the ship to the ball, young and old. "

... "Verb + noun"

Phraseologisms of this group are mainly verb-predicative and act as a predicate in a sentence, the order of arrangement of components and their semantic relationship can be different: "throw a bait, put down roots, burst into laughter, remain silent, prick up your ears."

... "Verb + adverb"

Phraseological turns are verbal and in a sentence they act as a predicate, the components are semantically always equal, the order of the components can be direct and reverse: "see through, get into a mess, break into pieces, be wasted".

... "Participle + noun"

Phraseologisms of this type are equivalent to an adverb, in a sentence they act as a circumstance, the order of the components is fixed: "headlong, reluctantly, with folded hands, carelessly."

... "Constructions with creative unions"

The components of the phraseological unit are homogeneous members of the sentence, expressed by the words of the same part of speech, the order of the components is fixed: "completely and completely, without a rudder and without sails, here and there, at random, oh and sighs."

... "Constructions with subordinate unions"

According to the lexical and grammatical meaning, such phraseological units are adverbial, in which the order of arrangement of the components is fixed, in the beginning there is always a union: "like snow on the head, even a stake on the head, even though the grass does not grow like two drops of water, like a saddle for a cow."

... "Constructions with negation not"

According to the lexical and grammatical meaning, such phraseological units are verbal or adverbial, they perform the function of a predicate or circumstance in a sentence, the components are semantically equal with the fixed order of arrangement: “not sparing the stomach, not eating salty, not a timid dozen, not at ease, not of this world ".

Q.21

Polysemy and homonymy in phraseology

Most phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity: they have only one meaning, their semantic structure is quite monolithic, indecomposable: the stumbling block is "an obstacle", to hover in the clouds is "indulge in fruitless dreams", at first glance - "at first impression", bewildered - "cause extreme difficulty, confusion", etc.

But there are phraseological units that have several meanings. For example, the phraseological unit “wet chicken” can mean: 1) "weak-willed, artless person, brute"; 2) "a person who looks pitiful, depressed; upset about something"; to play the fool - 1) "do nothing"; 2) "behave frivolously, fool around"; 3) "do stupid things."

Polysemy usually arises in phraseological units that have retained a partial motivation of meanings in the language. For example, the phraseological unit baptism of fire, which originally meant "the first participation in a battle", began to be used in a broader sense, indicating "the first serious test in any business." Moreover, polysemy develops more easily in phraseological units that have a holistic meaning and are correlated in their structure with phrases.

The modern language is characterized by the development of figurative, phraseological meaning in terminological combinations: specific gravity, center of gravity, fulcrum, birthmark, lead to one denominator and so on.

Homonymic relations of phraseological units arise when phraseological units of the same composition act in completely different meanings: to take the word 1 - "to speak at a meeting on their own initiative" and to take the floor 2 (from someone) - "to receive a promise from someone, an oath assurance in anything ".

Homonymic phraseological units can appear in a language if the basis of figurative expressions is different signs of the same concept. For example, the phraseologism to let a rooster in the meaning of "start a fire, set something on fire" goes back to the image of a fiery red rooster, which resembles a flame in color and shape of its tail (a variant of phraseological unit is to let a red rooster); the phraseological unit to let (give) a rooster in the meaning of "making fake sounds" was created on the basis of the similarity of the singer's voice, which fell on a high note, with the "singing" of a rooster. This homonymy is the result of a random coincidence of components that form phraseological phrases.

In other cases, the source of phraseological homonyms is the final break in the meanings of polysemantic phraseological units. For example, the meaning of the phraseological unit to walk on tiptoes - "to walk on the tips of the toes" served as the basis for the appearance of its figurative homonym to walk on tiptoes - "to curry favor, to please someone in every possible way." In such cases, it is difficult to draw a line between the phenomenon of the polysemy of phraseological units and the homonymy of two phraseological units.

Special mention should be made of the so-called "external homonymy" of phraseological units and free phrases. For example, the phraseological unit to lather the neck means - "to teach (someone) a lesson, to punish", and the semantics of the free combination to lather the neck is completely motivated by the meanings of the words included in it: lather neck child to wash off all the dirt. In such cases, the context suggests how this or that expression should be understood - as a phraseological unit or as a free combination of words that appear in their usual lexical meaning; for example: A heavy and strong fish rushed ... under the shore. I started take her out to clean water(Paust.). Here the highlighted words are used in their direct meaning, although the metaphorical use of the same phrase has also been fixed in the language - the phraseological unit is to be brought to light.

However, since free phrases are fundamentally different from phraseological units, there is no reason to talk about the homonymy of such expressions in the exact meaning of the term: this is an accidental coincidence of linguistic units of different orders.

Question 22

Synonymy and antonymy in phraseology

Phraseologisms that have a close or identical meaning enter into synonymous relations: with one world of smears - two boots of a pair, one field of berries; innumerable - even a dime a dozen that the sand of the sea, like uncut dogs. Like lexical units, such phraseological units form synonymous series, which may include the corresponding lexical synonyms of the same series; Wed: leave with a nose - leave in a fool, lead around the finger, avert the eyes [someone], rub in [someone's] glasses, take on the gun and: deceive - fool, cheat, go around, inflate, cheat, fool. The richness of phraseological, as well as lexical, synonyms creates enormous expressive possibilities of the Russian language.

Phraseological synonyms can differ from each other in stylistic coloring: leave a stone unturned - bookish, inflict reprisals - common, cut into a nut - colloquial, ask pepper - colloquial; distant lands - common, in the middle of nowhere - vernacular. They may not have semantic differences: a shot sparrow, a grated roll, or they may differ in shades in meanings: beyond the distant lands, where Makar did not drive calves; the first means - "very far away", the second - "to the most remote, remote places, where they are exiled as punishment."

Phraseological synonyms, like lexical ones, can also differ in the degree of intensity of action, manifestation of a sign: shedding tears - shedding tears, drowning in tears, crying out all eyes (each subsequent synonym calls a more intense action compared to the previous one).

Some phraseological synonyms may have some components repeated (if the phraseological units are based on different images, we have the right to call them synonyms): game not worth it candles - sheepskin dressing not worth it , ask bath - ask pepper, hang up head - hang up nose, chase dogs - chase bummer.

From phraseological synonyms, phraseological variants should be distinguished, the structural differences of which do not violate the semantic identity of phraseological units: don't hit face in the dirt - don't hit face in the dirt, throw fishing rod - abandon fishing rod; in the first case, the phraseological variants differ in the grammatical forms of the verb, in the second - in the so-called "variant components".

Phraseological units that are similar in meanings, but differ in compatibility and therefore are used in different contexts, are also not synonymous. So, phraseological units with three boxes and chickens do not bite, although they mean "a lot", but they are used in speech in different ways: the first is combined with the words to utter a slander, chatter, promise, the second - only with the word money.

Antonymic relations in phraseology are less developed than synonymous ones. The antonymy of phraseological units is often supported by the antonymic connections of their lexical synonyms: seven spans in the forehead (smart) - he will not invent gunpowder (stupid); blood with milk (ruddy) - no blood on the face (pale).

Antonymic phraseological units are distinguished into a special group, which partially coincide in composition, but have components opposed in meaning: with a heavy heart - with a light heart, not from a brave ten - not from a cowardly ten, turning your face - turning your back. The components that give such phraseological units the opposite meaning are often lexical antonyms (heavy - light, brave - cowardly), but can get the opposite meaning only as part of phraseological units (face - back)

Question 23

Semantic classification of phraseological units by V.V. Vinogradov

V.V. Vinogradov, who also based his classification on various types of stability, as well as motivation, identified three main types of phraseological units:

*) Phraseological adhesions and idioms - these include phraseological units in which motivation is not traced. They act as word equivalents. As examples of phraseological splices or idioms, you can cite such expressions as headlong, upside down, etc.

*) Phraseological unity - to the phraseological unity are motivated phraseological units that have a common inextricable meaning, which arises as a result of the merger of the meanings of the components, for example: bend into a ram's horn, give a hand, etc. In this group V.V. Vinogradov also includes phrases-terms: nursing home, exclamation mark, etc.

*) Phraseological combinations - these include phrases, which include a component that characterizes a phraseologically related meaning, which manifests itself only within a strictly defined range of concepts and their verbal meanings.

These restrictions are created by the laws inherent in a particular language, for example: goggle, but you cannot say: goggle; flatly refuse, but one cannot say flatly agree, etc. [Vinogradov, 1986].

Classification V.V. Vinogradova is often criticized for the lack of a single classification criterion. The first two groups - concatenation and unity - are delimited based on the motivation of the phraseological unit, and the third group - phraseological combinations - is allocated on the basis of the limited compatibility of the word.

N.M. Shansky adds to the above types of phraseological units one more - phraseological expressions. By them, he understands turnovers that are stable in composition and management, which are not only segmented, but also consisting of words with a free meaning; for example, you love to ride, love to carry sledges, the spool is small, but expensive, etc. [Shansky 1964]

The selection of phraseological expressions seems to be quite logical, since preserving their direct meaning, these lexical combinations are distinguished by a very high degree of stability.

This article will focus on lexicology. What she studies, what she is, into which sections it is divided and what modes of action it has, we will consider right here.

Introduction

Lexicology is a linguistic section that studies vocabulary. We have learned what lexicology studies, and now we will get acquainted with its general and private parts. The latter is engaged in the study of the lexical composition of a particular language. This science has paid all its attention to:

• the word and the meaning it contains;
• word relationship system;
• historical facts through which vocabulary in the modern sense was formed;
• the existing difference of words in terms of functional and stylistic character in a variety of speech spheres.

Object and subject

The word serves as an object that lexicology studies. Another object of study is word formation and morphology. However, if in these sections of sciences the word is a means by which the grammatical structure and word-formation model, as well as language rules, are studied, then in the science of lexicology the word is studied in order to understand the meaning of the word itself and the linguistic vocabulary. She studies not individual linguistic units of oral speech, but, directly, the entire system of language.

What does lexicology study in Russian? First of all, she is engaged in the consideration of the Russian and Slavic languages, which had an active development in the course of historical events.

The subject of lexicology is

• The word, as a part of the language, considered with the help of word theory.
• The structure of the linguistic composition of words.
• The functionality of the lexical unit.
• Possible ways to replenish the language composition.
• Relationship with a non-linguistic type of activity, for example, with culture.

Main Sections

Lexicology is the science that studies vocabulary, its foundation. Science is quite extensive and has many sections, including:

• onomasiology - a section on the process of naming objects;
• semasiology - a section that studies words and phrases, namely their meaning;
• phraseology - studies the dictionary relationship between each other and among themselves;
• onomastics - busy with the study of existing names;
• etymology - the section that drew attention to the historical origin of the word, also considers the abundance of the vocabulary in general;
• lexicography - focused on theory and practice in compiling dictionaries;
• stylistics - a section that studies the meaning of sayings and words of the connotative type.

Total information

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language, and the number of words in it is impossible to count. One, only seventeen-volume collection of the "Dictionary of Modern R.Ya." includes over 130,000 words, and the Oxford Dictionary contains over 300,000 words.

Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language, among which there are also little-known units of speech, such as agnonyms, which refer to words with an incomprehensible meaning.

Speech units that are used often belong to the active vocabulary of the language. There are frequency dictionaries with which you can identify frequently used words. However, there is the concept of a passive vocabulary, which includes elements of the language that carry information about something, but are used relatively rarely. Such words belong to a limitedly used vocabulary - a dialectal, professional or slang word.

Vocabulary expansion

We have learned what lexicology studies, and now we will turn our attention to the ways by which the vocabulary is replenished.

The phenomenon of borrowing vocabulary from the languages ​​of other peoples belongs to one of the main such paths. Taken a long time ago, foreign words are now considered primordially Russian. However, very often this is not the case, an example of this is the unit of speech - bread, which came to Russian from German. Due to borrowing, the original meaning of the word may change.

Another way of enriching lexical components is the formation of a new series of words. Such components of speech are called neologisms.

The further development of the fate of new words can be varied: some lose their novelty and are fixed among other elements of the language, others can be considered new formations created by an individual author (occasionalisms). The expansion of the boundaries of vocabulary is also due to the development of a new set of meanings for words that have been known for a long time and well.

Words that have sunk into oblivion

Lexicology studies words, among which obsolete units of the language are also considered. Due to the influence of time on the word, by the way, it goes out of use. This can be observed, for example, when an object or phenomenon, which was often used earlier, disappears. These words are called historicisms. The disappearance of such a word also leads to the loss of reality, which it carries in itself, but sometimes the realities themselves do not disappear, but are renamed and called archaisms.

Vocabulary as a movable type system

The vocabulary is like a system capable of promotion. This allows us to determine that words have a diverse relationship with each other for various semantic reasons. These words include synonyms - speech units that differ in form, but are close to each other in meaning.

There are words that are related to each other by the presence of a common cause in the opposite sense - antonyms. They indicate opposite "things." The opposite meaning in one speech unit is called enantiosemia. An example is the phrases: "listen" in the understanding of the phrase "listen carefully", and in the understanding of "turn a deaf ear".

The connection of words can be expressed in the form. Almost every language carries words that have an external identity and can have different meanings. An example is the variety of meanings of the word - braid, which can be both an agricultural tool and a hair plexus. This type of words are called homonyms.

Homonyms, in turn, include different types of distinction of the same character. If linguistic units coincide in "form" of sounding only if there are separate reasons, then such words are called homoforms. Words that coincide in spelling, but differ in sound, led to the creation of the term - homograph. If the pronunciation is the same, but the spelling is different, then this word is called a homophone.

Paronyms include similar words, but differing in identity in terms of the characteristics of form and meaning. They also perfectly show us the essence of the formal type of communication.

There is a concept of interlingual homonyms and paronyms. Such words have formal similarities, but in different languages ​​they can have many meanings. They are called "false friends of translators."

Lexical units

Lexicology, as a branch of linguistics, studies the vocabulary components of any languages, and knows that they have the greatest diversity and heterogeneity. There are categories that have been distinguished due to the presence in them of special distinctive outlines. In the lexicology of the Russian language, the following many subspecies are foreseen:

• according to the spheres of application, they are divided into: the commonly used type of words and units of vocabulary, which are used under the confluence of special circumstances in science, poetry, vernacular, dialect, etc .;
• by the value of the emotional load, which include units of speech, colored by the emotional or neutral "color";
• in accordance with historical development, divided into archaisms and neologisms;
• on the history of origin and development dividing into internationalism, borrowing, etc .;
• in accordance with the functionality - units of vocabulary of the active and passive type;

Given the continuous development of languages, what lexicology considers includes insurmountable learning boundaries that are constantly expanding and changing.

Lexical problems

In this science, there is a concept of some of the problems that it is engaged in studying. Among them are:

1. Structural problematics, decisive form of word perception, structural basis of its elements.
2. A semantic problem dealing with the study of the meaning of a lexical unit.
3. Functional problems of the general system of language, exploring the role of words and speech units in the language itself.

Speaking about the first problem, and the aspect of development, we can summarize that this science is busy with the establishment of specific criteria by which it is possible to determine the differences and identity of a separate series of words. To avoid this, a lexical unit is compared with a phrase, while a structure for analysis is developed, which makes it possible to establish the invariance of words.

The semantic problem expresses itself the question of semasiology - a science that studies the relationship between words and specific objects. In lexicology, this is one of the extremely important objects of study. His study focuses on the meaning of a word, its individual categories and types, which allows you to create terms: monosymy (uniqueness) and polysymmy (polysemy). Lexicology tries to investigate the causal relationships that lead to the loss or appearance of new meanings in words.

A functional problem tries to study a lexical unit, in the form of an object that connects with another similar element and creates an integral linguistic system. In this understanding, the role of the interaction of grammar with vocabulary is considered extremely important. They can both support and limit each other.

conclusions

We have determined that lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language, its structure, disappearing units of speech, for example, such as historicisms, built an idea of ​​the meaning of words. We examined their types and variations, identified the problems of this science. Thanks to this, we can summarize that its importance cannot be overestimated, since it is extremely important for the general system of the language and for tracking the tendencies of its development.