Ruzhitsky Igor Vasilievich. The linguistic personality of F.M. Dostoevsky: a lexicographic presentation Ruzhitsky Igor Vasilievich. Testing and implementation of research results
Seminar at the IDK of Igor Vasilyevich Ruzhitskiy, Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor of the Faculty of Philology of Lomonosov Moscow State University, Senior Researcher of the Institute of the Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences (discussion of the report is given in abbreviation)
I would like to start with a few general remarks about the concept of Dostoevsky's language dictionary, which we are working on. In lexicography, that is, in the science of building and writing dictionaries, there is a separate area called "author's lexicography", or, in other words, the direction that studies how to compose dictionaries of the writer's language. There are quite a few such dictionaries, and there are quite a few concepts of such dictionaries. For example, V.S. Elistratov has a "Dictionary of the language of Vasily Shukshin" - there is its own concept. The most famous dictionary is the "Dictionary of the Pushkin Language", which appeared in the middle of the 20th century. Our "Dictionary of Dostoevsky's Language" also has its own concept, and there are no other dictionaries that would have been compiled in accordance with this concept. That is, the concept itself was created precisely for Dostoevsky, to describe his language.
The question arises: why was Dostoevsky chosen? Dostoevsky is in many respects contradictory, in many respects paradoxical, in many respects ambivalent, which, of course, is reflected in his language and in the perception of his language, in the perception of him as an author, and not only a Russian, Russian, author, but also a Western author. If you ask Dostoevsky's readers, and there are not so many of them, by the way, they can say: "We don't love him." And if you ask: "Why?", Then most often the answer will be: "Very difficult language." This is the answer I've heard most often. I think the real reason is somewhat different. Readers are afraid to read Dostoevsky. Afraid of what? They are afraid that, while reading Dostoevsky, they raise something in themselves, that they have hidden, hidden very, very far away. Maybe some vices, some passions, some bad things that are taboo in the depths of consciousness. Dostoevsky just raises all this. As for the Western reader, here, in general, in the perception of Dostoevsky, there are often a lot of absurdities. The reason for this, on the one hand, is that even very good translations Dostoevsky, in fact, are very bad. On the other hand, the focus of the Western reader or viewer of films based on Dostoevsky's books is a very narrow focus. They see there only what they want to see. Take one of the latest Woody Allen films « MatchPoint "... It begins with the hero reading Crime and Punishment. The whole plot of the film is practically copied from Dreiser, from "Sister Carrie". At the end of the film, where, like Dreiser's and Dostoevsky's, the hero kills both his mistress and his neighbor, he goes up the entrance, and everything there - both the entrance and the neighbor herself, exactly corresponds to Dostoevsky. The question is, why? Why did Woody Alain need Dostoevsky? I asked this question to the Americans, and the most correct answer was: "Allen wanted to show that he is a highly educated person." Well, okay, so be it. It is precisely in order to show Dostoevsky's worldview, his picture of the world, and the concept of the dictionary was created, which I will now talk about.
The authors of this concept were Yuri Nikolaevich Karaulov and Efim Lazarevich Ginzburg. The very idea emerged at the very beginning of the 1990s. That is, the work on the dictionary has been going on for more than 20 years, and we can already say that much has been done, although, of course, we would like more to be done. The main idea of \u200b\u200bthis concept is to create a lexicographic series, which would include the dictionary, which I will talk about today, and the frequency dictionary (it has already been written by Anatoly Yanovich Shaykevich and published), and the dictionary of phraseological units, and the dictionary of the so-called "agnonyms ”(Those words that Dostoevsky uses and which are hardly understandable or generally incomprehensible to the modern reader). Materials for the last of the dictionaries I have listed have already been collected. The basic dictionary of this series should be an idioglossary dictionary. The main principle and basic idea of \u200b\u200bour Dostoevsky's dictionary is that we do not describe all the words of the author in general, but in total Dostoevsky has about 35 thousand words, but the most significant, key words for his worldview, or picture of the world, and for his style. We call such words idiogloss from the word idiolect (peculiarities of the author's style). Idioglossa is a lexical unit that characterizes an idiolect.
I would like to emphasize, and we write about this in the preface, that it is necessary to separate terms. On the one hand, there is the term "id and oglossa ", with the letter" and ", derived from the term" idiolect "- this is a key word for the style, that is, a linguistic unit that characterizes the author's style. But among this list of idiogloss, one can also highlight id e oglossy. In fact, these are concepts, the most important, key words that reveal Dostoevsky's view of the world. Let's open the list of the second volume and take, for example, the word "live". Of course, this is not just an idiogloss for Dostoevsky - it is an ideogloss for the literary language in general, a key word for many semantic fields. And, for example, it is difficult to call the word "business" an ideoglossy, or a concept. Here is the word "business" - yes, it is a concept, while the word "business" is a word that characterizes the author's style, that is, idiogloss. This is the difference. Such idiogloss was collected about 2, 5 thousand. Naturally, any ideogloss, that is, a key word for the author's worldview, is at the same time an idiogloss. But not vice versa. Not every idiogloss can be an ideogloss. I think this is understandable.
So, a list of such idiogloss was compiled, and right away at the first conferences where we made presentations on the topic of the dictionary, questions arose as to why one word was on the list and the other was not. "What principles were you guided by when you decided that this word was important to Dostoevsky, but this was not?" - they asked us. In fact, in the early stages of working on the dictionary, all this was done intuitively. And the first stages consisted of writing three volumes entitled “Dictionary of Dostoevsky's Language. The lexical structure of the idiolect. " An experimental model of a vocabulary entry was presented in these three volumes. Then it was refined, changed a little, but what we have now began with this. The first volume was published in 2001, then two more volumes in 2003.
So, in order to decide whether a word is idioglossy or not, a special procedure was developed, which included several steps. The first step is the experimental method. We have 6 people in our team, and we read the same work. We read and just highlight what, in our opinion, is important for this work. Then we read another work. This is how the material is generalized and reduced to some common denominator. This is one way, far from the most correct, because the six people who deal with Dostoevsky, probably, not everyone can notice, or, on the contrary, they can notice what they should not notice. Another source of material for this list of idiogloss is research on Dostoevsky's work. There are a lot of such studies. These are mainly studies of literary scholars, but there are also linguistic studies. In these studies, certain words are somehow stipulated. I mean words that are important for Dostoevsky or for his style. These are, for example, the words "common man", "universal man", "universal", "double", "vice". All this, of course, is described in the dictionary. And, of course, we used these sources when compiling a general list. The next criterion, which is mandatory, in order to determine whether a word is idioglossy or not: if a word is included in the title of a work or the title of some part of a work, then for us this is already an unambiguous criterion that this is a significant, key, important word for Dostoevsky. The next criterion - it is optional, but nevertheless significant - is the frequency of use of the word by Dostoevsky in the entire corpus of his texts (we were guided by the 30-volume, that is, complete, collection of Dostoevsky's works). Why is this criterion optional? The fact is that there are high-frequency words, but which are not idioglossics at the same time, and, conversely, there are words with a very low frequency of use (for example, the word "universal"), which, nevertheless, are key to the author's worldview. As a rule, however, high-frequency words (for example, the word "friend", the frequency of which is more than 3 thousand uses, which is a very high frequency, although the verb "know" has about 9 thousand uses) are idioglossics, and we describe them. As for the standard frequency, as practice has shown, if the frequency exceeds 100 uses, then, as a rule, this characterizes the idioglossic status of this lexeme. And the last criterion of how to determine whether a word is idioglossy or not is the following: if a word is included in Dostoevsky's aphorism, that is, in a statement that was subsequently quoted, then it is idiogloss. For example, "Beauty will save the world." Naturally, all three words included in this aphorism are idioglossics. If we have time, then we will talk more about how we understand Dostoevsky's aphorisms, what kind of beauty it is and what kind of tear is it, etc. An aphorism is a bunch of meanings, and, naturally, if a word is part of it, then it is significant. And we also have such a comment area as the autonomous use of the word. What it is? This is when the author himself in a particular text reflects on the meaning of a word, talks about how this word should be understood. It is quite natural that if the author himself discusses the meaning of a word, then this word is meaningful for him. I want to repeat this term again: not autonomous, but auton and a lot of use of the word.
There are other features that distinguish our dictionary from other author's dictionaries, and here I will use such a term as "lexicographic parameter". A lexicographic parameter is a set of certain criteria by which the type of a dictionary is determined. The first parameter is the one I said about: the fact that not all words are described, but idiogloss words, that is, the word included in the dictionary is idioglossa. The second parameter, as in all explanatory dictionaries, is the definition, but there are already some peculiarities.
As an example, I will cite one dictionary entry that I finished just recently. Our dictionary describes not only the verb “hate”, but also the noun “hate” and the adjective “hated”. Naturally, we use those definitions that are given both in modern explanatory dictionaries and in explanatory dictionaries of the 19th century, but first we deduce the meaning that is found precisely in Dostoevsky. And it is not at all necessary that we will later find this meaning in explanatory dictionaries. This is the first feature of the definition. The second feature of the definition is caused by the fact that, most often, words in the Russian language are polysemantic, and, as for all authors of dictionaries, the problem arises of what meaning to put in the first place. Here a certain criterion is introduced as to what value is considered the most important for Dostoevsky. Most important factor in this case, it is the frequency of use in this very meaning, but another factor is the occurrence of this meaning in all or in the maximum number of genres in which Dostoevsky worked. We focus on 4 genres - fiction, journalism, Dostoevsky's letters and business letters, which we distinguish as a separate genre, because their stylistic features are completely different - and this is very important, this is another feature of our dictionary. Accordingly, if a word in some meaning occurs in all genres or in the maximum number of them, and this meaning has a high frequency, it is placed in the first place.
The next parameter is the frequency of the given word. In the first place is the total number in all Dostoevsky's texts, followed by the figure characterizing the use in literary texts, then in journalism, the third figure is letters, and the fourth figure concerning business letters is not here, that is, the verb "hate" in business Dostoevsky's letters are not found, and this is quite natural. But the word "money" is, which is also quite natural. By the way, the article "Money" is an amazingly interesting article, it sounds very modern. Basically these are the contexts that are present in the "Teenager".
Further, as in any other author's dictionary and in most explanatory dictionaries, illustrations are given, that is, examples of the use of a particular word in Dostoevsky's texts. Here, too, there are some principles in our dictionary. First, we necessarily give the first use of the word, even if it is not at all interesting in terms of describing its meaning. Sometimes this is very, very significant. For example, Dostoevsky has some words that he first used after hard labor, that is, starting from the second period of creativity. There are some words that are used only from the third period. Whenever possible, we provide illustrations that relate to each period of Dostoevsky's work, and there are, I remind you, three such periods, if we talk about fiction: before hard labor, after hard labor and before Crime and Punishment and starting with Crime and Punishment and to end. When we talk about Dostoevsky, it is very important to separate these periods, because his worldview changed radically and this was reflected in the author's style. This is especially true of what happened before hard labor and after reading the Gospel and the hard labor itself. And then there was Dostoevsky's "pentateuch" and what was around the "pentateuch". Therefore, it is natural to give examples from all periods of creativity.
I would like to note that we strive to show the meaning and use of this or that word, this or that idiogloss as objectively as possible, moreover, linguistically objectively, but, of course, the selection of illustrations is in one way or another connected with the worldview of the author of the dictionary entry. For example, I will consider one thing important, in one context, someone else will consider something else important - here, of course, there is the author's position, the author's point of view. For example, if we talk about the dictionary entry “Hate”, then my author's position is present when I quote Raskolnikov's words: “Oh, how I hated this kennel! Still, I didn't want to get out of it. " In presenting the material in this particular article, it was very important for me to show Dostoevsky's ambivalence: love and hate. He has a lot of examples when love and hate coexist, exist simultaneously, and in different hatred and in different love. If we talk about journalism, then I singled out the following example: “It is difficult to imagine to what extent she (Europe) is afraid of us. And if she is afraid, then she must hate. Europe does not like us remarkably and never did; she never considered us as her own people, as Europeans, but always only as annoying newcomers. " This is from The Writer's Diary. And here is another notable example: “For some time I began to receive letters from them (meaning the Jews - approx. I.R.), where they seriously and bitterly reproach me for the fact that I“ attack ”them, that I “hate the Jew”, I hate not for his vices, “not as an exploiter,” but as a tribe, that is, like: “Judas, they say, sold Christ”.
The next icon means that the illustration is from Dostoevsky's personal letters, not business ones. Here is this illustration: “This is disgusting! But how should they know that nihilists, liberal “contemporaries” have been throwing mud at me since the third year because I broke up with them, I hate Polish people and love the Fatherland. Oh, scoundrels! " On the next page there is another remarkable example, reflecting Dostoevsky's worldview and his attitude towards other nations, as a rule, his attitude is sharply negative (everyone writes about this). But even in this respect, Dostoevsky is sharply ambivalent. Here is an example: “I am not afraid to become Germanized, because I hate all Germans, but I need Russia; Without Russia, I will lose my last strength and talent. I feel it, feel it alive. " Another example on this topic, no longer from this article, I do not remember which German city in his letters Dostoevsky says: "Yes, the city is big and good, only there are many Germans." In other places, of course, we find Dostoevsky's love for both European culture and German philosophy, for the same European painting, which Dostoevsky loved very much, besides, Victor Hugo, one of his favorite writers. And a lot has been said about this, a lot. That is, here, of course, we see a contradiction, which, in fact, is apparent.
So, the above part of the dictionary entry is called the corpus of the dictionary entry. The body is followed by ...
V.V. Averyanov.Igor Vasilyevich, forgive me for interrupting. This, of course, is a curiosity, but tell me, where does this quote about the fact that there are many Germans come from?
I.V. Ruzhitsky.This can be exactly found in the dictionary entry "Big". This is from letters, and Dostoevsky came to this city, maybe not even German, but Swiss, for treatment. Most likely it is Ems. Naturally, he wanted to take a break from everyone, from everything, and he hated German psychology, the German way of life, just like a philistine way of life. Hence his hatred of the Jews. And the Jews for Dostoevsky, as you know, are not a nation, they are not Jews, they are a way of life, this behavior, these are certain everyday traditions. After all, first and foremost, it is usury.
I.L. Brazhnikov.Like Pushkin. So close.
I.V. Ruzhitsky.Yes everything is correct. Only in the time of Pushkin, Judaism as a phenomenon (I am using the word "Judaism" not in its modern sense) was not as strong as in the time of Dostoevsky. Still, the law on usury, if we recall, gave great benefits to usurers, and it was adopted in the middle of the 19th century. Therefore, all this flowed, it became a phenomenon. Until the middle of the 19th century, laws were very, very strict, and taxes for usurers were very high.
As for foreigners elsewhere in Dostoevsky, we find that even more than the Germans, he does not like those Russians abroad who have come there on vacation. And then Dostoevsky describes in great detail why he does not like Russians abroad. This also sounds very modern.
But I will continue to talk about the structure of a dictionary entry and its features. The next part is a word guide. For writing, this is a very tedious part, but nevertheless, for lexicography it is a very important part. All works are given here with reference to specific pages in which forms of the given word are found. If the reader is interested in a certain word and wants to know in which book of Dostoevsky it can be found, he uses this word guide, turns to the collected works and finds.
Next is the section of the dictionary entry, on the concept of which we have been working for a very long time. It's called "Commentary". This is also one of the features of our dictionary. The commentary usually takes up more space than the body of the article itself, although it is typed in smaller print.
The first zone and the first part of the commentary is the possibility of using one or another idiogloss as part of an aphorism. We bring into this commentary zone not only the well-known aphorisms of Dostoevsky's type "Beauty will save the world", "All the harmony of the world is not worth one tear of a child" or "A fool who confessed that he is a fool is no longer a fool" (this is from The Humiliated and Insulted »), But also those statements that have the properties of aphorisms. These are necessarily judgments, laconic judgments, these are necessarily non-trivial judgments, these are judgments that express some thought or idea important for the author. Very often an aphorism is a paradoxical statement. As for brevity, we usually rely on the so-called memory number: it is seven plus or minus two significant words in the aphorism. But this is not necessary, since there are longer aphorisms. If you look at the article "Hate", you will see, for example, the following statement: "... an angel cannot hate, and cannot not love." The first part of the sentence, which comes before the word "angel", is enclosed in angle brackets, which means that we do not consider the first part as an aphorism, but for understanding the aphorism it is important, it is important to give this context. So, the statement "An angel cannot hate, cannot and love" has the properties of an aphorism. This is from a letter from Nastasya Filippovna Aglaya in The Idiot. Here, in the zone of aphoristics, is the last example from the "Diary of a Writer": "Russian people do not know how to hate for a long time and seriously, and not only people, but even vices, darkness of ignorance, despotism, obscurantism, and all these other retrograde things." In my opinion, this statement has the basic properties of an aphorism. Here's another good aphorism, you can find it in the first volume of the main idioglossary: \u200b\u200b“To fall in love does not mean to love; you can fall in love and hate. " The same ambivalence, paradox, and, in this case, it manifests itself in this aphorism. Or take the dictionary entry "Believe": "The strong loves strength; whoever believes is strong. " This is from journalism, and the author of this dictionary entry brought this statement into the zone of aphoristics. Here's what concerns the first comment area. Why does she go first? In this case, we believe that aphoristics, the possibility of a word entering into an aphoristic utterance, is not just one of the criteria of whether to consider this word idioglossy or not, but this material, of course, reveals the author's position, his features and his views on the world, on the use of this or that word. In total, we have 16 comment zones.
The next zone of comments is the autonomous use of the word, which I have already mentioned, that is, the case when the author ponders the meaning of a word, he himself writes about how a particular word should be understood. There is a classic example of an autonomous use - the verb "to be obscured", which, according to Dostoevsky, he himself introduced into the Russian language, which he was very proud of, was happy, as he writes, that some words began to be used in Russian thanks to him. In the "Diary of a Writer" we find a phrase in the sense that the verb "obscure" means to disappear, be destroyed, come down, so to speak, to nothing. We attribute such cases to the zone of autonomous use of the word. The question is, why exactly this zone follows the aphoristics. Because, as I said, this is another criterion of whether a word is considered idioglossy or not. Moreover, the criterion is unambiguous. If the word is used by Dostoevsky autonomously, it means that it is already an idiogloss, it must already be described.
The next zone of the commentary is the zone of confusion between the meanings of the word. In the article "Hate" it is not, which is quite natural: if a word has one meaning, then there can be no question of any non-discrimination of meanings. But in the article "Madness", which you can see in the first volume, this is a very important topic. The word "madness" is both an idiogloss and an ideogloss, it is a key word for Dostoevsky's worldview, associated with many other ideoglosses in his picture of the world. We already see three meanings of this word. On the one hand, it is "willingness, desire to do something unexpected, reckless." On the other hand, the second meaning is "a tormenting state accompanied by mental disorder or suffering", and only the third meaning is "madness, illness." So, we already meet the word "madness" when it is impossible to determine from the context in what meaning Dostoevsky defines it. As we see it in "Teenager": "We are all three people of the same madness." These are the words of Arkady, more precisely, he quotes the words of Versilov. Here insanity is a willingness to do something unexpected, and a painful condition, and illness. When a word is used simultaneously in several meanings and it is impossible to say definitely which of these meanings prevails, then it is natural to assume that here we see a kind of clot, concentration of meanings and the possibility of a different understanding of this word in a given context, its different interpretation and interpretation.
The next zone is one of my favorites, I specially dealt with this topic - this is the playful use of one or another word. In the article about the verb "hate" her, however, also not. Here I must tell you a little about the definition of the word play we are focusing on. And Dostoevsky, I must say right away, loved to play with the language, and many researchers of his language write about this. We see a lot of examples from Dostoevsky on this score from Vinogradov, Sannikov, and many others. So, the playful use of a word is when the author consciously, I emphasize this word, deviates from the existing literary norm in the use of the word for a specific purpose. What are the goals of this deliberate deviation from the norm? Such a goal can be either the creation of a comic effect, or the search and finding of some semantic nuances that cannot be expressed through the norm. Thus, the first function of deviation from the norm is a comic function, and the second function I call the cognitive function of play use. But the sine qua non is the author consciously changes some existing norm. If this is not a conscious change, then this is already the author's mistake, and we also meet such examples in Dostoevsky. But more often than not, what the reader may perceive as a mistake is a play on words. Let's take the example of the word "fool". Razumikhin says to Raskolnikov: “So, if you weren't a fool, not a vulgar fool, not a full-fledged fool, not a translation from a foreign language ... you see, Rodya, I confess, you are a clever fellow, but you are a fool! - so, if you weren't a fool, you'd better come to me today. Here is such a repetition of the word "fool", and a paradoxical repetition: "you are smart, but you are a fool" - this is one of the varieties of playful use of the word. What is the violation of the norm here? First, in the very paradox of "smart, but a fool", in such an oxymoron. Oxymoron, in fact, is also a play on words. The very repetition of a word is a violation of the stylistic norm. In this case, he is motivated precisely by the creation of the comic. Another example: "The old man, if he has not yet survived from his mind, then certainly from memory." It is clear that in the literary language there is no such idiom or phraseological unit as “to get out of memory”. There is an idiom "get out of the mind." And Dostoevsky very often, as a playful technique, a playful use of a word, changes the standard form of phraseological units, thereby achieving a comic effect. Or such an example from the "Diary of a Writer", which we also attributed to a play on words: "The venerable professor must be a great scoffer, but if he is naive, not in a mockery, then, therefore, back: a great scoffer." Here again we see a game based on paradox. “You'd better avoid pocket money, and in general, money in your pocket” - this technique is called in the style of catachrez, and here it performs a playful, comic function.
Dostoevsky plays not only with the meanings of words, he can play with the standard form, contaminate various affixes: “She was evil and boringlike a gimbal. " That is, not grumpy, but drilled. Or a very interesting example, just according to our situation from "Crime and Punishment": "In the room there was a large round oval table." What is this, the mistake of Dostoevsky, who edited and rewrote "Crime and Punishment" several times? It is unlikely, although he complained many times that he did not have the ability to rewrite, like Turgenev and Tolstoy, therefore he has many errors. So what is it? "Round table" as an idiom, as a phraseological unit, a stable combination is a table for a conversation, and then an "oval" is a table shape. Of course, a smile arises, the reader stops at this point, begins to think that it is very important for Dostoevsky. Or let's look at another place from "Crime and Punishment": after the murder, Raskolnikov walks down the street, and from the crowd shouts: "Look how you cut yourself!", And Raskolnikov shudders with fear. Of the crowd, of course, they meant “how he got drunk,” but Raskolnikov after the murder, first of all, understands this in a completely different sense. Or later in the dialogue: "You are stained with blood!" Here Raskolnikov himself begins to play: "Yes, I'm covered in blood." A game of idioms with direct and idiomatic meaning.
As I said, an accidental error must be distinguished from deliberate changes in the norm. There is a special zone for accidental mistakes in the commentary, we call it “non-standard word combination”. These are the cases when this or that word usage departs from the norms of the modern literary language. This can be the use of the vocative case, for example, in "The Brothers Karamazov". In addition, Dostoevsky very often, through distorted Russian speech, through graphic changes in the word, shows the speech of foreigners speaking Russian. We also bring these cases into the zone of non-standard compatibility. I repeat that Dostoevsky has very few cases when a stylistic or grammatical error is actually encountered, although many researchers wrote that his style is very crude and mistakes are very common. These are not mistakes. More often than not, this is a play on words. But in the article "Hate" we also give an example of a pure error in lexical compatibility: "I also know that I can hate you very much, more than love." The combination "very much to hate" is contrary to modern norms of lexical compatibility.
I.L. Brazhnikov.It seems to me that this is a feature of Dostoevsky's style, he very often uses the word "very" with verbs. And with any verbs. In this case, he has a very loaded word. I remember another kind of example: “I know, I very very I know. "
I.V. Ruzhitsky.In general, Dostoevsky is characterized by the whipping of this or that meaning, and for this he has many ways. The same repetition of words: in one context, in one sentence, the word "suddenly" can occur four times. Or a very large chain of synonyms: for example, "maybe", "maybe", etc.
But we do not call this zone of comments purely a zone of errors. It can be a stylistic feature or a stylistic inaccuracy. We include in this zone what is contrary to modern norms. I will give one more example of non-standard compatibility - the word "big": "big reasoning". From the point of view of the modern norm, these words are probably not combined. Or "great intimacy" - this, I think, even for Dostoevsky, for his style is not indicative, but not a fact. Finding answers to these questions requires a complex procedure; here it is not only necessary to know Dostoevsky, but to conduct comparative analysis with other authors of the 19th century. Only then will we be able to determine that this is either Dostoevsky, his style, or a mistake, or, in general, a feature of the 19th century language.
I will say a little more about the next two zones of the commentary. The first deals with cases when in one sentence a word is used in different meanings. In such a combination of one word in different meanings, something new often appears, a new nuance of meaning. In addition, here we can very often observe puns. As for the other zone, in it we record the use of one-root words in one context, and not only within one sentence, but also within several related sentences. Take the dictionary entry "Play": "Suddenly he will lose or win a lot, the rest are all playing for small guilders." In the article "Hate" this zone is represented very widely. Here, by the way, we see Dostoevsky's favorite “hate with hate” - this is another method of amplification, which in linguistics is called pleonasm: “I know that I know,” “know knowledge,” etc. Dostoevsky often uses the use of cognate words in one context.
If we talk about the article "Hate", then in this zone you can find the following example: "England needs the Eastern Christians to hate us with all the power of the hatred that she herself has for us." There is also the following excerpt at the end of this page and
I. V. Ruzhitsky, E. V. Potemkina
THE PROBLEM OF FORMING A BILINGUAL PERSONALITY
IN LINGUODIDACTICS
IGOR V. ROUZHITSKIY, EKATERINA V. POTYOMKINA THE PROBLEM OF THE FORMATION OF A BILINGUAL PERSONALITY IN LINGUODIDACTICS
The article is devoted to the study of the phenomenon of bilingualism in its close connection with linguodi-dactics and the theory of the linguistic personality of Yu. N. Karaulov. A detailed analysis of the structural differences between the linguistic personality and the secondary linguistic personality is carried out, the model of the formation of a bilingual personality is described. The question is raised about the development of a method for the formation of the bilingual personality of students, based on the use of a literary text in the classroom in Russian as a foreign language.
Key words: linguodidactics, linguistic personality, bilingualism, secondary linguistic personality, artistic text.
The article covers the analysis of the phenomenon of bilingualism as it relates to linguodidactics and the theory of language personality (by Yuriy N. Karaulov). The detailed analysis of the structural differences between language personality and the secondary language personality is given, the model of the formation of a bilingual personality is described. The question of developing a method of forming a student "s bilingual personality based on the literary text using on the lessons of the Russian as a foreign language is set.
Keywords: linguodidactics, language personality, bilingualism, the secondary language personality, literary text.
Introduction
The anthropocentric paradigm of modern linguistic odidactics determines the object of its study of the linguistic personality (hereinafter - YL) of the student (S.G. Blinova, I.G. Bogin, N.D. Galskova, N.I. Gez, Yu.N. Karaulov, I. I. Khaleeva, T. K. Tsvetkova), in connection with which a lot of research is being carried out on the personal aspect of mastering a foreign language (U. Vainreich, E. M. Vereshchagin, M. V. Zavyalova, I. A. Zimnyaya, R. K. Minyar-Beloruchev). However, a common point of view has not yet been developed on how exactly a lexical unit belonging to a different linguistic system is included in the linguistic consciousness of an individual; what connections are formed between the units of the native and foreign languages; how new concepts, images, associations and other types of cognomes (units of knowledge) of the studied language enter the conceptual field existing in the student's mind. In other words, the question remains open: does the YL of students change in the context of bilingualism? Moreover, from practical
Igor Vasilievich Ruzhitsky
Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor of the Department of the Russian Language for Foreign Students of the Faculty of Philology, Lomonosov Moscow State University [email protected]
Ekaterina Vladimirovna Potemkina
Post-graduate student of the Department of Didactic Linguistics and Theory of Teaching Russian as a Foreign Philological Faculty, Lomonosov Moscow State University [email protected]
tics of teaching a foreign language, you can give a large number of examples of the appearance at an advanced stage of learning "accent" at all levels of YL, and not only phonetic: the speech of foreigners studying Russian can become more emotional, the tempo and intonation change; upon returning to their home country, students may even state some discomfort in communicating in their native language. It should be noted that the program for studying and describing the interaction of languages \u200b\u200bin speech activity was laid down by L.V. Shcherba, in whose works the process of interference, adaptation of language systems (and more broadly, of what stands behind the language) in the context of bilingualism is considered (see:) ... The question of the structural features of a bilingual YL is the main topic of discussion in this article.
The phenomenon of bilingualism
Most researchers tend to have a broad understanding of bilingualism as a flexible characteristic, ranging from the smallest degree of proficiency in two languages \u200b\u200bto perfect proficiency, that is, bilingualism occurs whenever a person switches from one linguistic and cultural code to another. The most common definition of bilingualism is given by U Weinreich in his work "Language contacts": "... bilingualism is the command of two languages \u200b\u200band their alternate use depending on the conditions of speech communication<...> from a linguistic point of view, the problem of bilingualism is to describe those several linguistic systems that come into contact with each other. "
In science, the types of bilingualism have already been described in sufficient detail, depending on the nature of the interaction of languages \u200b\u200bin the speech activity of YL: pure and mixed (L.V. Shcherba), composite, coordinated and subordinate (U. Weinreich), receptive, reproductive and productive (E . M. Vereshchagin, V. G. Kostomarov). Depending on the age at which the acquisition of a second language takes place, early and late bilingualism are distinguished. The article
we will talk about the process of studying Russian as a foreign language by trainee students of the philological profile - about cases when the system of the studied language has already been mainly mastered through the prism of the native one (subordinate type of bilingualism1), therefore the main task at this stage is to form an additional, relatively independent semantic base by means of the studied language (which would illustrate the distributive hypothesis of the organization of the conceptual system in subordinate bilingualism). This position is confirmed by the results of an associative experiment of a diagnostic nature. The subjects - foreign students - gave the same associative reactions to the words-stimuli of the native language and their translated equivalents in Russian, which indirectly testified to a single conceptual base of the native and studied languages.
Genesis of the linguistic personality of a bilingual
There is no doubt that YL is a projection of a person's personality as a whole. The latter, in turn, is determined by the synthesis of a biological factor (personality traits) and an environmental factor (a set of conditions for a person's existence). These two facets of personality exist inseparably, and it is no coincidence that L. S. Vygotsky, answering the question of what the influence of the environment on the development of the individual will be, used the concept of experience - a unit in which, on the one hand, the environment is presented in an indecomposable form (that what is experienced) and, on the other hand, how a person experiences it (that is, personality traits) (see:).
The medium is understood to mean that among which the personality exists. The geographical, macro- and microenvironment and social environment are distinguished. Moreover, if in the pedagogical aspect of studying bilingualism, language is only one of the factors of the social environment along with the state system, confessional sign, the system of school education, the factor of science and culture (traditions and customs, historical, literary, architectural heritage, etc.),
then in the linguodidactic aspect, the language environment is of primary research interest. The personality is considered here as a linguocentric entity, that is, a linguistic personality, in which, nevertheless, all the listed environmental factors are reflected. Note that this view correlates with the idea of \u200b\u200bstudent-centered learning and the principle of nature-figurativeness developed by K.D. Ushinsky (see:), in which language learning is equated with the development of the existing language ability of students, which determines the goals of language teaching, including and the most universal is the development of students' thinking.
Thus, a specialist in the field of studying the phenomenon of bilingualism is faced with the question: what happens to YL in conditions of immersion in a new linguistic environment? Before answering this question, let us turn to the theory of YL, which will allow us to describe the personality of a bilingual taking into account a set of structured parameters.
Model YaL Yu.N. Karaulova
Under YL, Yu. N. Karaulov means a genetically determined predisposition to the creation and manipulation of sign systems, that is, YL is a multicomponent set of linguistic abilities and readiness to carry out speech activity (see:). Accordingly, YL is "any speaker of a particular language, characterized on the basis of the analysis of the texts produced by him."
In the concept of Yu. N. Karaulov, YaL has a number of typological features.
1. First of all, YL includes three levels - lexicon, thesaurus and pragmaticon, each of which is characterized by a set of units, relations and stereotypical associations (by stereotypes Yu.N. Karaulov understands units of the text that have the property of repetition and meet the communicative needs of the individual and the conditions of communication , - "standards", "templates").
The lexicon in the structure of YL, that is, what forms its vocabulary is the level of ordinary linguistic semantics (the level of "semanthemes"), meaning
linguistic connections of words that cover the whole variety of their grammatical-paradigmatic, semantic-syntactic and associative connections. For a native speaker, it assumes a degree of proficiency in an ordinary language. The relationships between words form a fairly stable system - the associative-verbal network of YL. Standard phrases and sentence models (go to the cinema, love flowers, buy bread, etc.) stand out as stereotypes at this level.
The cognitive level in the YL structure is a system of values \u200b\u200band meanings. At this level of analysis of YL, semantics is blurred and the image that arises not in semantics, but in the knowledge system comes to the fore. The unit of this level is the elementary unit of knowledge - the cognome (see:). In the theory of YL, the following types of cognom are distinguished: metaphor, concept, frame, mneme, precedent text, etc.
The interaction of various cognomes within the YL is based on subordinate-coordinative relations, as a result of which cognomes are united into a certain network - semantic fields. The stereotypes of the cognitive level of YL are generalized statements - universally significant sayings containing everyday rules, formulas of behavior and assessments, reflecting the natural norms of common sense and basic concepts of the national language picture of the world: proverbs, maxims, speech cliches, cliches, etc. (Knowledge is power ; Everyone understands to the extent of his depravity, etc.).
The pragmaticon in the structure of YL ensures the transition from speech activity to the understanding of real activity, which is the ultimate goal of communication - that is, it expresses the speaker's intentions, which are stereotypes of the pragmatic level, as a result of which the units of this level - pragmemes - form a network of communicative needs.
In discourse, the pragmatic level forms a subjective mode, which can "materialize" both in the stylistic coloring of the text and in value judgments, the emotional use of modal particles and interjections. We focus on the most
^^^ [Russian language teaching methodology]
a strong understanding of pragmatics, according to which the pragmatic component of the meaning of a word should include (1) the connection of meaning with presupposition and reflection (reflexive microcomponent), (2) assessment on the scale of peiorativ ^ amelioration (evaluative microcomponent), (3) expression by the word emotions (emotive microcomponent) and (4) the connection between the use of a word and a certain functional style (stylistic microcomponent) (see:).
2. An important component of the YL model is the selection of invariant and variable parts in its structure at each of the levels. The invariant part is the unchanging, highly resistant to changes, meanings common to all, that is, the typological features of YL. The variable part, on the contrary, can relate to a certain period and be lost over time, become irrelevant for the national linguistic picture of the world or relate to a narrow linguistic community, determine only individual ways of creating an aesthetic and emotional coloring of speech.
In the process of learning a foreign language, the invariant part of the YL is formed first of all. For the verbal-semantic level of YL, this will be the all-Russian language type (phonetic, spelling, and other norms of the language) and a stable part of verbal-semantic associations. For the thesaurus - the basic part of the picture of the world, nodal connections in the hierarchical system of values \u200b\u200band meanings. For a pragmatic-on - stable communication needs and readiness, indicating the typological features of the speech behavior of the speakers of the target language.
3. The concept of YL is based on the communication-activity approach. The units of each level are significant only from the point of view of what speech readiness they provide. The YL lexicon forms the speaker's vocabulary, and the formation of this level presupposes the ability to make an adequate choice of linguistic means. In addition, on the basis of the lexicon, elementary rules of the Russian language are formed, which allow building a word
readings and sentences corresponding to the language norm. Possession of the thesaurus provides the ability to determine the topic of an utterance, express one's opinion, readiness to use internal speech, readiness to produce and reproduce generalized utterances, etc. The pragmaticon is responsible for communication needs, for the correspondence of the chosen language means to the conditions of communication, for the use of sublanguages \u200b\u200band registers, for identification platitudes and language games, for reading the subtext. If we draw a parallel with the types of competencies defined in linguodidactics, then the lexicon provides linguistic and discursive, thesaurus - sociocultural (recognition of the socio-cultural context), regional and subject, pragmaticon - illocutionary (i.e., the expression of different intentions by the speaker) and strategic competence.
Note that the readiness model of YL proposed by Yu. N. Karaulov is open: a set of readiness is determined by social conditions and the corresponding roles of YL. In other words, the list of readiness can change depending on the level of language proficiency and the profile of the foreign student.
4. An important feature of the YL model is the relationship between its levels (Fig. 1). Yu. N. Karaulov notes that the components-circles in the figure "are actually located one under the other", so that the diagram shown "has three dimensions." This feature of the YL model is reflected in the fact that the adequacy of understanding a certain unit of the text can be considered both from the point of view of semantics and in connection with cognitive potential, as well as emotional-evaluative coloration - depending on the goals and position of the researcher (see:) ...
5. Finally, a feature of the YL model is that it is an open system. Yu. N. Karaulov in his works repeatedly emphasizes that the proposed model is "fundamentally incomplete, capable of multiplying its components."
associative and communication network
semantic web
non-verbalized part verbalized part non-verbalized part
Figure: 1. Scheme of Yu. N. Karaulov, illustrating the interconnectedness of YL levels. The initial letters L, C, G, P denote small circles symbolizing the lexicon, semanticon, grammaticon and pragmaticon YL, and the dotted line (area T) denotes the sphere of knowledge about the world.
So, the YL model is characterized by (1) three-level, (2) the presence of invariant and variable parts, (3) a set of readiness, (4) the interconnectedness of levels and (5) openness. Note also that any change in its structure will entail changes in each of the named parameters.
The bilingual YL model Having defined the typological features of the YL, we will try to "impose" them on the linguistic personality of a person speaking a non-native language.
When immersed in a fundamentally new language environment, a student with an already formed YL begins to experience the influence of another, collective YL. As a result of interaction with it, a secondary linguistic personality is formed (hereinafter referred to as WTL) - that is, the structure of the student's YL, implemented by the means of the target language (see:). This term was first proposed by I. I. Khaleeva: “The idea of \u200b\u200bYu. N. Karaulov about a linguistic personality that takes shape only outside the language of the system is key not only for a linguist, but also for a ling-vididact, designed to educate a secondary
linguistic personality ". The word secondary emphasizes the hierarchy of personalities within one individual - the process of YL formation by means of the studied language is automatically mediated by the native language system, therefore the new picture of the world is superimposed on the existing one and does not exist independently of it, otherwise we would have to talk about “split” personality2. However, in modern linguodidactics, more and more people speak of the formation of a VTLT as the ultimate goal of teaching a foreign language and criteria for its effectiveness. "The result of any linguistic education should be a formed linguistic personality, and the result of education in the field of foreign languages \u200b\u200bis a secondary linguistic personality as an indicator of a person's ability to fully participate in intercultural communication." We believe that this judgment requires some addition, since structures such as YL and WTL cannot exist separately from each other within the individual, they are synthesized, defining the subordinate nature of the bilingual personality (hereinafter - BIL). So
thus, the formation of a VNL is only one of the aspects of the formation of a BIL.
In the process of the formation of the personality bias, a structural interaction takes place: the LF affects the LTP no less than the LTP transforms the LF. As already mentioned in the introduction, while staying in a non-native linguistic environment, alienation may even occur from one's YL with the prevalence of LAT (the studied language becomes dominant). According to BS Kotik, “the systematic use of a second language in real life can contribute to the formation of the unity of language and sensory tissue of consciousness, which leads to the formation of a direct access of the second language to the pre-linguistic pre-speech level” (quoted from:).
Among the mechanisms of interaction between YaL and VNL, let us single out their merger and separation. This means that at the level of the lexicon, cognitive level and pragmatics of YL and VTL, "mixing and switching processes" will take place. Let us represent the process of interaction between the YL and the LRT inside the BL in the form of a diagram (Fig. 2).
Merging should be discussed in connection with the use of a single "conceptual repository" by an individual with different language codes. So, for example, the same meaning can be conveyed in two languages, however, in this case, the semantic adjustment of a unit of a non-native language to a unit of a native language most often occurs (compare the use of the Russian "equivalent"
friend for eng. friend). If the linguistic consciousness of the individual "resists", then at the verbal-semantic level, rejection of the new language system leads to tracing from the native language (* the taxi driver pressed the button to open and close the window), and at the cognitive level - to the construction of a value-hierarchical a system of meanings that is not comparable with the value-hierarchized system of meanings of native speakers. For example, in the course of an experiment conducted in groups of American and Russian schoolchildren, the following results were obtained regarding such a basic cognome as a house: in the drawings of American students, a house is depicted with a flat roof, there is a lawn near the house, and in the drawings of Russian schoolchildren next to a house with a triangular roof often depicts trees (usually apple or birch). Verbal reactions in the multi-national group of foreigners and the group of Russian-speaking subjects to such stimulus words as a communal apartment, Caucasian, orphanage, Moscow, etc., which are combat units of the modern Russian YL, will also be unequal in the framework of the associative experiment. L. V. Shcherba pointed out the reason for such manifestations of bilingualism: “The speaker borrows from another language, before words, those concepts or their shades, that color, finally, that seem necessary to him”. Other scholars also point out in similar cases the difference between denotative nomination and pragmatic-significative, as-
L \u003d LO + YAL BiL \u003d LO + (YAL + WASTE)
Figure: 2. LO - personal characteristics; YL is a linguistic personality formed on the basis of the native language; VTYL - a linguistic personality formed on the basis of the target language; L - the personality of the monolingual;
BiL is a bilingual personality.
the socio-psychological structure of the word 3. A. Yu. Mutylina gives the following examples of switching codes in the speech of Russian-Chinese bilinguals, when the speaker has a need to use some pragmatically loaded unit or some kind of concept: He did not want // second child / this is too ta / en - "troubles, anxiety "; I would like to go inside // but somehow Brykaou1 $ 1 - "awkward, uncomfortable, embarrassing." There are also cases of morphological and phonetic-morphological adaptation.
It is interesting that, having mastered any cognate of the culture under study, the student begins to be puzzled and even dissatisfied with the fact that the carriers of this culture do not know the cognate: [from a letter from a graduate student from Taiwan] I was not only interested, but also nice to study with Katya<...> during those two weeks ... She is pretty (after all, I enjoy making fun of the beauty, especially in class), and led classes in general normally. But to be honest, I found two small problems with her: firstly, she did not understand the history of Russia very well. Today I talked about N. N. Muravyov-Amursky. I was surprised and a little disappointed that she knew nothing about him. He is also the representative of Russian imperialism in the middle of the 19th century, which Russians need to learn about (punctuation and student style are preserved).
Both in the case of a merger, and in the case of a separation between YL and WTL, the result will be numerous communication failures and even conflicts. Experts in the field of studying the phenomenon of bilingualism note that “the moment comes when conclusions and generalizations about the patterns of a foreign language, made within the semantic system of the native language, come into conflict with the practice of the target language. These statements are assessed by the teacher as incorrect, and the student himself begins to perceive the studied language as something illogical and inaccessible to understanding. "
Thus, in relation to the nature of the interaction between YaL and VTL, we should say
about bidirectional interference4, understood broadly: at the level of images, motives, ethical guidelines, features of the emotional-evaluative perception of reality5. In other words, one of the typological features of BiL, along with the typological features of YaL, should be called its original dialogicality.
Literary text as a dialogue of linguistic personalities
In connection with the problem of bilingualism, reference to a literary text (hereinafter referred to as HT) can serve as a solution to several tasks at once: illustrating the dialogicity / polyphony of YL and a method for identifying the area of \u200b\u200bdelimitation of YL and WTL.
From the very beginning, the concept of YL was associated in domestic linguistics with the specifics of the organization of the HT space. As noted by NI Konrad, following K. Fossler, VV Vinogradov set himself the task of illuminating - "on the basis of concrete linguistic activity - a constantly acting connection, the relationship of language as a style, and its creator - a person, a writer." The result of the analysis of the material of fiction by V.V. Vinogradov was the developed ways of describing the author and character. The very term "linguistic personality" was first used by him in the publication "On fictional prose", where the scientist wrote that "in a special subjective, semantic structure, the elements of speech are combined through the personality of the speaker or writer."
Taking as the basis of his concept some theoretical provisions of V.V. Vinogradov, Yu.N. Karaulov developed the concept of YL, proposing such a definition (see above), which makes it possible, on the one hand, to correlate the level of understanding of foreign language HT with the degree of formation of BiL and, on the other hand, allows HT to be a tool for its formation.
The effectiveness of studying HT in the classroom in Russian as a foreign language is beyond doubt. Among the many functions performed by HT, the development of
internal speech of the reader. In the process of difficult reading, students must carry out a logical ordering of perceived data, including them in a system of concepts - a value-hierarchical tree of the thesaurus. However, this process is not linear, since HT is usually characterized by "polyphony". The style of HT is determined by the connections between independent semantic centers - the voice of the author and the voices of the characters. The same can be said about the reflection of BiL in the process of reading a foreign language text. On the one hand, it is determined by the peculiarities of the reader's YaL, on the other hand, the text itself is charged with some of the author's YaL features, which are complicated by the independent voices of the characters (in aggregate, they reflect the Russian YaL). As a result, if the polylogue between the reader, the author and the characters is carried out successfully (the intentions laid down by the author of HT are deciphered), we can talk about understanding the meaning of HT, which is possible only if there is a large area of \u200b\u200bintersection of their YL structures. Meanwhile, the practice of teaching RFL shows that even at an advanced stage of learning, students experience difficulties in the process of understanding HT (in particular, due to the richness of linguistic and cultural material). This is due to the insufficient formation of the reader's INTRACTED: there are too many gaps in its structure. This fact makes it possible to use the potential of chemotherapy in identifying the area of \u200b\u200bdemarcation of the YL and the INL. On the basis of the material of a separate HT, a list of units (verbal-semantic, cognitive and pragmatic levels) can be compiled that are absent in the reader's native YL for various reasons: just a different letter and phonetic designation, the absence in the native language of a whole category, image, etc. To designate the situation of misunderstanding of one or another unit of the text, we propose to use the concept of "atopon" (literally "deprived of space"), that is, "that does not fit into the schemes of our expectations and therefore puzzles." Atopon is the designation of any unit misunderstood by the reader in the text in verbal-se-
mantic, cognitive or pragmatic levels. If the concept of BiL connects the student's abilities with the peculiarities of the texts generated / perceived by him, then, on the basis of the methodology for studying HT (including the classification of the units of misunderstanding in it in accordance with the three-level structure of the YaL), a methodology for the formation of BiL can potentially be developed.
The success of learning a foreign language is determined by the quality of the formation of biL. At the same time, it is important to understand at what stage of this process one or another BI is. When it comes to late bilingualism, at the first stage, the ILL is built on the basis of the native YL. The student unconsciously perceives the studied language through the prism of his native one - he “translates” information from an unknown code to a known one, using the already existing conceptual base. Subsequently, the native YL and VYAL begin, as a rule, unconsciously, to interact, that is, the second stage is characterized by a mixing of the structures of the native YL and VYL: their combat units can be combined, traced, replaced. At the third stage, when the process of merging becomes already harmful within the framework of the formation of the student's BIL, the task of deliberately separating the INL and the native YL should be set in order to form two independent structures, each of which would be characterized by its own set of combat units and the relationship between them in verbal semantic, cognitive and pragmatic levels. The need for such a separation is especially felt when analyzing the speech of immigrants, when students often do not distinguish between two different linguistic worldviews. In other words, at the third stage, a gradual transformation of subordinate bilingualism into a coordinated one should take place, in which the student recognizes the presence of a YL different from his native one, realizes its typological features and consistently develops it.
It should be noted that the described stages of the formation of a biL is, on the one hand, the idea
student-centered learning and, on the other hand, the general didactic principle of the consciousness and activity of students, which requires the provision of conscious assimilation of knowledge in teaching by activating the reflection of students. At the same time, as we assume, in the process of BL formation according to the criterion of consciousness, there is a movement from a non-intentional (spontaneous) type of bilingualism to an intensional one (see:).
In linguodidactics, a specific solution to the problem of BL formation presupposes the construction in the student's mind of a certain construct, which is a representation of the INL system not only at the verbal-semantic, but also at the cognitive and pragmatic levels. The ways of solving this problem lie, probably, in the practical application of the linguodidactic model of YL with its further development. At present, for example, in textbooks on a foreign language, among the objects of training, there are traditionally only such cognitions and stereotypes of the cognitive level of YL, such as a metaphor (a sunny person), stable comparative turns (cunning as a fox), proverbs (you cannot easily catch and a fish from a pond), phraseological phrases (hang up your nose) and - not systematically - concepts (truth / truth, shame / conscience). Such types of cognom as a frame (May holidays, going to the bathhouse, standing in line, drinking tea in the kitchen), various types of mnemes (a machine with soda water, a communal apartment, lectures at the Polytechnic, a pioneer camp, potato), precedent texts and references to them (we wanted the best, but it turned out as always; we need Fedya, we must!; Hyperboloid of engineer Garin; Ivan Susanin). The pragmatic level in the practice of teaching a foreign language, especially in such an emotionally loaded language as Russian, also largely remains outside the framework of the teaching system. For example, many modal particles are still not included in the lexical minima according to RCT. Reading HT is one of the possible tools for motivating students to study such units.
Despite attempts to create innovative methods of BL formation based on HT material (for example, “two-level” commented reading (see:)), this direction of linguodidactics remains a priority and open for scientific research.
NOTES
1 NN Rogoznaya uses the term "imperfect" bilingualism, which reflects the presence in the speech of foreigners of varying degrees of interference (see:).
2 In medicine, cases of "bilingual schizophrenia" are noted, in which a person feels a change in his personality when changing a language (see:).
3 In the works of G. N. Chirsheva, the following pragmatic functions of code switching are distinguished: "addressee, quotation, humorous, phatic, esoteric, saving speech efforts, emotional, self-identification, subject-thematic, metalinguistic and influencing."
4 V.V. Vinogradov defined such interference as "incomplete code switching" (quoted from:).
5 As RK Minyar-Beloruchev rightly notes, reflecting on the problem of bilingualism, only having mastered the skill of deverbalization, that is, the ability to involuntarily switch to figurative thinking in a foreign language, one can “free oneself from the dominance of one language and enter the world of multilingualism, learn not only their country, but also other national cultures. "
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[chronicle]
RUSSIAN MEDIA RESEARCH IN THE WORLD CONTEXT. TO THE RESULTS OF THE CYCLE OF SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCES
At one of the workshops on the cycle of conferences to be held in early 2013, I came up with a proposal to unite them with a common “cap” - “Scientific Spring on the First Line”. It is on the 1st line of Vasilievsky Island that the Higher School of Journalism and Mass Communications of St. Petersburg State University (HSZHiMK) is located, which includes two faculties: journalism and applied communications. I liked the name, and from that moment on it appeared in our press releases, event announcements, interviews, etc. It soon became clear that spring was hotter than ever.
To illustrate, I will list the events that took place one after the other in a few months: the international student conference “Mass media in the modern world. Young Researchers "(March), international conference" Mass media in the modern world. Petersburg Readings "(April), which includes" on the rights of autonomy "an international seminar" Speech Communication in the Media "and an English-language international pre-conference" Comparing Media Research in the Modern World: Meeting of East and West - Comparing Media Systems in Today "s World: East meets West ", the international conference" Illustration in print: from the past to the future "(May), the all-Russian conference of the National Association of Mass Media Researchers" Russian mass media research and journalism in an international context "(May), the English-language international seminar" Media in transition - Media in transition "(May). It should be noted that in each case
we are not talking about local cathedral discussions, but about large scientific forums gathering many tens and hundreds of participants. It is clear that the staff of the Higher School of Engineering and Metallurgy felt the full burden of organizational and intellectual concerns.
However, it is not the works of the organizers themselves that deserve attention, of course, but the ideological dominants and scientific results of the past discussions. Among the dominants, we will single out, first of all, the international level of events. It is no coincidence that this word is repeated in the list of conferences, which is given above. The VSHiMK has chosen a strategic orientation to comprehend the state of domestic journalism and scientific knowledge about it in comparison with global trends. There are no isolated water areas in the ocean of modern science, and the former gravitation of the Russian theoretical school to autotrophic existence not only looks archaic, but simply ceased to be possible. The question is, on what basis we enter the world research community - as a student audience, reproducing the concepts of foreign authorities, or as equal partners who enrich the world with the intellectual and cultural capital that Russian science has.
For example, one of the most striking features of the “Speech Communication in the Media” seminar and the plenary session of the “Media in the Modern World” conference was the participation of the Dutch
(Continued on p. 100)
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480 RUB | UAH 150 | $ 7.5 ", MOUSEOFF, FGCOLOR," #FFFFCC ", BGCOLOR," # 393939 ");" onMouseOut \u003d "return nd ();"\u003e Dissertation - 480 rubles, delivery 10 minutes , around the clock, seven days a week
Ruzhitsky Igor Vasilievich. The linguistic personality of F.M. Dostoevsky: lexicographic presentation: dissertation ... candidate of philological sciences: 02/10/19 / Ruzhitsky Igor Vasilievich; [Place of defense: Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov] .- Moscow, 2015.- 647 p.
Introduction
1 Modern methods and systems for assessing the technical condition of power grid equipment 10
1.1 Modern methods for assessing technical condition 10
1.2 Prerequisites for the application of methods for assessing technical condition 15
1.3 Modern systems for assessing technical condition 21
1.4 Assessment of the effectiveness of modern systems
1.5 Conclusions 32
2 Equipment technical condition assessment system architecture and data model 33
2.1. Decision support system 33
2.2. The architecture of the technical condition assessment system 37
2.3. Data Model 47
2.4. Conclusions: 51
3 Development of a model of a system for assessing the technical condition of electrical equipment 53
3.1. Determination of the structural model for assessing the technical condition of electrical equipment 53
3.2. The structure of neuro-fuzzy inference and the algorithm of its work 57
3.3. Formation of membership functions 59
3.2.1 Definition fuzzy rules products 59
3.2.2 Determination of the number of membership functions 61
3.2.3 Determination of the type of membership functions 61
3.4. Setting up a model for assessing a technical condition using the example of assessing the condition of transformer equipment 69
3.4.1. Determination of the structure of neuro-fuzzy-logical inference 69
3.4.2. Definition of membership functions 69
3.4.3. Formation of a training sample h
3.5. Comparative analysis with neural network 93
3.6. Determination of the resulting assessment of the technical condition of a simple object of the electrical network 95
3.7. Conclusions 98
4 Approbation of the developed system on the example of assessing the technical condition of a power transformer 100
4.1 Assessment of the system operation status 101
4.2 Assessment of the condition of transformer oil 101
4.3 Assessment of the state of the magnetic circuit of the transformer 107
4.4 Assessment of the solid insulation condition of the transformer 109
4.5 Assessment of the condition of the transformer windings 111
4.6 Assessment of the condition of the power oil transformer 116
4.7 Conclusions 120
Conclusion 122
List of abbreviations and conventions 124
Glossary of terms 126
Bibliography
Introduction to work
Relevance work is thus conditioned by the following:
the importance of studying the language of a particular person, both from the point of view of interaction with the national language in the aspect of the relationship between the individual and the collective, and as a possibility of cognizing a person through the analysis of the characteristics of his speech activity;
the importance of such a person as F.M. Dostoevsky, which is a kind of symbol of Russian national culture;
the need for further development of the theory and methodology for describing and lexicographic representation of a linguistic personality.
Theoretical basis research work in the following areas:
linguopersonology, in particular, the theory of linguistic personality (G.I.Bogin, V.V. Vinogradov, N.D. Golev, V.I. Karasik, Yu.N. Karaulov, K.F.Sedov, O.B.Sirotinina );
language study F.M. Dostoevsky (M.S. Altman, N.D. Arutyunova, M.M.Bakhtin, A.A. Belkin, V.E. Vetlovskaya, V.V. Vinogradov, V.P. Vladimirtsev, L.P. Grossman, V.N. Zakharov, E.A. Ivanchikova, AM Iordansky, L.V. Karasev, T.A. Kasatkina, I.I.Lapshin, D.S.Likhachev, V.N. Toporov, A.V. Chicherin and etc.);
general lexicography and the theory of construction of ideographic dictionaries (L.G. Babenko, Yu.N. Karaulov, E.V. Kuznetsova, V.V. Morkovkin, A.Yu. Pluzer-Sarno, Yu.D. Skidarenko, G.N. Sklyarevskaya, I.A. Tarasova, N.V. Ufimtseva, N.Yu.Shvedova, J. Casares, R. Hallig und W. Wartburg, W. Htillen, M. Rogers, B. Svensen, etc.);
the theory of studying a literary text, primarily its symbolic paradigm (N.D. Arutyunova, G.V. Bambulyak, L. Beltran-Almeria, A. Bely, V.V. Vetlovskaya, V.V. Vinogradov, L.V. Karasev, T.A. Kasatkina, E. Kassirer, A.F. Losev, L.O. Cherneyko, etc.).
Object research is the linguistic personality of F.M. Dostoevsky, presented in its three guises: 1) an idioglossary (words characterizing the peculiarities of the author's style, idioglossics), 2) a thesaurus (ideographic
Subject of this work became idiogloss, significant for the representation of the linguistic personality of F.M. Dostoevsky, and certain parameters of their lexicographic presentation.
goal the research consists in the development of the concept of a multi-parameter lexicographic representation of the writer's language and, on this basis, in the reconstruction of the linguistic personality of F.M. Dostoevsky, reflected in the author's idioglossary, thesaurus and eidos. This goal simultaneously has a hermeneutic orientation - to provide the modern reader with a resource that contributes to a more adequate understanding of the texts of F.M. Dostoevsky.
This goal is achieved in the process of solving the following tasks:
Determine the content and correlation of the categories "author's image" and "linguistic personality" introduced by V.V. Vinogradov with the aim of studying the language of the writer, which are the main tools for studying the artistic, journalistic and epistolary texts of F.M. Dostoevsky; analyze the concept of linguistic personality Yu.N. Karaulov, expand its individual provisions and show the possibilities of applying this concept in lexicographic practice.
Systematize lexicographic parameters and produce multiparameter descriptions of the main types of writing dictionaries.
To present a holistic concept of Dostoevsky's Dictionary of Language, which acts as a method for reconstructing the linguistic personality of the writer.
Determine the content of the concept of “idiogloss”, which is key for the concept of the Dostoevsky Language Dictionary, develop a method for identifying idiogloss in the writer's texts; to identify ways of explication of the autonomous use of the word in the texts of F.M. Dostoevsky as one of the criteria for confirming his idioglossic status.
Show the possibilities of using the resources of the Dostoevsky Language Dictionary for multifaceted analysis and reconstruction of the writer's linguistic personality.
Within the in-depth study the author's idiostyle to conduct an experimental study to identify lexical-thematic areas in the texts of F.M. Dostoevsky, incomprehensible to the modern reader; propose a model for their lexicographic representation.
Determine and classify the main cases of deviation from the modern language norm in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky, which are a certain obstacle in their perception by the modern reader.
To propose a new interpretation of such concepts as "symbolic use of a word", "symbolic meaning" and "symbolic paradigm", to identify the main types of symbols found in the texts of F.M. Dostoevsky, to give their classification.
To form a system of basic principles for constructing the author's thesaurus and, on this basis, to develop an ideographic classification of F.M. Dostoevsky's words.
To study the functions of aphorisms in the texts of F.M. Dostoevsky; build their ideographic classification, directly reflecting the author's eidos; conduct a statistical analysis of the degree of aphoristic idiogloss.
Consider the functions and properties of the language game in the texts of F.M. Dostoevsky, identify the main author's intentions of its use, classify the types of game use of the word.
As material the research used the texts of works of art, journalism, personal and business letters of F.M. Dostoevsky, presented in the complete collected works of the writer; Dictionary entries of the Dostoevsky Language, including unpublished entries; linguistic facts recorded in writers' and other dictionaries; linguistic commentaries on the works of F.M. Dostoevsky. In addition, various search engines and databases were involved, in particular, the Russian National Corpus (see).
Thus, only written sources were studied, moreover, sources processed in accordance with modern spelling and punctuation norms. Notebooks, drafts, sketches were practically not considered in the work, as were the numerous memoirs of F.M. Dostoevsky, in which the assessment of the writer's creativity and language is often questionable and arbitrary. Such limitation of research material
4 Dictionary of Dostoevsky's language: Lexical structure of the idiolect / Ed. Yu.N. Karaulova. Issue I-III. M .: Azbukovnik, 2001, 2003, 2003; Dostoevsky's Dictionary of the Language: Idioglossary (A-B; G-3; IM) / Ed. Yu.N. Karaulova. M: Azbukovnik, 2008, 2010, 2012.
is connected primarily with the fact that we were mainly interested in the presentation of the texts by F.M. Dostoevsky as perceived by the modern reader.
The work uses the main general scientific methods observations, comparisons and descriptions aimed at summarizing the results obtained, analyzing and interpreting the data, their systematization and classification. In addition, to solve the assigned tasks, the following were involved:
lexicographic method of presenting linguistic material based on the implementation of the theoretical provisions of the research;
contextual, distributive and component analysis in determining the meanings of words key for the author's style;
the method of experiment, expert assessments and a pilot survey in identifying lexemes that are significant for the author's language picture of the world;
corpus language learning methods based on the use of new information technologies;
statistical method, including the method of computer data processing;
comparative-contrastive method used in the analysis of the meaning and use of various types of lexical units in the language of the 19th century writers.
Scientific novelty of the work is that for the first time the reconstruction of the linguistic personality of F.M. Dostoevsky is carried out using the method of its multi-parameter vocabulary representation. During the study
developed a methodology for identifying important for idiostyle F.M. Dostoevsky's units, their style-forming and thesaurus-forming status is qualified;
an original integral concept of constructing an author's thesaurus is proposed, which is based on taking into account the symbolic potential of individual linguistic units used by the author;
substantiated the special role of the associative series as a unit of the author's linguistic picture of the world;
the interpretation of the autonomous use of the word, which is an indicator of its special significance for the author, is proposed, possible ways of specifying autonomy in the text are revealed;
the concept of atopon is defined, the types of atopones are identified, which correlate with the units of the levels of the linguistic personality; a model of atopone dictionary is proposed;
The interpretation of the non-standard use of the word is given, its types and functions are determined;
a new approach to defining the concept of word play was developed, functions of word play in the texts of F.M. Dostoevsky in their connection with the author's intentions, the main ways of creating a language game are shown;
a comprehensive characteristic of such a cognitive unit as an aphorism is given, the functions of aphoristic judgments in texts of different genres are revealed, the theoretical foundations of the classification of aphorisms are developed.
Theoretical significance the research consists in deepening and concretizing the concept of the dictionary of the writer's language, aimed at a multifaceted representation of the idiostyle, in connection with which certain provisions of the theory of linguistic personality, which underlie the construction of such a dictionary, have been developed, as well as in the creation of the fundamental principles of studying the author's worldview through the analysis of various features of its speech activity - texts of different genres.
Practical value of the present work is that
the results of the research were introduced into the practice of compiling a dictionary of the writer's language, specifically, the Dictionary of Dostoevsky's language, and the concept presented in the thesis can be used when modeling other dictionaries of a similar type;
the material collected and systematized in the course of the research can be used to create a dictionary of aphoristics by F.M. Dostoevsky, a dictionary of incomprehensible or obscure units found in his texts (glossary), as well as the author's new formations used in the texts;
the results of the research, as well as the material involved in it, can be in demand in lecture courses on linguopoetics, stylistics, lexicology, lexicography, history of the Russian literary language; the possibility of their introduction into the practice of teaching classical literature and the Russian language in secondary schools is also undoubted.
specific results and conclusions of the study are used in the development of lecture courses on functional lexicology and cultural linguistics for students, undergraduates and postgraduates of the philological faculty of the Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov.
Provisions for Defense:
The three-level structure of a linguistic personality is comparable to three aspects of the study of a linguistic sign, primarily a lexical unit: semantic (level of meaning), cognitive (level of knowledge and images, ideas) and pragmatic (level of emotions, assessments and stylistic coloration). Thus, the structure of a linguistic personality includes three levels - verbal-semantic (lexicon), cognitive (thesaurus, worldview level) and pragmatic (motivational). Each level is characterized by a set of specific elements that correlate with the parameters of the lexicographic representation of a particular linguistic personality, such as the author's intentions, explicated, for example, in the autonomous or playful use of the word, as well as in the ways of operating various types of references to precedent texts, chains of semantic assopias, mnema ( a set of associations stored in collective memory), metaphors, frames, a certain type of idiom, idiogloss words, etc.
Construction of a multi-parameter dictionary of F.M. Dostoevsky is at the same time a method of reconstructing the linguistic personality of the writer, which makes it possible to realize a complex approach in the study of the author's idiostyle, which is absent in modern prestoevistics. The set of lexicographic parameters depends on the peculiarities of the writer's language, which determines the concept of constructing a dictionary, which in turn determines the need to enter certain indicators, selection criteria, structuring and description of the material.
The idiogloss detection procedure includes the following steps: expert judgment; taking into account the data of existing studies on the functioning of the word in the texts of F.M. Dostoevsky; fixing the occurrence of a word in the title of a work or in the title of any part of it; analysis of the features of the use of a word in the composition of an utterance with the properties of an aphorism; taking into account the author's reflection on the meaning of the word; observation of the use of the word in a game context; statistical analysis of the use of the word in different genres and in different periods of the writer's work.
Dostoevsky's language dictionary is characterized by the following indicators -
parameters of the lexicographic representation of a linguistic personality: input,
which is idioglossa; the frequency of use of the described idiogloss, in
including its distribution by genre; determining the meaning of idioglossy;
illustrations with the obligatory indication of their source; word guide; fixing uses in phraseological units, proverbs, sayings, proper names; use as part of an aphorism; autonomous use; non-discrimination of the meanings of a word in one context; play use of idioglossa; the use in the same context of two or more idiogloss with different meanings; the use of cognate words in the same context; the symbolic use of idioglossa; associative and semantic links of the described word; hypotaxis; parataxis; non-standard use; morphological features of idioglossa; use in an ironic context; the use of idiogloss as part of the tropes; the use of the described idiogloss as part of someone else's speech; word-building nest. An optional zone of the dictionary entry of the Dictionary is notes - to the word, to the meaning, to individual comment zones, which allow the introduction of additional parameters for describing the linguistic personality, for example, the use of the described idiogloss in a particular figure of speech or various kinds of observation over the author's intentions.
The peculiarities of the author's linguistic personality are revealed not only through a multivariate analysis of the idiogloss used by the writer, but also through the analysis of the use of various types of units of misunderstanding - atopones, which correlate with the units of the levels of the linguistic personality (atopones-agnonyms, atopones-cognomes and atopones-pragmemes). The classification of atopones allows one to draw a conclusion regarding the author's intentions in the use of incomprehensible or obscure words.
A certain obstacle in the perception of F.M. Dostoevsky, there are various deviations from the existing linguistic norm, first of all - violations of lexical and grammatical compatibility. The classification of such cases of non-standard use of the word reflects the consistency and possible conscientiousness of their use by the author. A special function among non-standard combinations is performed by adverbial intensifiers, the use of which characterizes both some features of inner speech and one of the key author's intentions, which consists in striving to strengthen certain meanings.
The most indicative way of reflecting the picture of the world of a particular linguistic personality is the ideographic representation of its lexicon. The main principles for compiling an author's thesaurus are as follows:
1) first of all, the idioglosses included in the original vocabulary are grouped
Dostoevsky's Dictionary of Language; 2) idioglosses are united around meanings that are basic for the words-symbols of F.M. Dostoevsky, which can be qualified as archetypes, nuclear elements of the writer's eidos; 3) in the future, the thesaurus includes words associated with idiogloss associative-semantic relations. The core of Dostoevsky's thesaurus is the idiogloss "man", associated primarily with such archetypal meanings as "life" "time" "death" "love" "disease" "fear" "laughter". The thesaurus, built on such a model, makes it possible to show the features of the individual picture of the world, at least in relation to the work of F.M. Dostoevsky, one of the characteristic features of which is symbolization in the representation of reality.
8. One of the most important distinguishing features of F.M. Dostoevsky consists in his tendency to create and use judgments that have the properties of aphorism. The classification and statistical analysis of their constituent idiogloss allows us to identify some character traits author's eidos - a system of basic ideas and intentions that reflect the writer's worldview. The author's intentions are also revealed in a frequent deliberate deviation from the linguistic norm, performed in the cognitive function (to search for ways to express various kinds of semantic shades) or to create a comic effect. In the ultimate generalization, F.M. Dostoevsky is concentrated around the uncertainty and reflexive amplification (forcing meaning), which are reflected in most of the linguistic means used by the author.
Testing and implementation of research results:
Certain provisions and results of the research were set out in 2 monographs, 86 scientific, scientific, methodological and lexicographic works (primarily in the Dictionary of Dostoevsky's Language), published in educational and periodicals, 16 of which were recommended by the Higher Attestation Commission of the Russian Federation; were discussed at the following conferences: International Conference "Russian Literature and Culture in the European Cultural Heritage", Göttingen, 2015; I, III, IV and V International Congress of Researchers of the Russian Language "The Russian Language: Historical Fates and the Present", Moscow, 2001, 2007, 2010, 2014; Scientific conference "Lomonosov Readings", Moscow, 2003, 2012; International Scientific Conference "The Image of Russia and the Russian in the Dictionary and Discourse: Cognitive Analysis", Yekaterinburg, 2011; Scientific seminar "Russian cultural space", Moscow, 2011; III, IV and V International scientific and practical conference "Text: problems and prospects", Moscow, 2004, 2007, 2011; Scientific and practical visiting session of MAPRYAL "Russianists of Russia - to Russianists of the CIS", Astana, 2011; Interuniversity educational-methodical conference "Educational-methodical, psychological, pedagogical and cultural aspects of teaching foreign students at the university", Tver, 2010; P International conference "Russian language and
literature in international general educational space: current state and prospects ”, Granada, 2010; International seminar "Russian language and its teaching methods", Thessaloniki, 2010; International Old Russian Readings "Dostoevsky and Modernity", Staraya Russa, 2002, 2008, 2009; III International Symposium "Russian Literature in the World and Cultural Context", Moscow-Pokrovskoe, 2009; International conference "Language and Culture", Kiev, 1993, 1994, 2009; International scientific-practical conference "This eternal city of Fools ...", Tver, 2009; International scientific conference "Russia in a multipolar world: the image of Russia in Bulgaria, the image of Bulgaria in Russia", St. Petersburg, 2009; All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference “Word Book. Teacher. Personality ", Cheboksary, 2009; International Internet conference "Russian language @ Literature @ Culture: topical problems of study and teaching in Russia and abroad", Moscow, 2009; XXXIII International Readings "Dostoevsky and World Culture", St. Petersburg, 2008; III International Scientific and Methodological Conference "Theory and Technology of Foreign Language Education", Simferopol, 2008; Russia and Russians in the Perception of a Foreign-Cultural Linguistic Personality // International Scientific and Methodological Conference "State and Prospects of Methods of Teaching Russian Language and Literature", Moscow, 2008; XI Congress of MAPRYAL "The World of the Russian Word and the Russian Word in the World", Varna, 2007; International scientific conference "Russian language and literature in the international educational space: current state and prospects", Granada, 2007; International Scientific Conference "Novikov Readings", Moscow, 2006; International Congress on Creativity and Psychology of Art, Perm, 2005; International Scientific Conference "Past and Present of Russia in the Light of Linguistic Facts", Krakow, 2005; International workshop "Russian language through the ages: mosaic of language, literature and culture", New Delhi, 2005; International scientific and practical conference "Motinskie readings", Moscow, 2005; X Congress MAPRYAL " Russian word in world culture ", St. Petersburg, 2003; International symposium "Problems of verbalization of concepts in the semantics of language and text", Volgograd, 2003; International conference "Russian language in the dialogue of national cultures of the CIS member states in the XXI century", Moscow, 2003; International Symposium "Dostoevsky in the Modern World", Moscow, 2001; International Scientific Conference "Changing Language World", Perm, 2001; Conference-seminar MAPRYAL "Aesthetic perception of literary text", St. Petersburg, 1993; International Symposium "Philosophy of language within and outside borders", Kharkov-Krasnodar, 1993; Republican scientific conference "Rozanov readings", Yelets, 1993; Conference of young scientists-philologists and school teachers "Actual problems of philology in the university and school", Tver, 1993, 1991; III City Scientific and Methodological Conference "Improving the content, forms and methods of teaching the Russian language to foreign students", Kalinin, 1989; Conference of young scientists and school teachers "Problems of the development of philological sciences at the present stage", Kalinin, 1989; reported at various meetings: Academic Council of the Institute of the Russian Language. V.V. Vinogradov, Moscow, 2012; Groups of the Dostoevsky Language Dictionary of the Department of Experimental Lexicography of the Institute of the Russian Language. V.V. Vinogradov, Moscow, 2008, 2012; Institute of Dynamic Conservatism, Moscow, 2011; Chairs
of the Russian language for foreign students of the Faculty of Philology and the Department of the Russian Language for foreign students of the natural faculties of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow, 2001, 2007; introduced into the curricula and lecture courses of the philological faculty of the Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov: "Russian linguistic personality: lexicographic representation", "Introduction to hermeneutics", "Culturology", "Functional lexicology" (for specialists, undergraduates, graduate students), "The concept of a linguistic personality and interpretive translation"; reflected in public lectures given at the University of Barcelona (Barcelona, \u200b\u200b2013), at the Science Festival (Moscow, 2012), at the Southern Federal University (Rostov-on-Don, 2007), Copenhagen University (Copenhagen, 2006), Delhi University (New -Delhi, 2005); were tested in the course of research projects: grant of the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation "Information system of cognitive experiments (ISCE)" 2012-2014. No. 12-04-12039, grant of the Russian Foundation for Humanities "The system of lexicographic parameters as a way of representing a linguistic personality" 2011-2013. No. 11-04-0441, grant of the Russian Foundation for Humanities "Perception and assessment of the image of Russia by a foreign cultural linguistic personality" 2006-2008. No. 06-04-00439а.
The full text of the dissertation was discussed at the Russian language department of the philological faculty of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov on April 29, 2015.
The volume and structure of the study. The thesis consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, a conclusion, a list of references (including Internet resources), including 1386 titles, and 7 appendices. The total volume of the thesis is 647 pages, the volume of the main text is 394 pages.
Prerequisites for the application of methods for assessing technical condition
In the language of a work of fiction, elements of the system of the literary language and its styles are found, as well as possible admixtures of dialectal, professional, or generally social-group speech (see [ibid: 109-111]). Thus, when studying the language of fiction as a form of reflection of the national language system, questions about the meaning of a literary work for the history of a literary language can be resolved. This also applies to the language of a certain author, and the stylistic features of specific multi-genre works. It is here that we are faced with the problem of individual style in its relationship with the literary language.
The language of fiction “uses, includes all other styles or varieties of book-literary and folk-colloquial speech in peculiar combinations and in a functionally transformed form” [ibid: 71]. The choice of linguistic means by the author is determined both by the peculiarities of the content of the work and by the nature of the attitude towards them on the part of the author.
The main properties of the literary language should be considered a tendency towards the general people and normativity. As for one of the main features of fiction, then, in our opinion, such, on the contrary, should be considered a conscious and justified by the ideological and artistic design of the work deviation from the normality and standardism, which exists simultaneously with the desire to follow the established norm. It makes sense to talk about the development of the literary language only in the case of the existence of various types of overcoming the standard, including in the literary text.
Much of what is used in the language of fiction is not a literary language (dialectisms, jargon, etc.), on the other hand, there is nothing in the literary language that, hypothetically, could not be used to perform certain functions conditioned by the subjective motivations of the author literary work.
Until the beginning of the 20th century, a literary text was traditionally a subject of literary criticism, and it can be said without exaggeration that its consideration as an object of linguistic study is primarily associated with the name of V.V. Vinogradov: this is the scientist's dream, which consists in creating a common research field connecting the tasks of literary criticism and linguistics, and the realization of this dream, since it is precisely from the works of V.V. Vinogradov, one can speak of the existence of such a discipline as linguopoetics, the key concept of which is the category of the “image of the author” as a style-forming one in a work of art. Let us note in this connection and comment on some provisions that are important for us.
In the system of a work of art, the "image of the author" occupies a central and unique position. However, this “... is not a simple subject of speech, most often it is not even named in the structure of a work of art. It is a concentrated embodiment of the essence of the work, which unites the entire system of speech structures of characters in their relationship with the narrator, storyteller or storytellers and through them is the ideological and stylistic focus, the focus of the whole ”[Vinogradov 1971: 116].
In a work of fiction, the "image of the author" can be expressed both explicitly and implicitly, from which, in particular, the idea of \u200b\u200bsubjective and objective types of narration follows. If in the "Diary of a Writer" or in Dostoevsky's letters we in the overwhelming majority of cases can speak of an obvious author's position, then, for example, in the image of Ivan Karamazov, the author's view of the world is closely intertwined with the worldview of the character he created. Such interaction is even more complicated in the images of the Chronicler or, no matter how paradoxical it may sound, F.P. Karamazov. “He is the“ image of the author ”is a form of complex and contradictory relationships between the author's intention, between the fantasized personality of the writer and the faces of the character” [Vinogradov 1980 (a): 203]. This is how one of the most important and often fundamentally not subject to any solution of problems arises - the determination of the correlation of the "image of the author" (moreover, in its various guises - the author of works of fiction, journalistic texts, business letters,
Interesting observations that the narrator in "Demons" is very different from other narrators in Dostoevsky, we find in the comments of V.A. Tunimanov (see): this is both an observer and a participant in the events, and, in addition, in his narration, we sometimes clearly hear the "voice" of the author himself. personal letters), the narrator (narrator, observer, etc.), the character and, finally, the author as a real person, the features of which we can only judge in a very distant approximation. - The image of the author manifests itself at all levels of the structure of a literary text, including and above all - on the language, which often ensures the integrity of the perception of the work. From this, in particular, it follows that the analysis of the language of a literary work, the system of means of verbal and artistic expression, assessments of the heroes of a work by speech allows to one degree or another to reconstruct the author's position.
Almost in parallel with V.V. Vinogradov considered the problem of reconstruction of the author of a work of art by M.M. Bakhtin, who, like some modern literary scholars, was very suspicious of the possibilities of linguistic research of a literary text, nevertheless often resorting to the analysis of linguistic facts in his constructions (for example, it was M.M.Bakhtin who was one of the first to draw attention to special significance in Dostoevsky's words suddenly.). According to M.M. Bakhtin, the formal means of expressing the category "author-creator" are found 1) in the sound of a word, 2) in its material meaning, 3) in word connections (metaphor, metonymy, repetitions, questions, parallelisms, etc.), 4) on the level of the speech tissue of the work (intonation) (see [Bakhtin 1979 (b)]). Some of these formal explicators of the author's image are used as lexicographic parameters in the Dictionary of the Dostoevsky language (see Ch. 2, 3).
The discovery by M.M. Bakhtin, the interconnection of the communication process (and specifically - understanding) not only with the verbal context, but also with the extra-verbal, “physical” one. The scientist gives the following example: “Two are sitting in a room. They are silent. One says, "So." The other doesn't answer. For us, who were not in the room at the time of the conversation, this whole "conversation" is completely incomprehensible .... But nevertheless, this peculiar conversation of two, consisting of only one, however, expressively intoned word, is full of meaning ...
In modern literary criticism, scientists turn to the peculiarities of the author's punctuation, etymology, first of all, their own names, the semantics of concept words, etc. No matter how much we fiddle with the purely verbal part of the statement, no matter how subtly we define the phonetic, morphological, semantic moment of the word "so" - we are not one step closer to understanding the holistic meaning of the conversation. What are we missing? - That "extra-verbal" context in which the word "so" sounds meaningfully for the listener. This extra-verbal context of the utterance is composed of three points: 1) from the spatial horizon common to the speakers (the unity of the visible - a room, a window, etc.); 2) from the knowledge and understanding of the situation common to both, and finally, 3) from their common assessment of this situation. Only if we know this extra-verbal context, we can understand the meaning of the saying “so” and its intonation ”[Voloshinov 1926: 250]. This “extra-verbal context” was subsequently qualified as a presupposition, which in many cases, for example, when determining the meaning of a word, primarily of conceptually significant lexical units, must certainly be taken into account.
The architecture of the technical condition assessment system
Many researchers suddenly drew attention to the specific use of the word, primarily to its high frequency in Dostoevsky: M.M. Bakhtin, A.A. Belkin, V.V. Vinogradov, E.L. Ginzburg, V.N. Toporov, A.L. Slonimsky and others.
M.M. Bakhtin, speaking about adventurous time, says that “it is made up of short segments corresponding to individual adventures .... Within a separate adventure, days, nights, hours and even minutes and seconds are counted ... These segments are introduced and intersected by specific "suddenly" and "just". “Suddenly” and “just” are the most adequate characteristics of all this time, because it generally begins and comes into its own where the normal pragmatic or causally meaningful course of events is interrupted and gives place for intrusions of pure chance with its specific logic. This logic is an accidental coincidence, that is, a random simultaneity and a random break, that is, a random difference in time. Moreover, "earlier" or "later" of this accidental simultaneity and difference in time 117 also has a significant and decisive significance. If something happened a minute earlier or a minute later, that is, if there weren't some random simultaneity or difference in timing, then there would be no plot at all and there would be nothing to write a novel about ”[Bakhtin 1975: 242]. That is, suddenly, according to Bakhtin, it performs at least three functions: 1) the boundary between events, 2) the formation of the plot, 3) the formation of the genre.
A.L. Slonimsky calls the main artistic technique of Dostoevsky's technique of surprise, which, in particular, is realized through frequent use of a sudden: “Dostoevsky's narration does not go smoothly, consistently, as, for example, in Turgenev's, but consists of a whole series of impulses, from a chain of unexpected events, actions, gestures, words, sensations. Convulsive presentation, convulsive course of events, convulsive people ”[Slonimsky 1922: 11].
A.A. Belkin, drawing attention to the frequent repetition of Dostoevsky's words suddenly and too much, suggests that suddenly Dostoevsky has a special meaning, “means such a meeting, such an event that plays a decisive role in the fate of a person, and is sometimes catastrophic” [Belkin 1973: 129]. And further: “In Dostoevsky's novels we see a reality full of exceptional events. This is not the slow, smooth life of Goncharov's characters without any special twists, the unmotivated life of Tolstoy's heroes, not the routine, consisting of small accidents, in the works of Chekhov. This life is chaotic and catastrophic, it is characterized by unexpected ups and downs, unexpected turns of the psyche of the heroes - and hence the constant use of the favorite word "suddenly" ”[ibid: 129].
Let's pay attention to some features of the use of the word suddenly in Dostoevsky's texts.
The frequency of the word is suddenly distributed as follows. The total number of uses is 5867, of which 5049 times - in literary texts, 588 - in journalism and 230 - in letters. Noteworthy, however, is not
That is, the relative frequency of use suddenly in journalism and fiction is approximately the same, as well as their semantic load, in connection with which the point of view of B. Barros Garcia that "suddenly" is a situation, "as would "-situations" and "as if" -situations appear in accordance with the author's not always conscious inclination to create fiction. The higher the degree of their presence in the text, the more it gravitates towards artistic fictional prose ”[Barros 2013: 12]. As for how much the absolute high frequency of the use of the word suddenly (Dostoevsky has many other high-frequency adverbs, for example, extremely, just now, etc.), how much its repetition within the framework of one sentence, paragraph, the entire work, sometimes violating the stylistic norms of the Russian literary language. In Dostoevsky's fictional prose it is suddenly used more often, but the reason for this is hardly the peculiarities of the genre. Wed in the "Diary of a Writer" and in letters:
I have already been reproached for being insane; but the fact of the matter is that I am really convinced of this population of our lies now. For fifty years you have lived with an idea, you see and feel it, and suddenly it will appear in such a form that it seems that you did not even know it at all until now. Recently, I was suddenly struck by the idea that in Russia, in the classes of the intelligentsia, there cannot even be a non-speaking person at all. (DP 21: 117) [S.A. Ivanova] I am talking to my aunt and suddenly I see that in the large wall clock the pendulum has suddenly stopped. And I say: it must have caught on something, it can't be that it suddenly got up, went to the clock and pushed the pendulum again with my finger; he chuckled once, two, three, and suddenly stopped again. (Ps 29.1: 209)
It can be assumed that the reason for such a high frequency of use suddenly lies, firstly, in its semantics and, secondly, in its importance for Dostoevsky, for his idiocy and worldview. This word, which does not contain knowledge about the world, reflects, nevertheless, Dostoevsky's attitude to the world, the writer's dislike for everything that suddenly, by accident: [A.G. Dostoevskaya] But I take care of everything, and day and night I think about them [children], and about all of us: everything is fine, but what if there is some chance. I am most afraid of the accident. (Ps 29.2: 42) You can, of course, following A.A. Belkin (see [Belkin 1973 (b)]) to suggest that Dostoevsky's fear of an accident, the unexpectedness of a seizure, is suddenly expressed in the frequent use of the word, but, apparently, everything is somewhat more complicated.
An analysis of the use suddenly in Dostoevsky's texts allows us to single out four meanings of this word: suddenly he [Ivan Ilyich] seemed to start to forget and, most importantly, for no reason at all he suddenly snorts and laughs, while there was nothing to laugh at all. This disposition soon passed after a glass of champagne, which Ivan Ilyich had poured for himself, but did not want to drink, and suddenly drank it somehow completely by accident. He suddenly felt like crying after this glass. He felt himself falling into the most eccentric sensibility; he again began to love, to love everyone, even Pseldonimov, even an employee of "Golveshka". He suddenly wanted to embrace with and, as if, there is, apparently, no need to conduct a special study proving their great significance in a literary text, in contrast to journalism and letters, which is associated with one of the main author's intentions - to show the uncertainty and ambiguity of the environment the world, and most importantly - a person in this world. them all, forget everything and make peace. (CA 31) - Why are you so pale, Rodion Romanovich, isn't it stuffy for you, should you open the window? I “Oh, don't worry, please,” Raskolnikov shouted and suddenly burst out laughing, “please don't worry! I Porfiry stopped opposite him, waited and suddenly burst out laughing himself, following him. Raskolnikov got up from the sofa, suddenly abruptly stopping his completely seizure laugh. ... I - But I won't allow myself to laugh in my eyes and torture myself. Suddenly his lips trembled, his eyes lit up with fury, and his still restrained voice began to sound. - I won't allow it! he suddenly shouted, banging his fist on the table with all his might, "do you hear that, Porfiry Petrovich?" - I will not allow, I will not allow! Raskolnikov repeated mechanically, but also suddenly in a perfect whisper. (MON 64)
These and similar contexts show that Dostoevsky's word suddenly fixes a certain point, which is the moment of the release of feelings, emotions, impressions, states, actions, etc., and the high frequency of its use within one context is explained by the fact that it is suddenly a way to collect feelings and actions in one instant, an instant, destroying both time and the causal conditionality of events in it, i.e., ultimately, for Dostoevsky, this is a way of uniting a group of events at one point of chance, a way to organize a text in this way (cf. . with a quote from M.M.Bakhtin above). Such a point of randomness is outside of time and outside of human consciousness: all events concentrated in it occur without human will.
Definition of fuzzy production rules
In conclusion, we emphasize once again that the proposed description of Dostoevsky's language is possible only with the help of a Dictionary, built taking into account the parameters indicated in Chapter 3 of Chapter II. This concerns, first of all, the reconstruction of the author's thesaurus, since it is the Dictionary with its original possibilities of finding the “intersection points” of idiogloss that allows to objectively trace the connections between the various meanings realized in the entire body of the writer's texts.
Let us present, in accordance with the above procedure, a fragment of Dostoevsky's idioglossus thesaurus. In doing so, however, we must make the following reservations:
1. It is a fragment of the thesaurus that is proposed: a complete lexicographic presentation of Dostoevsky's idiogloss is possible only after the completion of the work on the Dictionary.
2. The presented fragment of the thesaurus does not take into account the correlation of idiogloss either with the speech of the characters in Dostoevsky's works, or with the image of the author, or with belonging to one or another genre. A character's YL, as mentioned above, is in any case a reflection of the author's YL.
3. Individual idioglosses can be included in different headings of the thesaurus. It can be assumed that the ambiguity of idiogloss creates potentially endless restrictions on their classification. Some, but far from all, cases of idioglossy entering different groups, we recorded it by repeating it in these groups. This applies, for example, to cases of homonymy, secondary nomination, etc. Thus, the word conscience has entered the group God (Conscience is the action of God in a person), and the group of feelings. Idioglosses in similar, most often metaphorical meanings are separated from the main group by a semicolon. In the same way, individual words that we attributed to the group action, feeling in relation to another, relations with others (harm, disdain, indifference, etc.) can be associated with inanimate objects, however, their idiogloss status is more clearly manifested precisely in the use in relation to a person.
These restrictions, however, do not prevent us from admitting the following fact: the presented fragment of the thesaurus reflects Dostoevsky's YL as perceived by the modern reader, who operates with the texts of the complete collected works of the writer. We see not so much Dostoevsky's views on the world, as a kind of secondary reality, fixed in a text limited in scope. As for the possibilities of intersection of lexical groups included in the thesaurus, this is one of the key features of the semantic fields. Nevertheless, when we are dealing with a specific YL, this property of the semantic field is partially leveled by the degree of relevance of the lexical unit in terms of its idioglossic status.
The first line after the input of the main part of the thesaurus (MAN: LIFE - DEATH - LOVE - DISEASE - LAUGHTER) contains idiogloss symbols united by the concept - the name of the class (symbols for other groups and individual idioglossics are given in angle brackets before the group or before the word), then followed by the idioglosses closest to this meaning, first of all the same root words. After that, lexical groups are highlighted, before which their names are given in square brackets in bold. When attributing idioglossy to a particular group, we were guided primarily by its use in the meaning that characterizes the author's idiostyle (for example, it is in this meaning that the word is registered in such comment zones as AVTN, IGRV or AFRZ), as well as the actual frequency of use or the most wide associative links. Idioglosses within each group, as a rule, are distributed depending on their part of speech (verb - adjective - adverb - noun), within each part of speech - alphabetically. paper (piece of paper), louse, reptile, reptile, umbrella72, crocodile, mask, anthill, insect, Skotoprigonyevsk, cockroach, creature, shadow, snail, watch, worm, turtle, monster
A.P. all-human, all-human, inhuman, personal, universal; personally; personality, people, little people, people, creature, humanity, human, little man
A.Sh.4. [unity] universal, universal, universal, popular, national, common, Russian; in Russian; god-bearer, all-man, harmony, unity, people, nationality, The word umbrella plays a special role in the novel "Demons", where it occurs 21 times (out of 30 uses in literary texts), acting as an important and ambiguous element of the composition and participating in the creation of the leitmotif, being associated with many characters: Fedka Convict is under the umbrella of Stavrogin, under the umbrella of Stavrogin, a denunciation is ripening in Lebyadkin's head; ironic and at the same time symbolic Stavrogin's aphoristic remark to Lebyadkin Everyone is worth an umbrella; ST. Verkhovensky steps out onto the main road holding an umbrella, a stick and a travel bag (see [SDTs2010: 1049]).
Assessment of the state of the solid insulation of the transformer
In one of his articles, G.S. Pomerantz, giving a critical analysis of Romano Guardini's book Man and Faith, wrote: “In Guardini's book, the characters created by Dostoevsky cease to be his partial incarnations and his confessional faces; they are only ideas that flow from their mentality, separate from the author. Guardini does not notice that Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky is somewhat similar to Fyodor Pavlovich Karamazov: for him there are no "flywees", no "vyelfiles", he is ready to be carried away by even the most stinking soul, to be embodied in the most greasy, repulsive figure, passing through the mind through his foolish speech, his favorite thoughts. True, only for a moment. But at another moment he can be seen in Lebedev, in Keller; and, of course, it is impossible to separate from Dostoevsky the rebellion of Ivan Karamazov and the intellectual experiments of Stavrogin. Every character who has captured Dostoevsky is ready to debut as a "lyrical hero"; and none of them admits of a purely negative interpretation ”[Pomerants 2000: 10]. Of course, the images created by Dostoevsky cannot be equated with the personality of the author, which, and even then with a certain degree of convention, is revealed only in letters and journalism, but even this is still a part of the world created by the writer, a reflection of his linguistic personality, the reconstruction of which this work is devoted.
The main findings of the study are the following basic provisions.
1. The concept of a linguistic personality proposed by Yu.N. Karaulov, serves methodological basis to create a multi-parameter dictionary of the writer's language. This open and flexible model allows, in relation to the work of Dostoevsky, through the dictionary representation to show the main features of the linguistic personality of the writer. It can also be used to describe the peculiarities of the language of any linguistic personality, only the system and the significance of individual parameters in this case will already be different.
2. The fundamental feature of Dostoevsky's Dictionary of Language, which was a new step in the development of Russian theory and practice of compiling literary dictionaries, is that it does not describe all the words used by the author, but only those that are significant for his idiostyle, idiogloss. The proposed procedure for identifying idioglossses can be considered quite relevant to confirm their special role in the writer's linguistic picture of the world.
3. The multifaceted study of idiogloss allows us to determine not only the characteristic features of the author's style, but also to learn some of the features of the writer's worldview, which are reflected in the Dictionary of Dostoevsky's language, both in the structure of the dictionary entry and in the accompanying linguistic commentary, presented in the form of zones the kind of parameters that characterize the use of the word in Dostoevsky's texts. The study reveals in detail the content of certain parameters, such as the symbolic use of a word, non-standard compatibility, associative connections of idiogloss, the use of a word in a game context, as part of an autonomous utterance and aphorism. 4. Using the resources of the Dictionary of the Dostoevsky Language allowed 1) to compile a classification of cases of non-standard use of the word in the writer's texts, to show their idiostyle significance; 2) to reveal the lexical-thematic areas of misunderstanding by the modern reader in the works of Dostoevsky and to propose a model of their lexicographic representation, to compile a dictionary of atopones, the basis of which was agnonyms, units of misunderstanding of the semantic-grammatical level of a linguistic personality; 3) to propose a new interpretation of such concepts as “symbolic use of the word” and “symbolic paradigm”, to identify the types of Dostoevsky's symbols, to classify them and, on this basis, to construct Dostoevsky's idioglossus thesaurus; 4) to qualify the autonomous use of a word as one of the criteria for confirming its idioglossic status, to identify ways of explicating autonomy in Dostoevsky's texts; 5) to study the functions of Dostoevsky's aphorisms, to compile their classification, which directly reflects the author's eidos, to determine the degree of aphoristic idiogloss (the proposed classification of aphoristic statements should also be considered as a special type of dictionary of the writer's original judgments); 6) to propose a typology of the game use of the word in Dostoevsky, to reveal the functions of the language game in the writer's texts, to show the main author's intentions of its use; as one of the types of wordplay to qualify Dostoevsky's neoformations, gapaks, to make their classification; to determine the special reflexive and playful function of the verb to know.
The solution of the problems posed in the dissertation does not at all mean the final complex multi-parameter description of the Dostoevsky language, carried out using the resources of the Dictionary. We see the prospects for such a study of Dostoevsky's language in the study of - the figures of speech used by the writer, first of all - amplification and hyperbolization, which serve to strengthen, whipping up meaning, compensating for the uncertainty so characteristic of Dostoevsky; various kinds of clarifications and explanations, functions of opposition and repetitions, etc.; - the functions of objectless use of transitive verbs to overstep, embrace, forgive, whisper, want, wish, remind, wait, change, decide, etc .; - metaphors and metaphorical models on which they are built, metonymy, author's comparisons; in the future it is planned to compile a Dictionary of Dostoevsky's Tropes; - functions of references to precedent texts in the writer's works, many of which have not been sufficiently studied; - ways of creating an ironic context, connecting irony with the game use of the word; - discursive words in the writer's works, modal particles, interjections, unions, their combinations; - characteristic features of speech of individual characters, a comparative analysis of which will reveal the types of linguistic personalities of Dostoevsky's heroes; - types and functions of repetitions, semantic and lexical; - the peculiarities of the author's punctuation, which makes it possible to consider Dostoevsky's works as a “sounding” text, etc.
At the same time, some theoretical problems remain controversial - the very possibility of considering the dictionary of the writer's language as a method of reconstructing his linguistic personality; the relevance of the proposed vocabulary model for compiling other writing dictionaries; the degree of objectivity of the obtained results of the dictionary representation of the writer's language, which also depends on the initial system of lexicographic parameters, etc. These and some other tasks will be solved as the work on the Dictionary of the Dostoevsky Language is completed.
