Psychological workshop in the developing science of man. Gamezo M., Domashenko I. Atlas of Psychology. Informational methodical manual for the course "Human Psychology". List of basic and additional literature
The main goal of the discipline "General psychological practice" is to familiarize students with the methods and techniques that are used in psychological research, methods of obtaining empirical data, as well as initial statistical analysis.
The objectives of the course are not only to form holistic ideas about this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge, but also to develop practical skills necessary to solve a wide range of problems. Provide knowledge about: requirements for techniques; varieties of methods and techniques of psychological research; planning experimental research; maintenance, processing and interpretation of the obtained data.
This practical course is closely related to such courses as "General Psychology", "Personality Psychology", "Psychodiagnostics", "Higher Mathematics", "Informatics in Psychology", etc.
The course consists of IV sections. Section I describes the methods and techniques of general psychological research, Section II describes the methods and techniques used to study cognitive processes, Section III is devoted to the peculiarities of studying the emotional-volitional sphere of the individual, Section IV introduces the methods of studying personality traits.
A feature of the author's concept of teaching is that students get acquainted not only with the methods widely used in the work of practical psychologists, but also get an idea of \u200b\u200bconducting experimental research, which has undeservedly lost popularity in recent years.
Section I. Theoretical foundations of general psychological research
Topic 1. Research methods in psychology
Object and subject of general psychological research. Classification of research methods: organizational methods, empirical research, methods of analysis of experimental material, interpretation methods. Requirements for the development of techniques.
Topic 2. Basics of data analysis of psychological research
Measurement scales. Features of the selection of a representative sample. Fundamentals of Descriptive Statistics. Experiment and its planning. One-dimensional and multi-dimensional scaling. The method of point assessments. Factor analysis.
Section II. Empirical Research on Cognitive Processes
Topic 3. Research of memory
The psychological status of memory as a process. The value of memory in human life and activities. Scientific definition of memory. Memory processes: memorization, preservation, reproduction, recognition, forgetting. The main classifications of types of memory: according to the time of saving information, according to modality, according to the connection with the emotional-volitional sphere, according to the use of mnemonic means. Features of short-term and long-term memory. Visual and auditory memory. Involuntary and voluntary memory. Analysis of the ratio of voluntary and involuntary memorization. Individual psychological differences in memory. The influence of the nature of the memorized material (volume, degree of homogeneity, familiarity, meaningfulness), the organization of the material by the subject (rhythmic, configurational, semantic groupings) and the structure of exercises (optimal distribution). The role of attitudes, motivation and emotional reactions in memory processes. Interrupted actions technique (Zeigarnik effect).
Topic 4. Attention studies
Attention as a cognitive process. Properties of attention. Classification of attention. Methods for studying the properties of attention. Dependence of the volume and stability of attention on the structure of the material, the nature of the activity and personality attitudes. Factors determinants of switching and distribution of attention. Dependence of successful problem solving on individual properties of attention. Selective attention.
Topic 5. Feeling and perception
Definition of sensations and perceptions. Properties of sensations. Sensory systems. Classification of sensations. Sensory Sensitivity. Sensation thresholds. Scaling of sensations. Psychophysics: subject and research methods. Characteristics of perceptions. Optical-geometric illusions. Perception and movement. Research methods of perceptual processes. The concept of structure (form) in the psychology of perception. Installation is the basis for the formation of a sensory image. Pattern recognition process Environmental validity of objects of perception. Perception and personality. Personal constructs (J. Kelly). Self-perception. Sociocultural factors of perception. Perception of a person by a person. Mechanisms of interpersonal perception. The dynamics of perception in the process of communication.
Topic 6. Thinking and imagination
Research methods of thinking in psychology. General, general psychological and particular methods. Methods of observation, conversation and experiment. Study of the products of mental activity. The method of semantic introspection. Intelligent operations, their composition. Methods for solving problems. The subject and method of the study of thinking. Study of the conditions for the emergence of "insight" using the hint method. Individual structure of intelligence and creativity. Empirical descriptions of a creative person. Cross-cultural studies of thinking.
Section III. Studies of the emotional-volitional sphere of personality
Topic 7. Emotions and feelings
The concept of emotions. Affects, feelings and moods, their psychological characteristics. The biological expediency of emotions. Qualitative differences between the emotions of animals and humans. Functions of emotions. Classification of emotional phenomena. Fundamental types of emotions and their description. Emotions and feelings. Connection of experiences with feelings. Types of experiences. Characteristics of the processes of experience. Anxiety. Two aspects of studying the phenomenon of anxiety. Emotional anxiety as a personal characteristic or as a mental state. Frustration. Types of reactions of a person in a state of frustration. Stress (tension). General understanding of stress. Emotionality as a personality trait. Experimental study of the expression of emotions: a) mimic, pantomimic and speech manifestations of emotions: b) physiological indicators of emotions; c) the problem of the reliability of various indicators of emotions. Emotion measurement methods.
Topic 8. Will
Self-regulation and self-management of activities. Volitional regulation of mental cognitive processes. Locus of control. The concept of "internality". Volitional personality traits.
Section IV. Psychological research of personality
Topic 9. Temperament and character
Temperament in the teachings of Hippocrates. Determination of the properties of the nervous system. Properties of temperament. Temperamental questionnaires. Personality typologies. Accentuation of character. Factorial theories of personality. Personality orientation. Affiliation motivation. Revealing communication and organizational skills. Success motivation. Research methods of personality self-control. Study of egocentric associations.
Issues for discussion
The problem of the relationship between the subject and method of psychology. Methodological principles of psychological science.
General characteristics of the methods of psychology. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method of psychological research?
Research method and technique. What are the differences between these two concepts?
Read the description of Stanley Milgram's Submission Experiment. Formulate a set of questions that you would like to ask the researcher.
Do you think there may be ethical restrictions on the dissemination of some psychological research data?
What methods of psychology can be used in the process of pedagogical activity?
Self-study assignments
Prepare written answers to the following questions:
What are the differences between everyday and scientific knowledge? What, in your opinion, are the differences between everyday psychology and scientific psychology? Give examples of well-established "psychological" beliefs in everyday life.
Branches of modern psychological science?
In what spheres of public life today is it impossible to do without psychological knowledge?
What place does psychology take or can take in your life? Describe those areas of your own life where the psychological knowledge you are gaining can be used.
Gippenreiter, Yu.B. Introduction to General Psychology. - M., 1998, p. 22-88.
Godefroy, J. What is psychology In 2 volumes - M., 1994, vol. 1, p. 101-126.
Myers, D. Social Psychology. - SPb., 1997, pp. 278-285.
Workshop number 2. The main stages in the development of ideas about the subject of psychology
Issues for discussion
Development of psychology within the framework of philosophy. Materialistic and idealistic trends in the study of the psyche in the history of psychology.
Psychology as a science of behavior. Behaviorism about the subject of psychology.
The contribution of psychoanalysis to the development of ideas about the human psyche.
Humanistic psychology.
Domestic psychology.
1. Make a table showing the contribution of each of the areas of psychology you know to science and practice. It is recommended to include the following sections in the table: name of the direction, leading representatives, subject of research, methods of studying the subject, main provisions, possibilities of practical application.
2. The famous American psychologist Albert Bandura argued that a person learns through the assimilation of social models, role models demonstrated to a person by society. Analyze the content of one or more television programs (radio programs, magazine articles). What role model is she relaying? What does it teach?
1. Gippenreiter, Yu.B. Introduction to General Psychology: A Course of Lectures. - M., 1998 .-- 3-36 p.
2. Reader on the history of psychology / Ed. P.Ya. Galperin, A.N. Zhdan. - M., Moscow State University, 1980 .-- S. 14-44.
3. Reader for the course "Introduction to Psychology": Textbook / Ed. E.E. Sokolova. - M., 1999. - Section II. - S. 68-296.
Workshop number 3. The image of "I" and the possibility of studying it
A personality in psychology is a systemic socio-psychological quality of a person that forms and develops in him in the process of life in society as he masters various types of activity and communication. The personality exists in the space of various relationships characteristic of society. Having consciousness, a person orients himself in a complex system of relationships, enters into interactions, realizes himself, comparing with others, experiences situations of success and failure. The motivational function of activity and communication is realized in the form of impulses, drives, desires, direction due to such personality components as needs, motives, interests. Orientation in life, especially in people, including in oneself, in interpersonal relationships, is possible thanks to cognitive processes and is revealed not only in concepts, judgments, ideas and inferences, but also in ideals, self-awareness, beliefs, worldview. Realization of human behavior, programming of his activities and communication are associated with goal-setting, abilities, attitudes and beliefs. Regulation and control of activities, communication and relationships occurs not only due to temperament and character, but also the claims and self-esteem of the individual.
Issues for discussion
The driving forces of human mental development and the formation of his personality. The role of biological and social components in human development and the formation of his personality.
The image of "I". Self-esteem and the level of personality claims.
General understanding of the self-concept.
The structure of the self-concept and its properties.
Self-Esteem Research
Purpose of the study: to determine the level of self-esteem. Material and equipment: a list of words or a special form with words characterizing individual personality traits, a pen.
This study has two significantly differing in the procedure options for determining the self-esteem of a person. In both cases, you can work with one subject or with a group.
First research option
The research of self-esteem in this version of the methodology is based on the method of ranking. The research procedure includes two series. The material the subjects work with is a list of words that characterize individual personality traits printed on a special form. Each subject receives such a form at the beginning of the study. When working with a group of subjects, it is important to ensure strict independence of the ranking.
First episode
Task of the first series: to reveal a person's idea of \u200b\u200bthe qualities of his ideal, that is, the ideal "I". For this, the words printed on the form, the subject must arrange in order of preference.
Instructions for the subject:"Read carefully all the words that characterize personality traits. Consider these qualities in terms of their inherent ideal personality, that is, in terms of usefulness, social significance and desirability. To do this, rank them, rating each in points from 20 to 1. Grade 20 on the form, in column 1 to the left of the quality that, in your opinion, is the most useful and desirable for people.
A score of 1 is in the same column # 1 to the left of the quality that is least useful, meaningful, and desirable. Place all other marks from 19 to 2 in accordance with your attitude to all other qualities. Make sure that no assessment is repeated twice. "
Second episode
Problem of the second series: to reveal the idea of \u200b\u200ba person about his own qualities, that is, his "I" is real. As in the first series, the subject is asked to rank the words printed on the form, but from the point of view of the specificity or inherent character of the personality traits indicated by them to himself.
Instructions for the subject: "Read again all the words that characterize the personality traits. Consider these qualities in terms of their inherent in you. Rank them in column number 2, rating each from 20 to 1. Grade 20 - put to the right of the quality that you think is inherent in you to the greatest extent, grade 19 - give the quality that is characteristic of you a little less than the first, etc. Then the grade 1 for you will indicate the quality that is inherent in you less than everyone else. -Ranks are not repeated twice. "
The form with words characterizing personality traits looks like this.
Form
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Personality traits | ||||
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Compliance | ||||
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Courage | ||||
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Irascibility | ||||
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Nervousness | ||||
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Patience | ||||
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Addictiveness | ||||
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Passivity | ||||
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Cold | ||||
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Enthusiasm | ||||
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Caution | ||||
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Capriciousness | ||||
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Slowness | ||||
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Indecision | ||||
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Energy | ||||
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Cheerfulness | ||||
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Dubiousness | ||||
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Stubbornness | ||||
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Carelessness | ||||
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Shyness | ||||
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Responsibility |
Processing of results
The purpose of processing the results is to determine the relationship between the rank assessments of personality traits included in the representations of "I" - ideal and "I" real. The measure of connection is established using the coefficient of rank correlation of C. Spearman. Grades from 1 to 20 of the proposed qualities in both ranks are taken for their ranks. The difference in ranks that determine the place of a particular personality quality makes it possible to calculate the coefficient using the formula:
n - the number of proposed personality traits (n \u003d 20);
d is the difference in rank numbers.
To calculate the coefficient, you must first calculate on the form, in a specially designated column, the difference in rank (d) for each proposed quality. Then each obtained value of the difference in rank (d) is squared and the result is written on the form in column (d), summed up and the sum (∑d 2) is entered into the formula.
The rank correlation coefficient (r) can range from –1 to +1. If the obtained coefficient is not less than -0.37 and not more than +0.37 (at p \u003d 0.05), then this indicates a weak insignificant connection (or its absence) between a person's ideas about the qualities of his ideal and his real qualities. Such an indicator may be caused by non-observance of the instructions by the subject. But if the instruction was carried out, then a small connection means a fuzzy and undifferentiated representation by a person of his ideal "I" and "I" real.
The value of the correlation coefficient from +0.38 to +1 is evidence of a significant positive relationship between "I" - ideal and "I" - real. This can be interpreted as a manifestation of adequate self-esteem or, with R from +0.39 to -0.89, a tendency to overestimate. But, values \u200b\u200bfrom + 0.9 to +1 often express inadequately overestimated self-esteem. The value of the correlation coefficient in the range from –0.38 to –1 indicates the presence of a significant negative relationship between "I" - ideal "and" I "- real". It reflects the discrepancy or discrepancy between a person's ideas about how he needs to be and what he, in his opinion, really is. This discrepancy is proposed to be interpreted as low self-esteem. The closer the coefficient is to -1, the greater the degree of mismatch.
Second research option
The second variant of self-assessment research is based on the method of choice. The material is a list of words that characterize individual personality traits. This research option also consists of two series.
First episode
The task of the first series: to determine the list and the number of reference qualities of the desired and undesirable image - I. The subject is asked to look through the words from the list and, having chosen, make two rows. In one row it is necessary to write down the words denoting those qualities of personality that relate to the subjective ideal, that is, they constitute a "positive" set, and in the other row - those qualities that are undesirable, that is, they constitute a "negative" set.
Instructions to the subject: "Look carefully at the list of suggested words that characterize personality. In the left column on a piece of paper, write down those qualities that you would like to have in yourself, and in the right column, those that you would not like to have in yourself. Qualities, the meaning of which is You do not understand or which you cannot refer to either one or the other column, do not write anywhere. Do not think about whether you have this quality or not, only one thing is important: you want to have it or not. "
Second episode
The task of the second series: to determine the set of personality traits of the subject, which, in his opinion, are inherent in him, among the selected reference qualities of the "positive" and "negative" set.
Instructions to the subject: "Look carefully at the words you wrote down in the left and right columns and mark with a cross or a tick those qualities that, in your opinion, are inherent in you."
List of personality traits
Accuracy, carelessness, thoughtfulness, quick temper, receptivity, pride, rudeness, cheerfulness, solicitude, envy, shyness, rancor, sincerity, sophistication, capriciousness, gullibility, slowness, dreaminess, suspiciousness, vindictiveness, persistence, tenderness, ease, indecision, indecision intemperance, charm, touchiness, caution, responsiveness, pedantry, mobility, suspicion, integrity, poetry, contempt, cordiality, swagger, rationality, decisiveness, self-forgetfulness, restraint, compassion, bashfulness, patience, cowardice, enthusiasm, stubbornness, compliance enthusiasm.
Processing of results
Purpose of processing the results - obtaining self-assessment coefficients for "positive" (CO +) and "negative" (CO-) sets. To calculate each of the coefficients, the number of qualities in the column, determined by the subject as inherent in him (M), is divided by the total number of qualities in this column (N). The formulas for calculating the coefficients are as follows
M + M- CO + \u003d ––; CO– \u003d ––; where H + H-
M + and M- - the number of qualities in the "positive" and "negative" sets, respectively, marked by the subject as inherent in him; H + and H- - the number of reference qualities, i.e. the number of words in the right and left columns, respectively.
The level and adequacy of self-esteem are determined on the basis of the obtained coefficients using the table.
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Self-esteem |
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inadequate, overestimated |
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adequate with a tendency to overestimate |
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adequate |
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adequate with a tendency to underestimate |
||
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inadequate, underestimated |
When determining the level of self-esteem and its adequacy, it is important to take into account not only the value of the obtained coefficient, but also the number of qualities that make up a particular set (H + and H-). The fewer the qualities, the more primitive the corresponding standard. In addition, the level of self-esteem for the "positive" and "negative" scores in some subjects may not coincide. This requires special analysis and can be caused by the defense mechanisms of the personality.
Analysis of the results
In the two proposed variants of the study of self-esteem, its level and adequacy are defined as the relationship between the ideal "I" and the real "I". A person's ideas about himself, as a rule, seem convincing to him, regardless of whether they are based on objective knowledge or subjective opinion, whether they are true or false. The qualities that a person ascribes to himself are far from always adequate. The process of self-assessment can occur in two ways: 1) by comparing the level of their claims with the objective results of their activities and 2) by comparing themselves with other people.
However, regardless of whether self-esteem is based on a person's own judgments about oneself or interpretations of other people's judgments, individual ideals or culturally defined standards, self-esteem is always subjective, and its indicators can be adequacy and level.
The adequacy of self-esteem expresses the degree of correspondence between a person's ideas about himself and the objective grounds of these ideas. So, for example, inadequacy in assessing one's appearance can be caused, on the one hand, by a person's orientation towards external standards, assessments and a distorted idea of \u200b\u200bthese assessments or ignorance of them, on the other hand.
The level of self-esteem expresses the degree of real and ideal or desired representations of oneself. Adequate self-esteem with a tendency to overestimate can be equated with a positive attitude towards oneself, self-esteem, self-acceptance, a sense of one's own usefulness. Low self-esteem, on the contrary, may be associated with a negative attitude towards oneself, rejection of oneself, a feeling of one's own inferiority.
Conclusions about the adequacy and level of self-esteem will be reliable if the results are the same for the two versions of the methodology or are confirmed by observation.
In the process of forming self-esteem, an important role is played by comparing the image of the real "I" with the image of the ideal "I". Therefore, the one who achieves in reality the characteristics corresponding to the ideal will have high self-esteem, even if the ideal image does not differ in volume and cognitive complexity. If a person reflects on the gap between these characteristics and the reality of their achievements, their self-esteem is likely to be low.
The second factor, which is important for the formation of self-esteem, is associated with the interiorization of the assessments and social reactions of other people, as well as with the position chosen by a person in the system of social and interpersonal relations. Adequate self-esteem contributes to the achievement of internal coherence.
Self-esteem and a person's attitude towards themselves are closely related to the level of aspirations, motivation and emotional characteristics of the individual. Self-esteem determines the interpretation of the acquired experience and the expectations of a person regarding himself and other people.
Internal inconsistency and distortion of the self-image can give rise to suffering in a person, a feeling of guilt, shame, resentment, disgust, anger. To harmonize the self-attitude system, there are methods of psychological correction and development, one of which is social and psychological training.
Self-study assignments
Describe your "I-concept" and its role in regulating your behavior?
Give a detailed definition of the concepts: self-awareness, self-knowledge, self-efficacy, self-presentation.
1. Burns, R. Development of the self-concept and its properties. - M., 1986 .-- S. 30-66.
2. Granovskaya, R.M. Elements of practical psychology. - L., 1988. –S. 271-294.
3. Myers, D. Social psychology / Transl. from English - SPb .: "Peter", 1997. - Ch. 2. - S. 64-79.
The proposed textbook was written by a team of employees of the Faculty of Psychology, Moscow State University. MV Lomonosov Moscow State University as a guide for students to master the general methods of data collection used in psychology: observation method, survey method, conversation method, measurement method, test method and experiment method. These methods, in accordance with their name, are widely used by all psychologists, regardless of their specialty or specialization, to solve the main professional tasks: conducting research, psychodiagnostic examination, and providing psychological assistance to people. In a scientific study, these methods are used to empirically substantiate the theoretical explanations proposed by scientists, in a psychodiagnostic examination - to empirically substantiate conclusions about certain psychological characteristics of individuals or groups, in the provision of psychological assistance - to empirically substantiate the interventions carried out by a psychologist into people's lives and assess the effectiveness of these interventions. For students of higher educational institutions studying in all specialties and specializations of psychology, in the discipline "General psychological practice". Recommended for publication by the Academic Council of the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov.
The work belongs to the genre Educational literature. It was published in 2017 by Peter Publishing. The book is part of the series "Textbook for universities. Standard of the third generation (Peter)". On our site you can download the book "General psychological practice" in fb2, rtf, epub, pdf, txt format or read online. Here you can also, before reading, refer to the reviews of readers who are already familiar with the book, and find out their opinions. In the online store of our partner, you can buy and read a book in paper form.
Series Editor K. V. Yagnyuk
© Kogito-Center, 2014 ISBN 978-5-89353-430-6
From the author
The words "psychology" and "psychologist" leave few people indifferent. Society and its individual representatives expect psychology to solve a variety of problems, and too often their expectations are deceived, so the "psychologist" is sometimes pronounced with superstitious reverence, like a "sorcerer" or "all-knowing wizard", and often, on the contrary, with disappointment and disdain.
Many considerations can be made about the reasons for such a biased and ambiguous attitude towards psychology, but now we will touch on only one of them. The fact is that the very word "psychology" can refer to completely different concepts and areas of human activity. Many people confuse different meanings of this word and substitute one for another.
There is psychology like the science; like any science, it is engaged in identifying patterns, formulating and testing hypotheses, generalizing the data obtained, etc.
However, there is psychology practical, that is, techniques and methods of providing psychological assistance to people, an integral part of professional activity. Knowledge and skills of practical psychology can be basic for work if this is the work of a practical psychologist, but can be used in other professions - a teacher, social worker, doctor, sales manager, PR manager, etc.
How do scientific and practical psychology relate to each other? In much the same way as biology and medicine or physics and technology. Science is the theoretical basis of practice, unthinkable without it, but there is not much in common between them. No one will demand from a biologist to heal people, but from a physicist to design complex mechanisms.
With psychology, unfortunately, everything is much more complicated. Professional training of psychologists is still reduced mainly to the study of the intricacies of psychological science, and the society is in demand, first of all, the practice; graduates of numerous psychology departments are expected to have practical knowledge and skills that, alas, they usually do not possess. On the other hand, if practicing psychologists who have not received a "correct" psychological education, delve into psychological science in search of answers to their questions, most often they do not find these answers (although this does not mean that they really are not there!).
There is also another psychology - everyday, "Specialist" in which each of us is, but about it a little later.
This book is aimed, first of all, at those who are interested in practical psychology, whether they are students - psychologists and students of psychology - or simply those who are passionate about psychology, therefore its main content is practical tasks, and the book is intended not so much for reading as for their implementation.
However, the author is a "classical" psychologist who respects psychological science, and therefore each task is preceded by a theoretical introduction, without the study of which its implementation is of little use, if at all feasible. The task of the book is to show the reader the possibilities of scientific psychology for understanding and explaining practical and everyday psychological phenomena, to make connections from scientific psychology to everyday and practical.
No special knowledge is needed to work with a book, but an interest in live contact with a person is very desirable, which is always much more complicated than any scientific theories. A willingness to invest energy, time, thoughts is necessary, because when we are faced with the need to understand not an abstract subject, but a specific Vasya or Masha, we very quickly realize that there are no right and wrong answers and there cannot be, and the best book guide is just a tip for your own thoughts. It is important not to be afraid to make mistakes and at the same time to remember that a person is not a "guinea pig", our mistakes can cost him dearly.
This publication is based on the book “Psychological Workshop for Dummies” (Barlas, 2001), which summarized the experience of working with students of the second higher education - adults who have chosen psychology as their profession and have considerable everyday psychological experience. Over the years that have passed since then, a wider circle of students has worked with assignments: students of the first higher education - future psychologists and educational psychologists, students of "non-psychological" specialties, schoolchildren. Many new tasks were invented for them, and the experience of working with old ones has increased significantly. Now the need for a new edition is ripe.
During the preparation of the new version of the workshop, the number and topics of the assignments expanded significantly, and recommendations and new examples were added to most of the old assignments based on the experience of working with them. Several tasks that turned out to be too time-consuming or not very interesting to complete were excluded.
In addition, the book received a new structure; it consists of four chapters, each of which is a new step in mastering the experience of practical psychology. The first chapter acquaints the reader with the "classical" methods of psychology - experiment, conversation, observation, etc. Most of the tasks in this section are relatively simple, they are available to everyone, and I hope they are interesting to perform.
The second chapter makes it possible to use the methods familiar from the first chapter in various areas of practical psychology: in working with children, recruiting personnel, studying the psychology of the urban environment, the peculiarities of decision-making in everyday life, etc. Tasks are generally more difficult than in the first chapter, they require a more serious attitude, and some also have "everyday baggage" that can help build interaction in difficult situations.
The third chapter is devoted to an in-depth study of the most subtle and delicate structures of the psyche - the motivational and personal sphere. The fulfillment of tasks presupposes a high level of involvement of the subject, they may have pronounced emotional reactions. Those who work with the subject and then analyze the results will need sensitivity, adherence to ethical standards, the ability to correlate a person's intuitive everyday understanding with the results of his performance of psychological methods.
Most of the assignments in the first three chapters are modifications of well-known techniques, whose authorship is not always possible to determine. Modifications, as well as the principles of analysis and interpretation, were created, as a rule, on the basis of many years of experience in performing tasks by students and are author's developments.
The fourth chapter is different from the first three; its task is to master scientific psychology on the basis of everyday psychological wisdom embodied in fiction, songs, advertising and other realities of our life. When completing assignments, you will need the ability to think, compare, as well as imagination and ... a sense of humor.
In conclusion, I would like to thank the students, without whose works this book could not have appeared: students of the Institute of Practical Psychology and Psychoanalysis (second higher education, specialty "psychological counseling"), students of the Moscow State Linguistic University (first higher education, specialties "psychology", " pedagogy and psychology "," psychological and pedagogical education "," tourism "), high school students of the Lyceum No. 1555 in Moscow. Thanks to their questions, mistakes, perplexities, considerations, thanks to the reports, fragments of which made up the bulk of the examples, this book was born. Thank!
General guidance for completing assignments
The main stages of the task
The tasks in the book are quite heterogeneous, but the sequence and execution plan are common to most of them (although not to all). Therefore, we will list its main stages.
1. Statement of purpose and hypothesis... The goal is what will determine all future work; formulating a goal, you decide what exactly you want to know, completing the task, what result you expect to get. For the tasks given in the book, there are several options for goals:
- Research goal, that is, the identification or verification of psychological patterns. Of course, it is unlikely that you will be able to discover something new or even test a well-known fact in accordance with the strict canons of psychological science, but you can make your own small discoveries. The research goal is formulated approximately as follows: "Revealing the relationship between ....", "Revealing the features of the influence ... on ...", "Analysis of changes ... depending on ...", "Comparison of effectiveness ...".
- The diagnostic goal, that is, the identification of the individual psychological characteristics of the subject. In this case, the goal is roughly the following: "Analysis (study, identification) of the characteristics ... (name of the mental process, properties, state that you are studying) of the subject."
- Educational (developing, forming a goal), or training, the development of some psychological properties, characteristics of the subject. The goal is formulated accordingly.
Please note that there is usually only one goal in each assignment.
The hypothesis characterizes the result that you suppose, expect to receive. Even if you have no guesses, a hypothesis is usually worth formulating; if it is not confirmed, there is nothing surprising in this: hypotheses are often not confirmed.
2. Preparation... First of all, carefully read the corresponding section of the book (both the theoretical part and the text of the assignment itself) and make sure that you understand what and how you should do. Prepare the necessary materials, convenient recording accessories, texts of tests and methods, equipment for audio or video recording, etc. The texts with which the subject will work must be copied from the book so that there is nothing superfluous in front of the subject during the work.
This stage also includes the choice of a subject, an agreement on the place and time of the study (more on this will be discussed below).
3. Completion of the taskdetailed for each task.
4. Processing of results -transcribing audio recordings, putting in order the recordings that were made directly during the assignment, calculations or other actions in accordance with the assignment manual.
5. Analysis and discussion of results- the most creative part of the job; this is something that is almost impossible to teach, but you can learn from your own experience, and this process lasts as long as the psychologist works. In addition to the directions in each section and the questions that will guide you in your analysis, what advice can you give to a beginner?
First, do not be afraid that everything turned out completely different from what it is written in a book or textbook. Rather, on the contrary, it will be surprising if everything goes "as it should": this almost never happens. That is why psychology is interesting because human behavior is much more diverse than, say, a chemical reaction or the movement of physical bodies, and depends on a huge number of factors, most of which are simply unknown to you. However, you can think, compare facts, ask yourself questions, put forward hypotheses, look for sources of their verification, confirm and refute.
Secondly, the source of information, and therefore the basis for the formulation of hypotheses and conclusions, is practically everything that happens during the study (therefore it is important to collect and record this information as fully as possible): questions and remarks that seem to be not related to the assignment, features of clothing, grammatical errors, handwriting, drawings in the margins and much more. All this should be noticed and, if possible, analyzed and used. At the same time, the basis for the analysis should still be the task itself and what is associated with its goal.
Remember to substantiate your assumptions. A single fact, as a rule, is not yet a basis for a conclusion, but only for a hypothesis that needs verification. How can you try to check it? Look for confirmation among the available material and additional information (for example, from the available information about the life of the subject). Ask questions to the subject. Conduct additional research. Finally, if none of the above succeeds, and the hypothesis seems important and plausible to you, it remains a hypothesis and in this form is put forward in the conclusion, that is, expressed as something possible or probable.
Try to avoid bias, no matter how difficult it is. It is very easy to be captivated by stereotypes that have developed on the basis of everyday experience, opinions, ideas. However, the advantage of psychological research lies in the fact that it demonstrates new and sometimes unexpected sides of seemingly familiar people and phenomena.
6. Formulation of conclusions... Conclusions, as a rule, correspond to the purpose of the task and the hypothesis; they briefly formulate the main results obtained. At the same time, if in the course of the work interesting data were obtained that were not provided for by the objectives of the study (for example, when studying memory, information was obtained about some significant features of motivation or interpersonal relations), then this information should also be included in the conclusions.
As a rule, conclusions logically follow from the discussion, but unlike it, they are short (usually each conclusion is one phrase), do not contain justification and argumentation. Conclusions should be as clear as possible.
The number of conclusions is usually small: one or two, perhaps three, but hardly more.
7. Reflection of the gained experience... Teaching practical psychology involves not only mastering the theoretical knowledge of methods and techniques, but also self-change, personal growth of the psychologist (as you know, “the main tool of the psychologist's work is himself”).
Psychology cannot be learned by training on rats or dummies. Psychology training is a contact with a person who is always unpredictable, even when working with a seemingly simple task. In the course of performing many tasks, you will have to act in a new role for yourself as a psychologist (albeit a beginner), to face unusual situations, possibly with quite strong, including negative experiences of the subjects. It is desirable to realize and comprehend this experience.
The foregoing explains why reflection is an important stage in the work on an assignment. Here is a sample list of questions to be answered:
- What seemed difficult when completing the assignment?
- What thoughts and feelings did you experience while completing the assignment?
- Did you enjoy completing the task? Why?
- Did you find the task useful? Why?
- What would you change in your actions when you repeat the task?
8. Reporting... This step is required for students. The rest can be advised to do at least part of the work on the preparation of the report in writing. The presentation of thoughts on paper stimulates thinking, allows you to clearly express and formalize your ideas, and often the most interesting of them are born precisely in the process of writing a text. In addition, the writing of conclusions is one of the essential elements of the work of a practical psychologist, which requires training.
The design of the report must meet the requirements of the teacher, but its approximate structure is as follows:
- Job title.
- Brief theoretical information on the topic. This part may be brief or absent altogether if the theoretical preparation for the assignment is reduced to studying the manual. If the author independently studied the literature on the topic, then the information important for the performance of the work is set out in this section.
- Purpose of work.
- Hypothesis.
- Subject (subjects, observed). For a task performed on one or two or three subjects, the name (fictitious or nickname can be used) or initials, gender, age, occupation (for a student with an indication of the course and future specialty) must be reported. Other information (for example, marital status, hobbies, school performance, left-handedness) is given or not, depending on the content of the assignment and how significant they are in analyzing and discussing the results. When characterizing a group of subjects, the total number of subjects, their composition by sex and age is given; if the group is homogeneous (for example, students of the same institute), then the attribute that unites them is indicated.
- Material and methodology. If it is standard (that is, given by the teacher and is the same for everyone), then you can limit yourself to the name or a brief description in one or two phrases (for example, “questionnaires X and Y were filled; the subject completed method Z”). Any variants of execution, changes and additions of the methodology are described with the greatest possible completeness.
- Results. Protocols, originals of questionnaires filled in by the subjects, transcripts of dictaphone recordings, etc. are given (if the protocols are long and uninformative or carelessly written, they can be placed in the appendix). This section also provides a description of the subject's behavior and interaction with him.
- Treatment. Processing in accordance with the assignment plan, quantitative results.
- Analysis and discussion.
- Conclusion (conclusions).
- Description of the final conversation with the subject (if any).
- Reflection of the experience gained.
- Appendix: forms and protocols, if they were not fully presented in the "Results" section. Submission of original materials is mandatory.
As already mentioned, most of the tasks involve working with subjects, that is, with people who, at your request, agree to be "guinea pigs" and carry out the tasks offered to them. Such tasks are simple, but real and completely serious options for psychological practice. This section describes how to better organize interaction with the subject at different stages of the task.
First of all, for those who work with the subjects, submission is mandatory. ethical standards, which regulate the work of a psychologist; ethical standards ensure that individual rights are respected and that no harm is done to those with whom you work. One of them is the voluntariness of working with a psychologist. Therefore, the first difficult task that will arise before you at the preparatory stage - selection of the subject and obtaining his consent to work with you.
Each task stipulates specific requirements for the subjects, based on which he is selected. As a rule, it is more interesting to work with those whom you know relatively well in order to compare the results obtained with your everyday impressions; such a comparison can be quite useful and informative. However, certain restrictions should also be adhered to: in the tasks of the third chapter, the use of close relatives and family members as test subjects is not allowed. These tasks affect personality and interpersonal relationships, they require sufficient frankness, which is not always possible if in life you are with the subject in close or even not very simple relationships. Personal relationships are superimposed on the situation of interaction in unusual conditions for you and can distort it beyond recognition. In addition, the prevailing ideas about a loved one will prevent you from objectively analyzing the results obtained and drawing conclusions.
In a preliminary conversation, you need to obtain consent to participate in the research, explain the goals of the work, and create motivation for it. The specific forms of this conversation depend on the subject and on your relationship with him. This can be a telephone conversation, or chatting, or a few phrases just before starting work. A small child can simply be offered “Let's play” or “Let's solve interesting problems”, adults need to explain why they should complete the tasks offered to them and explain so that they have a desire to sincerely and conscientiously do everything that is required of them.
The best explanation is asking for help in teaching psychology; usually such a request is met with understanding, especially since many are interested in psychology and self-knowledge and will gladly “participate in psychological experiments”, “do tests”, etc. As a rule, you should say something like “the results will help you better get to know and understand yourself, solve some personal problems, improve, for example, memory "(depending on the task being performed), but the less experience you have, the more careful you should be in the wording, because the promise must be kept.
The ethics of psychological research requires that all the results obtained are secret, that is, they should not be available to anyone but you; the subject should be warned about this, if the task is educational, then it should be said that the teacher will check the work, but the subject's name and surname will remain unknown to him. An exception is made for parents who can obtain information about their children - preschoolers and younger students. When working with adolescents, it is advisable to inform parents with their consent.
If at the stage of the preliminary conversation you are faced with doubts, excitement, expressed tension, it is better not to insist and find another subject.
When choosing a place and time to complete tasks, keep in mind that it is advisable to work in a separate room, where there are no strangers; an exception can be made for the parents of those young children who are anxious to be alone with a stranger. The subject should not be in a hurry. It is desirable (and necessary for some tasks) that neither he nor the psychologist be distracted by phone calls and household chores. It is possible to perform tasks in public places (cafes, university auditoriums), provided there is silence and no interference from outsiders.
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temperament character ability questionnaire
Characteristics of basic concepts: temperament, character, ability
Study of temperament, character and abilities
Analysis of the results
Literature
application
Characteristics of basic concepts: temperament,character, ability
Temperament. Among the variety of individual characteristics of a person, neurodynamic properties that form temperament are of great interest.
Temperament is a system of stable, individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of his mental life and social life. Outwardly, they are equally manifested in its various forms (objective activity or communication), regardless of their content, goals and motives, and remain almost unchanged throughout life. With a relative equality of motives of behavior or activity and under the same external circumstances, people differ from each other in impulsiveness, in emotionality, in speed, in pace, in the degree of displayed energy, in impressionability. These differences are found already in early childhood, are distinguished by special constancy and appear in various spheres of social life.
The properties of temperament do not affect the content of a person's mental life: his goals, plans, thoughts, memories, fantasies, etc. Therefore, they are called formally dynamic. The doctrine of temperament dates back to ancient times. This concept was first introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC), who believed that people have a different ratio of four fluids in the body: bile ("chole"), blood ("sanguis"), lymph (" phlegm ") and black bile (" melanos chole "). Depending on the predominance of one of them in the body, the types of temperament were distinguished: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic. His doctrine was developed by the German philosopher I. Kant. He believed that the natural basis of temperament is the individual characteristics of the blood. Kant distinguished the temperaments of feelings (sanguine and melancholic) and the temperaments of activity (choleric and phlegmatic). He viewed sanguine temperament as a characteristic of people of a cheerful disposition, optimists, humorists. They are also distinguished by kindness, responsiveness, and willingness to help. Melancholic temperament is characteristic of people with a gloomy mood, increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Choleric temperament occurs in hot-tempered people who quickly inflame, but quickly cool down. Phlegmatic temperament refers to cold-blooded, calm and slow people. They master a new activity for a long time, and maintain a working state for a long time.
The scientific doctrine of temperaments was created by I.P. Pavlov. He associated temperament with the functioning of the central nervous system. During the study and research of nervous activity, he was able to discover the phi of its main properties: strength, balance and mobility. The strength of the nervous system is determined by its ability to withstand intense loads: long-term work, stress, etc. Depending on this, two types of it were distinguished: strong and weak. A person with a strong type of nervous system is able to maintain their functional characteristics under conditions of increased tension and stress, which is not inherent in a person with a weak type.
The balance of the nervous system is determined by the ratio of the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition. It manifests itself in contradictory and conflict situations that simultaneously initiate two oppositely directed ways of behavior in a person: to be active - to be restrained, to speak - to be silent, to immediately make a decision - to postpone, etc. These processes in strength, distinguish two types of the nervous system and the corresponding types of temperament: balanced and unbalanced with a predominance of the force of excitement. The mobility of the nervous system is determined by the temporal parameters of the functioning of the processes of excitation and inhibition. It manifests itself in situations of mastering skills, changing activities, entering activity, etc. In accordance with this, two types of the nervous system were distinguished: mobile and inert. They differ in the speed of the corresponding nervous processes and the corresponding external or internal actions (thinking, memory, imagination, etc.). For example, a student with a mobile nervous system, all other things being equal, will solve the problem faster than a child with an inert nervous system [15, p. 95].
Depending on the ratio of these processes, four types of higher nervous activity and the corresponding temperaments were distinguished: sanguine - strong balanced mobile; phlegmatic - strong balanced inert; choleric - strong unbalanced; melancholic - weak type. The type of nervous activity is a natural feature of a person. It is hereditary, although it may change slightly under the influence of environmental conditions. It is also known that there are age-related changes in the properties of nervous processes.
The theory of temperament of I.P. Pavlov is called neurophysiological. In addition to it, there is also a psychological theory of temperament, the author of which is V.S. Merlin. It is built on the basis of studying the characteristics of human behavior in various life situations, in accordance with which several stable, extremely generalized formal (meaningless) human properties were identified, called emotional-dynamic or temperament properties. These include sensitivity, reactivity, activity, the ratio of reactivity and activity, rate of reactions, extraversion, emotional excitability.
Sensitivity - the sensitivity of the psyche, which is judged by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any reaction of a person, and what is the speed of this reaction.
Reactivity - the degree of involuntary reaction to external and internal influences of the same force (for example, a critical remark, an offensive word, etc.).
Activity - the degree of energy with which a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in the implementation of goals.
The ratio of reactivity and activity, which is judged by what a person's activity largely depends on: from random external or internal circumstances (from moods, desires, random events) or from the goals, intentions, aspirations, and beliefs of a person.
Rate of reactions - the rate of flow of various mental reactions and processes (speed of movements, rate of speech, resourcefulness, speed of memorization).
Extroversion - the dependence of the reaction and activity and of a person on external impressions that arise at the moment, and introversion - the dependence of reactions and activity on internal images, an appeal to one's inner world.
Emotional irritability characterizes the minimum force of influence necessary for the emergence of an emotional reaction, and the speed with which it occurs.
The highlighted properties are not personal, but individual. They are distinguished by a rather rigid genetic predetermination, which significantly limits the possibilities of their change with the help of educational actions. The task of parents and teachers is not to change them in a child, but to take them for granted, adapt to them and instill in him the ability to reasonably rely on them in the process of solving various life problems. For example, a sensitive person should, if possible, avoid situations associated with increased responsibility, risk, mental or physical overload, etc. They seem difficult for him to overcome, and therefore unprofitable. The properties of temperament, not being personal, are very important in the formation of various personal formations: self-esteem, character, abilities. This must also be taken into account when constructing the educational process.
Types of temperament
The distinguished properties of temperament are presented in different people not in a random combination, but in a regular ratio, that is, as a stable system. Depending on this, the corresponding types of temperament are distinguished.
Sanguine temperament characterized by increased reactivity and activity, due to which he responds vividly to everything new. The ratio of activity and reactivity is balanced, he can restrain his reactions and manifestations of feelings. The rate of reactions is high enough, which is manifested in fast movements, the rate of speech, thinking and other mental processes. This person is very energetic and hard-working, he is actively taking up a new business and can work for a long time without getting tired. Productive in dynamic and varied work. He is able to quickly focus his attention, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness are inherent in him. The sanguine person is extroverted, quickly adapts to changing situations, finds contact with other people, is sociable, quickly switches from one activity to another. Emotionally unstable, easily gives in to feelings, they are usually weak and shallow. Prone to positive emotions.
At the heart of choleric temperament there is an unbalanced type of the nervous system. A choleric person, like a sanguine person, is characterized by high reactivity and activity, a fast pace of reactions, but reactivity prevails over activity. Differs in increased excitability, imbalance, which manifests itself in communication and activity: he enthusiastically gets down to business, takes initiative, but energy is quickly depleted. He is less plastic and more inert than a sanguine person. The choleric person finds it difficult to do activities that require smooth movements, a calm, slow pace, he often shows impatience, sharpness of movements, impetuosity. In dealing with people, the choleric is quick-tempered, unrestrained, irritable, which can lead to conflict situations.
Phlegmatic temperament differs in calmness, poise, low mobility, great rigidity (lack of flexibility) and introversion. Activity prevails over reactivity. Mental processes are slow, he needs time to focus on any activity. Phlegmatic people are characterized by low reactivity and low emotional excitability. The phlegmatic's movements are slow, he can hardly switch attention, he does not adapt well to the new environment. In activity, he shows perseverance, patience and perseverance. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. In relations with people, a phlegmatic person is even, calm, it is not easy to piss him off. As a rule, he has difficulty getting along with new people, responds poorly to new impressions, is introverted.
Melancholic temperament characterized by high emotional sensitivity, impressionability, increased vulnerability, a tendency to low mood, anxiety, resentment. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant reason can cause him to cry and fixation on the injury. The melancholic is characterized by a slow mental pace, sluggish and slow movements. His facial expressions and movements are expressionless, his voice is quiet. Low reactivity and decreased activity are manifested in the fact that he is unsure of himself, is often lost, is inclined not to finish the work. The melancholic is not energetic, unstable, easily tired and has little capacity for work. He is introverted, prone to withdrawal, restrained in expressing feelings, avoids communication with unfamiliar people.
Comparison of types of temperament shows that there are no good and bad temperaments - each of them has its positive and negative sides. Therefore, the main efforts should be directed not at correcting it, but at the rational use of its merits in concrete activities and leveling of negative features. Features of temperament are manifested, first of all, in the originality of methods, and not in the effectiveness of activities. Thus, studies of labor activity have shown that people with different types of temperament can adapt to the same types of activity by actualizing only their inherent properties, thanks to which they develop an individual system of techniques and methods of activity. The combination of the properties of temperament, manifested in the behavior and communication of a person, determines his individual style of activity and communication.
The individual style of activity is not an innate characteristic of a person. It can be considered as a result of the adaptation of the innate properties of the nervous system to the conditions of the performed activity, and more broadly to the conditions of social life.
At the same time, in certain types of activity, not only the course of their implementation, but also the result may depend on the properties of temperament. In those areas of work where rather stringent requirements are imposed on the pace or intensity of actions, the individual characteristics of the dynamic manifestations of the psyche can become a factor affecting fitness for activity.
In some types of activity, where the requirements for the qualities of the psyche are quite high, there is a need for professional selection according to the qualities of temperament. For example, in professions that require a high rate of reactions (airport dispatchers, test pilots, etc.), it is necessary to have a mobile type of the nervous system. But in most professions, the properties of temperament do not affect the final productivity of the activity. Lack of temperament can be compensated for by good professional training, volitional qualities, interests and other mental properties.
Temperament acts as an individual basis for various personality traits, primarily character. It defines the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding properties. For example, kindness as a character trait has different forms of expression in people of different temperaments. The properties of temperament can facilitate or hinder the formation of certain character traits in a person. Therefore, the main task of the educator should be to promote the development of his positive qualities through systematic work and at the same time counteract the appearance of negative ones.
Character. Each person, along with many of his inherent features, has the most pronounced traits and properties that are best manifested in his activities and communication with people, and therefore characterize his personality. The combination of these striking features is called character.
In the relationship of a person with the surrounding reality, in his activity, an infinite number of different individual psychological characteristics are formed and revealed. Many of them are insignificant, such as poorly developed taste sensations (unless, of course, we are talking about a taster). Other personality traits, although very significant, can be short-lived, transient - for example, lethargy and sluggishness after illness. Still others (for example, poor mechanical memory) may not affect a person's attitude to the environment and may not even affect his activities, being compensated by other features.
But there are also such individual psychological characteristics of a person that manifest themselves quite steadily and represent essential features of his entire behavior. Difficult switching of attention can become distracted due to a certain attitude towards the environment and with a known behavior.
Usually, when they try to evaluate or describe a specific person, they talk about him character (from the Greek. Character-printing, chasing). In psychology, the concept of "character" means a set of individual mental properties that are formed in activity and are manifested in the ways of activity and forms of behavior typical for a given person.
All character traits are personality traits; but personality traits only then become character traits when they are expressed more clearly than others, are closely interrelated, determine each other and the style of action and attitude to the environment characteristic of a given person.
For each person, the number of individual characterological traits can be extremely large, and the number of shades of each of them is immeasurable. However, some properties will always be leading, and it is by them that a person can be characterized.
The main feature of character as a psychological phenomenon is that character always manifests itself in activity, in the attitude of a person to the surrounding reality and people. For example, the main character traits can be found in the characteristics of the activity that a person prefers to engage in. Some people prefer the most difficult and difficult activities, it gives them pleasure to seek and overcome obstacles; others choose simpler activities. For some, it is important with what results they performed this or that work, whether they managed to surpass others at the same time, while for the rest it may be indifferent, and they are content with the fact that they coped with the work no worse than others, having achieved a mediocre quality. Therefore, when the character of a person is determined, they say not that such and such a person has shown courage, truthfulness, frankness, but that this person is brave, truthful, frank, i.e. the named characteristics of a person's actions are attributed to the person himself. However, not all human features can be considered characteristic, but only essential and stable ones. For example, even very cheerful people may feel sad, but this will not make them whine and pessimistic.
Character is a lifetime education and can be transformed throughout life. The formation of character is closely related to the thoughts, feelings and motives of a person. Therefore, as a certain way of life of a person is formed, his character is also formed. Consequently, lifestyle, social conditions and specific life circumstances play an important role in the formation of character.
Character formation takes place in groups that differ in their characteristics and level of development (family, friendly company, sports team, work collective, etc.) Depending on which group is the reference for the individual and what values \u200b\u200bthis group supports and cultivates, a person develops the corresponding traits... Character traits are understood as the mental properties of a person that determine his behavior in typical circumstances. For example, courage or cowardice is manifested in a situation of danger, sociability or isolation in a situation of communication, etc. There are many classifications of character traits. In Russian psychological literature, two approaches are most often encountered. In one case, all character traits are associated with mental processes and therefore volitional, emotional and intellectual traits are distinguished. At the same time, decisiveness, perseverance, self-control, independence, activity, organization, etc. are attributed to strong-willed character traits. Emotional character traits include impetuosity, impressionability, ardor, inertia, indifference, responsiveness, etc. Intellectual traits include thoughtfulness, ingenuity, resourcefulness, curiosity, etc.
In another case, character traits are considered in accordance with the orientation of the personality. Moreover, the content of the orientation of the individual is manifested in relation to people, activities, the world around him and himself. For example, a person's attitude to the world around him can manifest itself either in the presence of certain beliefs, or in unscrupulousness. This category of traits characterizes the life orientation of the individual, that is, his material and spiritual needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, etc. The orientation of the personality determines the goals, life plans of a person, the degree of his life activity. In a mature character, the leading component is the belief system. Conviction determines the long-term direction of a person's behavior, his inflexibility in achieving his goals, confidence in the fairness and importance of the work that he performs.
Another group of even characters are those that characterize a person's relationship to activity. This refers not only to the attitude of a person to a specific type of work performed, but also to activities in general. The main condition for character education is the presence of life goals. A spineless person is characterized by the absence or scattering of goals. Character traits associated with the attitude to activity are also expressed in the sustainable interests of a person. Moreover, superficiality and instability of interests are often associated with great imitation, with a lack of independence and integrity of a person's personality. And vice versa, the depth and meaningfulness of interests testifies to the purposefulness and perseverance of the individual. However, similarity of interests does not imply similarity in character traits. So, among people with similar interests there can be funny and sad, modest and obsessive, selfish and altruistic. Moreover, people with a similar orientation can go completely different ways to achieve goals, using their own, special techniques and methods. This dissimilarity determines the specific character of the personality, which manifests itself in a situation of choice of actions or methods of behavior. From this point of view, as a character trait, one can consider the degree of expression of an individual's motivation for achievement - his need to achieve success. Depending on this, some people are characterized by a choice of actions that ensure success (manifestation of initiative, competitive activity, desire for risk, etc.), while others are more characterized by the desire to simply avoid failures (deviation from risk and responsibility, avoidance manifestations of activity, initiative, etc.).
Attachments and interests of a person associated with his leisure time can also be indicative for understanding character. They reveal new features, facets of character. For example, L.N. Tolstoy was fond of playing chess, I.P. Pavlov - playing in small towns, D.I. Mendeleev - by reading adventure novels.
Another manifestation of a person's character is his attitude towards people. At the same time, such character traits are distinguished as honesty, truthfulness, fairness, sociability, politeness, sensitivity, responsiveness, etc. No less indicative is a group of character traits that determine a person's attitude towards himself. From this point of view, people most often talk about egoism or altruism of a person. An egoist always puts personal interests above the interests of other people. The altruist, on the other hand, puts the interests of other people above his own.
All personality traits of a person can be roughly divided into motivational and instrumental... Motivational motivates and directs activity, while instrumental ones give it a certain style. Character can be manifested in the choice of the goal of the action, i.e. as a motivational personality trait. However, when the goal is determined, the character appears more in its instrumental role, i.e. determines the means to achieve the goal.
It should also be emphasized that character is one of the main manifestations of personality. Therefore, personality traits may well be considered as character traits. Among such traits, first of all, it is necessary to include those personality traits that determine the choice of goals of activity (more or less difficult). Here, as certain characterological traits, rationality, prudence or qualities opposite to them may appear. Secondly, the structure of character includes features that are manifested in actions aimed at achieving the set goals: perseverance, purposefulness, consistency, etc. In this case, the character comes closer to the will of a person. Thirdly, the composition of the character includes instrumental traits directly related to temperament, for example, extraversion - introversion, calmness - anxiety, restraint - impulsivity, switchability - rigidity, etc.
Abilities - individual personality traits, which are subjective conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity. Abilities are not limited to the individual's knowledge, skills, and abilities. They are found in the speed, depth and strength of mastering the methods and techniques of some activity and are internal mental regulators that determine the possibility of their acquisition. In Russian psychology, the greatest contribution to experimental studies of abilities was made by B.M. Teplov
The following types of abilities are distinguished:
1.educational and creative
2.mental and special
3.math
4.constructive and technical
5.Musical
6.literary
7.artistic and visual
8.physical ability
Educational and creative abilities differ from each other in that the former determine the success of training and education, the assimilation of knowledge, skills, skills by a person, the formation of personality traits, while the latter is the creation of objects of material and spiritual culture, the production of new ideas, discoveries and works, in a word - individual creativity in various fields of human activity.
The nature of special abilities. Studying specifically - the psychological characteristics of abilities, it is possible to identify more general qualities that meet the requirements of not one, but many types of activity, and special qualities that meet a narrower range of requirements for this activity. In the structure of the abilities of some individuals, these general qualities can be extremely pronounced, which indicates that people have versatile abilities, general abilities for a wide range of different activities, specialties and occupations.
Concrete example: It is not enough for a mathematician to have a good memory and attention. People who are capable of mathematics are distinguished by the ability to grasp the order in which the elements necessary for mathematical proof should be located. The presence of this kind of intuition is the main element of mathematical creativity.
Musical abilities can be divided into two groups:
1.technical (playing a given musical instrument or singing)
2. auditory (ear for music).
Musical abilities in the existing general psychological classification refer to special ones, that is, those that are necessary for successful studies and are determined by the very nature of music as such.
Levels of development of abilities: 1. Makings 2. Abilities 3. Giftedness 4. Talent 5. Genius
Let us note one more very important circumstance. It is not the success in the performance of activities that depends on giftedness, but only the possibility of achieving this success. Successful performance of any activity requires not only giftedness, that is, the presence of an appropriate combination of abilities, but also the possession of the necessary skills and abilities. No matter how phenomenal and musical talent a person may have, if he did not study music and systematically engage in musical activities, he will not be able to perform the functions of an opera conductor or pop pianist.
Thus, ability is not the only factor that determines the choice of activity and determines the success of this activity.
So, temperament acts as an individual basis for various personal properties, especially character. It defines the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding properties. The properties of temperament can facilitate or hinder the formation of certain character traits in a person. Therefore, the main task of the educator should be to promote the development of his positive qualities through systematic work and at the same time counteract the appearance of negative ones.
Character is not an innate quality of personality; it is created, formed and transformed during life. A person himself participates in the development of his character and must always bear responsibility for it.
Abilities are not limited to the individual's knowledge, skills, and abilities. They are found in the speed, depth and strength of mastering the methods and techniques of some activity and are internal mental regulators that determine the possibility of their acquisition.
Study of temperament, character and abilities
In the experimental part of our work, we decided to study the characteristics of temperament, character and abilities in one particular person and analyze the data obtained.
FULL NAME.: Reshetova Natalia Nikolaevna.
Age: 43 years Floor: female
Education: secondary special
Profession: grocery store clerk
Work experience in the specialty - 21 years old.
Research Protocols
Research Protocol No. 1.
Methodology : Eysenck's test questionnaire
the date : 01/18/2009
1.yes 25.yes 49.yes
2.yes 26.yes 50.no
3.yes 27.yes \u200b\u200b51.yes
4.yes 28.no 52. no
5.yes 29.no 53. yes
6.yes 30.no 54.yes
7.No 31.No 55.No
8.yes 32.yes 56.yes
9.yes 33.no 57. no
10.yes 34.no
11.no 35.yes
12.no 36.no
13.yes 37.yes
14.yes 38.no
15.yes 39.yes
16.yes 40.yes
17.yes \u200b\u200b41.yes
18.yes 42.no
19.yes 43.yes
20.yes 44.yes
21.yes 45.no Sincerity -3,
22.yes 46.yes Extraversion - 14,
23.no 47.yes \u200b\u200bNeuroticism - 12,
24.yes 48.no
Output : Frankness, ambivalence, normosthenia. Sanguine.
Research Protocol No. 2.
Methodology : Thrill Seek Scale
the date : 15.01.2009
8 - a 16 - b Risk appetite - 4 points
Output : the prevalence of prudence and caution to the detriment of obtaining new impressions (and information) from life. A subject with this indicator prefers stability and orderliness to the unknown and unexpected in life.
Research protocol no.3 .
Methodology : Characterological questionnaire of K. Leonhard
the date : 15.01.2009
1.no 25.no 49.yes 73.yes
2.yes 26.no 50.yes 74.yes
3.yes 27.yes \u200b\u200b51.yes 75.no
4.yes 28.yes 52.no 76.yes
5.no 29.no 53.yes 77.yes
6.yes 30.no 54.yes 78. yes
7.no 31.no 55.no 79.yes
8.yes 32.yes 56.no 80.yes
9.yes 33.no 57.yes \u200b\u200b81.yes
10.yes 34.no 58.yes 82.yes
11.no 35.yes 59.yes 83.yes
12.no 36.no 60.yes 84.yes
13.yes 37.yes \u200b\u200b61.no 85.no
14.yes 38.yes 62.yes 86.yes
15.yes 39.no 63.no 87. no
16.no 40.yes 64.no 88.no
17.yes \u200b\u200b41.yes 65.yes
18.yes 42.no 66.yes
19.yes 43.yes 67.yes
20.Yes 44.Yes 68.Yes
21.yes 45.no 69.no
22.yes 46.yes 70.yes
23.yes 47.no 71.yes
24.no 48.yes 72.yes
1- hyperthymic,
2- excitability
3- emotiveness
4- pedantry
5- anxiety
6- cyclotivity
7- demonstrative
8- imbalance
9- dysthymnost
10- exaltation
Output : Pronounced accentuation of character according to cyclotic, exalted types, significant accentuation of a pedantic personality type.
Research Protocol No. 4.
Methodology : Style of Conflict Behavior
the date : 01/16/2009
Output:The predominant types of behavior are trade-offs, the least preferred type of behavior is avoidance.
Research protocol No. 5.
Methodology : Need for communication and motivation for affiliation
the date : 01/17/2009
Output: the subject has a strong desire for affiliation; sufficient sociability is noted, not hampered by the fear of rejection.
Analysis of the results
As a result of our diagnostic study, the subject revealed the following personality traits:
1) When determining the type of temperament according to Eysenck's method - frankness, ambivalence, normosthenia. The type of temperament is sanguine.
2) When determining the propensity to take risks on the "Thrill Seek Scale" - the prevalence of prudence and caution to the detriment of obtaining new impressions (and information) from life. A subject with this indicator prefers stability and orderliness to the unknown and unexpected in life.
3) When determining characterological tendencies according to the Shmishek questionnaire - a pronounced accentuation of character according to cyclotive, exalted types, a significant accentuation of a pedantic personality type.
4) When determining the style of conflict behavior - the prevailing types of behavior are compromise, the least preferred type of behavior is avoidance.
5) When determining the need for communication - sufficient sociability, not hampered by the fear of rejection.
General conclusion
Thus, our subject, Natalya Nikolaevna Reshetova, showed a sanguine type of temperament, a pronounced accentuation of cyclothymic and exalted character types, a low propensity to take risks, sufficient sociability with a tendency to compromise in behavior. These qualities of character correspond to the profession of the seller and help her in working with people.
List of sources used
1 Aristotle. Works: In 4 volumes - M., 1975 .-- T. 1. - P. 371.
2 Baranovsky V.A. Seller. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2005.-145s.
3 Besedina I., Fedotova N. Technology of vocational guidance work in vocational schools. Saratov, 2004 - 372s ..
4 Bityanova M.R. Social Psychology: Science, Practice and Mind. Uch. Pos. / M .: Publishing house Eksmo-Press, 2004 - 576s.
5 Brown L. Image is the path to success. SPb., Moscow ~ Kharkov-Minsk, 2004.-274s.
6 Group professional consultation (method. Recommendations for specialists of the employment service). Izhevsk, 1995.S. 3-10.
7 Dashkov L.P., Pambukhchyants V.K. Commerce and technology of trade. M., 2005.-293s.
8 Enikeev M.I. General and social psychology. - EKOR, 2003.-465s.
9 Zhikarentsev V. The path to freedom: a look into yourself. - SPb .: Golden Age, Diamant, 2002.-258s.
10 Zolotareva VM, Fast IV Methodical recommendations for vocational training of women / Committee on Labor and Employment of the Volgograd. region Volgograd, 2006.- 264s.
11 Zolotareva V. Organization of professional consultation as an interaction between a consultant and a client: Method. recommendations / Committee on labor and employment of the population Volgogr. region Volgograd, 2005.- 265s.
12 I. Sabat Ann Mary. Business etiquette. - M .: ITD, 2006 - 246s.
13 Klimov E. A. Psychology of professional self-determination of youth / E. A. Klimov. Rostov-on-Don, 2006.- 283s.
14 Klimov E. General typology of situations (incidents) and the structure of mental tasks arising in the practice of a professional consultant // Tr. All-Russian Research Institute of Vocational Education. L., 1976.S. 5-25.
15 Brief psychological dictionary / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M: Politizdat, 2004 .-- 274p.
18 Maslova T.D., Bozhuk S.G., Kovalik L.N. Marketing. SPb., Moscow-Kharkov-Minsk, 2002.- 364s.
19 Maslow A. Psychology of being. - M., 1997 .-- S. 34.
20 Melnikov V.M., Yampolsky L. T. Introduction to experimental psychology of personality. M., 2004-436s.
application
1. Eysenck's test questionnaire
A list of questions.
1. Do you often have a craving for new impressions in order to be distracted, to experience strong sensations? (well no)
2. Do you often feel that you need friends who can understand you, encourage you, express sympathy?
3. Do you consider yourself a carefree person?
4. Is it very difficult for you to give up your intentions?
5. Do you think slowly about your business and do you prefer to wait before acting?
6. Do you always keep your promises, even if it is not beneficial to you?
7. Do you often have ups and downs of mood?
8. Do you usually act and speak quickly, and do you spend a lot of time thinking?
9. Have you ever felt that you are unhappy, even though there was no good reason for this?
10. Is it true that you are capable of making up your mind on a bet?
11. Do you feel embarrassed when you want to meet someone of the opposite sex who you like?
12. Do you ever lose your temper when you get angry?
13. Do you often act under the influence of the moment?
14. Do you often feel disturbed by thoughts that you shouldn't be doing or saying something?
15. Do you prefer reading books to meeting people?
16. Is it true that you are easily hurt?
17. Do you like to visit the company often?
18. Do you sometimes have thoughts that you would not like to share with other people?
19. Is it true that sometimes you are so full of energy that everything burns in your hands, and sometimes you feel very lethargic?
20. Do you try to limit your circle of acquaintances to a small number of close people?
21. Do you dream a lot?
22. When someone yells at you, do you respond in kind?
23. Do you often feel anxious about guilt?
24. Are all your habits good and desirable?
25. Are you able to give vent to your own feelings and have plenty of fun in a noisy company?
26. Can we say that your nerves are often strained to the limit?
27. Do they consider you a lively and cheerful person?
28. After the job is done, how often do you return to it in your mind and think that you could have done better?
29. Is it true that you are usually silent and reserved when you are among people?
30. Do you ever transmit rumors?
31. Does it happen that you cannot sleep from the fact that different thoughts come into your head?
32. Is it true that you often find it more pleasant and easier to read about what interests you in a book, although it is possible to ask faster and easier to find out about it from friends?
33. Do you have a strong heartbeat?
34. Do you like work that requires close attention?
35. Do you have shivering attacks?
36. Is it true that you always say only good things about people you know, even when you are sure that they will not know about it?
37. Is it true that you are unpleasant to be in a company where they constantly make fun of each other?
38. Is it true that you are irritable?
39. Do you like work that requires quick action?
40. Is it true that you are often haunted by thoughts about various troubles and "horrors" that could have happened, although everything ended well?
41. Is it true that you are leisurely in your movements?
42. Have you ever been late for a date or work?
43. Do you often have nightmares?
44. Is it true that you are such a talker that you never miss an opportunity to talk to a stranger?
45. Do you have any pains?
46. \u200b\u200bWould you be upset if you could not see your friends for a long time?
47. Can you call yourself a nervous person?
48. Are there any among your acquaintances who you clearly do not like?
49. Are you easily offended by criticism of your shortcomings or your work?
50. Could you say that you are a confident person?
51. Is it difficult to get real pleasure from events with many participants?
52. Are you worried about the feeling that you are somehow worse than others?
53. Would you be able to revive a boring company?
54. Does it happen that you talk about things that you do not understand at all?
55. Are you worried about your health?
56. Do you like to play a trick on others?
57. Do you suffer from insomnia?
Questionnaire code
Sincerity: “yes” answers to questions 6,24, 36;
no answers to questions 12, 18, 30, 42, 48, 54.
Extraversion: answers "yes" to questions 1,3, 8,10,13,17,22, 27, 39,44, 46, 49, 53, 56;
“no” answers to questions 5, 15, 20, 29, 32, 34, 37, 41, 51.
Neuroticism: “yes” answers to questions 2,4, 7, 9, 11,14, 16, 19, 21,23,26, 28, 31, 33, 35, 38, 40, 43,45, 47, 50, 52, 55, 57.
We offer an extended interpretation of the Aysenck test, which should be carried out using the following two tables. For each answer that matches the questionnaire code, 1 point is awarded.
Interpretation of indicators on the "Sincerity" scale
* In this case, we are talking only about an extra degree of sincerity when answering the test questions, and by no means about deceit as a personal characteristic.
2. Thrill Seek Scale
Questionnaire text
1.a) I would prefer a job that requires many trips, travel,
b) I would prefer to work in one place.
2. a) I am energized by a fresh, cool day.
b) On a cool day, I can't wait to get home.
Z.a) I don't like all bodily odors.
b) I like some bodily odors.
4. a) I would not like to try any drug that might have an unknown effect on me.
b) I would try some of the unfamiliar drugs that cause hallucinations.
5. a) I would prefer to live in an ideal society where everyone is safe, reliable and happy.
b) I would prefer to live in uncertain, troubled days of our history.
6. a) I can't stand driving with a person who loves speed.
b) Sometimes I like to drive very fast because I find it exciting.
7. a) If I were a traveling salesman, I would prefer a solid salary, rather than a piecework salary with the risk of earning little or nothing.
b) If I were a salesman, I would prefer to work piece-rate, since I would have the opportunity to earn more than sitting on a salary.
8. a) I do not like to argue with people whose views differ sharply from mine, since such disputes are always insoluble.
b) I find that people who disagree with my view are more stimulating than people who agree with me.
9. a) Most people generally spend too much money on insurance.
b) Insurance is something that no person could afford to do without.
10. a) I would not want to be hypnotized.
b) I would like to try to be hypnotized.
11.a) The most important goal in life is to live to the fullest and take from it as much as possible,
b) The most important goal in life is to find peace and happiness.
12. a) I enter cold water gradually, giving myself time to get used to it.
b) I like to dive right away or jump into the sea or cold pool.
13.a) In most types of modern music, I do not like the disorder and disharmony,
b) I love listening to new and different kinds of music.
14. a) The worst social flaw is to be a rude, ill-mannered person.
b) The worst social flaw is to be a boring person, a bore.
15.a) I prefer emotionally expressive people,
even if they are a little unbalanced,
b) I prefer more people who are calm, even "regulated".
16. a) People riding motorcycles must have some kind of unconscious need to hurt themselves, harm.
b) I would like to ride or ride a motorcycle.
Data processing and interpretation of results
The responses received correspond to the key:
1-a; 2-a; 3-b; 4-6; 5 B; 7-6; 8-6; 9-a; 10-6; 11-a; 12-6; 13-6; 14-6; 15-a; 16-6.
Each answer that matches the key is worth one point. The points obtained are summed up. The sum of the coincidences is an indicator of the level of need for thrills. The search for new sensations is of great importance for a person, since it stimulates emotions and imagination, develops creativity, which ultimately leads to his personal growth.
A high level of need for thrill (11-16 points) indicates the presence of an attraction, possibly uncontrollable, to new, nerve-racking impressions, which can often provoke the subject to participate in risky adventures.
From 6 to 10 points - the average level. It testifies to the ability to control such needs, to moderation in their satisfaction, that is, on the one hand, about openness to new experience, on the other hand, about restraint and prudence at critical moments of life.
A low level (from 0 to 5 points) indicates the prevalence of prudence and caution to the detriment of obtaining new impressions (and information) from life. A subject with this indicator prefers stability and orderliness to the unknown and unexpected in life.
3. Characterolthe logical questionnaire of K. Leonhard
Instructions: "You will be offered statements concerning your character. If you agree with the statement, put a" + "sign (yes) next to its number, if not - a" - "sign (no). there are no wrong answers. "
Questionnaire text
1. Do you often have a cheerful and carefree mood?
2. Are you sensitive to insults?
3. Does it happen that you have tears in your eyes in the cinema, theater, in conversation, etc.?
4. Having done something, you doubt whether everything was done correctly, and do not calm down until you are convinced once again that everything was done correctly?
5. As a child, were you as brave as your peers?
6. Do you often have a dramatic change in your mood from a state of boundless jubilation to disgust for life, for yourself?
7. Are you "usually the center of attention in a society, a company?"
8. Does it happen that you are unreasonably in such a grumpy mood that it is better not to talk to you?
9. Are you a serious person?
10. Are you able to admire, admire something?
11. Are you entrepreneurial?
12. Do you quickly forget if someone offended you?
13. Are you kind-hearted?
14. When placing a letter in the mailbox, do you check by running your hand along the slit of the mailbox that the letter has completely fallen into it?
16. Have you ever been scared in childhood during a thunderstorm or when meeting an unfamiliar dog (or maybe this feeling still happens now, in adulthood)?
17. Do you strive to maintain order in everything and everywhere?
18. Does your mood depend on external factors?
19. Do your acquaintances love you?
20. Do you often have a feeling of inner anxiety, a feeling of possible trouble, trouble?
21. Do you often have a somewhat depressed mood?
22. Have you ever had a tantrum or a nervous breakdown at least once?
23. Is it difficult for you to sit in one place for a long time?
24. If you were treated unfairly, do you vigorously defend your interests?
25. Can you slaughter a chicken or a sheep?
26. Does it annoy you if the curtain or tablecloth hangs unevenly at home, or do you immediately try to straighten it?
27. As a child, were you afraid to be alone in the house?
28. Do you often have mood swings?
29. Do you always strive to be a strong enough worker in your profession?
30. Do you quickly become angry or angry?
31. Can you be totally, carefree fun?
32. Does it ever happen that a feeling of boundless happiness literally permeates you?
33. What do you think, would you become a host in a humorous performance?
34. Do you usually express your opinion to people quite frankly, directly and unequivocally?
35. Do you find it difficult to tolerate the sight of blood? Does this make you unpleasant?
36. Do you like working with high personal responsibility?
37. Are you inclined to speak out in defense of those who have been treated unfairly?
38. Is it difficult or scary for you to descend into a dark basement?
39. Do you prefer a job where you have to act quickly, but the quality requirements are not high?
40. Are you sociable?
41. At school, did you readily recite poetry?
42. Did you run away from home as a child?
43. Does life seem difficult for you?
44. Does it ever happen that after a conflict or resentment you were so upset that it seemed unbearable to go to work?
45. Can we say that if you fail, you do not lose your sense of humor?
46. \u200b\u200bWould you take the first steps towards reconciliation if someone offended you?
47. Do you like animals very much?
48. Do you return to make sure that you left your home or workplace in such a state that nothing happens there?
49. Are you sometimes haunted by the vague thought that something terrible could happen to you and your loved ones?
50. Do you find that your mood is very fluid?
51. Is it difficult for you to report (perform on stage) in front of a large number of people?
52. Can you hit the offender if he offends you?
53. Do you have a very high need for communication with other people?
54. Do you belong to those who, in the event of any disappointment, fall into deep despair?
55. Do you enjoy a job that requires energetic organizational activity?
56. Do you persistently achieve your goal if you have to overcome a lot of obstacles on the way to it?
57. Can a tragic film excite you so that tears come to your eyes?
58. Do you often find it difficult to fall asleep due to the fact that the problems of the past day or the future are constantly spinning in your thoughts?
59. At school, did you sometimes give prompts to your comrades or let them cheat?
60. Do you need a lot of willpower to walk alone through the cemetery?
61. Do you carefully make sure that every thing in your apartment is always in the same place?
62. Does it happen that being in a good mood before going to bed, the next day you get up depressed, lasting several hours?
63. Do you easily get used to new situations?
64. Do you have headaches?
65. Do you laugh often?
66. Can you be friendly even with those whom you obviously do not value, do not love, do not respect?
67. Are you an active person?
68. Are you very worried about injustice?
69. Do you love nature so much that you can call it a friend?
70. When you leave home or go to bed, do you check if the gas is turned off, the lights are off, and the doors are locked?
71. Are you very fearful?
72. Does your mood change when you drink alcohol?
73. In your youth, did you willingly participate in an amateur art circle?
74. Do you view life somewhat pessimistically, without expectation of joy?
75. Do you often feel drawn to travel?
76. Can your mood change so dramatically that the state of joy suddenly gives way to gloomy and depressed?
77. Is it easy for you to cheer up your friends in a company?
78. How long have you been experiencing resentment?
79. How long do you experience the grief of other people?
80. As a schoolboy, how often did you rewrite a page in your notebook, if you accidentally left a blot in it?
81. Do you treat people with distrust and caution rather than gullibility?
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