Basic methodological approaches to the implementation of primary education. Methodological foundations of the educational process System of methodological knowledge based on modern education

Learning is the most important and most reliable way to get a formal education. Reflecting all essential properties pedagogical process(two-sidedness, focus on the all-round development of the personality, the unity of the content and procedural sides), training at the same time has specific qualitative differences.
Being a complex and multifaceted, specially organized process of reflecting reality in the child's mind, learning is nothing more than a specific process of cognition, controlled by a teacher. It is the guiding role of the teacher that ensures the full assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities by schoolchildren, the development of their mental powers and creative abilities.
Cognitive activity is the unity of sensory perception, theoretical thinking and practical activity. It is carried out at every step of life, in all types of activities and social relationships of students (productive and socially useful work, value-orientational and artistic-aesthetic activities, communication), as well as by performing various subject-practical actions in the educational process (experimentation, design , solving research problems, etc.). But it is only in the process of learning that cognition acquires a clear form in a special, inherent only to a person, educational and cognitive activity or teaching.
Learning always takes place in communication and is based on a verbal-activity approach. The word is at the same time a means of expression and knowledge of the essence of the phenomenon under study, an instrument of communication and organization of practical cognitive activity of schoolchildren. It is also closely related to value-orientational activity, which has as its goal the formation of personal meanings and awareness of the social significance of objects, processes and phenomena of the surrounding reality.
Learning, like any other process, is associated with movement. It, like a holistic pedagogical process, has a task structure, and, consequently, movement in the process. learning goes from solving one educational problem to another, advancing the student along the path of knowledge: from ignorance to knowledge, from incomplete knowledge to more complete and accurate. Learning is not limited to a mechanical "transfer" of knowledge, skills and abilities. This is a two-way process in which teachers and pupils (students) are in close interaction: teaching and learning. At the same time, teaching should be considered conditionally, since the teacher cannot limit himself only to the presentation of knowledge - he develops and educates, i.e. carries out a holistic pedagogical activity.
The success of teaching is ultimately determined by the attitude of schoolchildren to learning, their desire for knowledge, conscious and independent acquisition of knowledge, abilities and skills, and their activity. A student is not only an object of educational influences, he is a subject of specially organized cognition, a subject of the pedagogical process.

§ 2. Learning functions
The need for a comprehensive implementation of all components of the content of education and the focus of the pedagogical process on a comprehensive, creative self-development the personality of the student determines the functions of learning: educational, upbringing and developmental. At the same time, the educational function is associated with the expansion of the volume, the developing one - with the structural complication, and the educational function - with the formation of relations (V.V. Kraevsky).
Educational function. The main meaning of the educational function is to equip students with a system of scientific knowledge, abilities, skills and its use in practice.
Scientific knowledge includes facts, concepts, laws, patterns, theories, a generalized picture of the world. In accordance with the educational function, they must become the property of the individual, enter into the structure of his experience. The fullest implementation of this function should ensure the completeness, systematicity and awareness of knowledge, its strength and effectiveness. This requires such an organization of the learning process so that the elements that are important for understanding the main ideas and significant cause-and-effect relationships do not fall out of the content of the academic subject reflecting the relevant area of ​​scientific knowledge, so that empty voids do not form in the general system of knowledge. Knowledge should be ordered in a special way, acquiring more and more harmony and logical subordination, so that new knowledge flows from what was previously acquired and paves the way for the development of the next.
The end result of the implementation of the educational function is the effectiveness of knowledge, expressed in the conscious operation of them, in the ability to mobilize previous knowledge to acquire new ones, as well as the formation of the most important special (in the subject) and general educational skills and abilities.

Skill. how skillful action is directed by a clearly perceived goal, and at the heart of the skill, i.e. automated action, there is a system of strengthened ties. Skills are derived from exercises that vary in conditions learning activities and provide for its gradual complication. To develop skills, repeated exercises are required under the same conditions.
The implementation of the educational function is inextricably linked with the formation of skills to work with a book, reference literature, bibliographic apparatus, organization of independent work, note taking, etc.
Educational function... The upbringing nature of teaching is a clearly manifested pattern that acts immutably in any era and in any conditions. The upbringing function organically follows from the content itself, forms and methods of teaching, but at the same time it is carried out through the special organization of communication between the teacher and students. Objectively, training cannot fail to educate certain views, beliefs, attitudes, personality traits. Personality formation is generally impossible without mastering the system of moral and other concepts, norms and requirements.
Education always brings up, but not automatically and not always in the right direction, therefore, the implementation of the upbringing function requires the organization of the educational process, the selection of content, the choice of forms and methods to proceed from the correctly understood tasks of upbringing at one stage or another of the development of society. The most important aspect of the implementation of the educational function of teaching is the formation of motives for educational activity, which initially determine its success.

Developing function. Just like the upbringing function, the developmental character of teaching objectively follows from the very nature of this social process. Correctly delivered teaching always develops, however, the developmental function is carried out more effectively with a special focus of interaction between teachers and students on the all-round development of the personality. This special focus of teaching on the development of the student's personality has been consolidated in the term "developmental learning".
In the context of traditional approaches to the organization of training, the implementation of the developmental function, as a rule, is reduced to the development of speech and thinking, since it is the development of verbal processes that more clearly than others expresses the general development of the student. However, this understanding of the orientation of teaching, which narrows the developmental function, loses sight of the fact that both speech and the thinking associated with it develop more effectively with the appropriate development of the sensory, emotional-volitional, motor and motivational-need spheres of the personality. Thus, the developmental nature of training presupposes an orientation towards the development of the personality as an integral mental system.
Since the 60s. in pedagogical science, various approaches to the construction of developing education are being developed. L. V. Zankov substantiated a set of principles for the development of thinking in the learning process: an increase in the proportion of theoretical material; learning at a fast pace and at a high level of difficulty; ensuring students' awareness of the learning process. AM Matyushkin, MI Makhmutov and others developed the foundations of problem-based learning. I. Ya. Lerner and MN Skatkin proposed a system of developing teaching methods; V. V. Davydov and D. B. Elkonin developed the concept of meaningful generalization in teaching; I. Ya. Galperin, NF Talyzina and others substantiated the theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions. The unifying idea of ​​ongoing scientific research and pedagogical practice of developmental education is the idea of ​​the need to significantly expand the sphere of developmental influence of education. Full intellectual, social and moral development of the individual is the result of educational and upbringing functions implemented in the unity.

§ 3. Methodological foundations of training

The fundamental provisions that determine the general organization, the selection of content, the choice of forms and methods of teaching, follow from the general methodology of the pedagogical process. At the same time, since teaching is directly related to the organization of students' cognitive activity, a special consideration of its methodological foundations is necessary.
Some Overseas Learning Concepts
Behavioral theories have become widespread in pedagogical practice in the United States and in many European countries.
Behaviorists identify the mental life of humans and animals, reduce all complex life activities to the formula "stimulus-response". From this point of view, the learning process is the art of controlling stimuli in order to evoke or prevent certain reactions. And the learning process is a set of reactions to stimuli and stimulus situations. The development of consciousness is identified with the formation of students' reactions.
Thus, the conscious activity of a person in the learning process is explained not by mental, but by physiological processes. The conscious activity of students is replaced by a purely reflex activity. Behaviorists see the difference between humans and highly organized animals in the fact that humans, in addition to motor ones, also have verbal reactions, as well as in the fact that they can be acted upon by secondary - verbal - stimuli, in the fact that humans, in addition to biological ones, may also have secondary needs. , such as: ambition, self-interest, etc.

Pragmatists reduce learning only to expanding the student's personal experience so that he can adapt as best as possible to the existing social order. Education can only contribute to the manifestation of what is inherent in a person from birth, therefore the goal of education, like education, is to teach a child to live. And that means adapting to environment, satisfy personal interests and needs without focusing on the social environment in accordance with the subjectively understood benefits. The founder of pragmatism J. Dyoi wrote that the environment educates, and life teaches.
In accordance with these methodological foundations, pragmatists deny the need for the formation of systematic knowledge, skills and abilities, and therefore, deny the scientific justification of curricula and programs, belittle the role of the teacher, assigning him the role of an assistant, a consultant. The main mechanism and, accordingly, the method of acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities is "learning through doing", i.e. implementation of practical tasks, exercises. Modern pragmatists believe that learning is a purely individual, "intimate" process (Ruggi et al.).
Behaviorism and pragmatism are the most common learning concepts that attempt to explain the mechanisms of learning. Most of the theories, which completely reject both physiological and psychological foundations of the educational process, reduce learning to the processes taking place in the student's soul. The acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities is not explained in any way, and if it is explained, then through concepts such as intuition, insight, discretion, intelligence, etc. Existentialism and neo-Thomism, already known to us, adjoin these directions. They belittle the role of teaching, subordinate intellectual development to the upbringing of feelings. The explanation of such a position proceeds from the statement that only individual facts can be cognized, but without their awareness, the relationship of laws.
Materialistic theory of knowledge and the learning process
The clarification of the methodological foundations of the learning process is facilitated by the correlation of teaching as the activity of a student, which is a specific type of cognition of the objective world, and cognition of a scientist.
The scientist learns objectively new, and the student - subjectively new, he does not discover any scientific truths, but assimilates scientific ideas, concepts, laws, theories already accumulated by science, scientific facts... The path of a scientist's cognition lies through experiment, scientific reflections, trial and error, theoretical calculations, etc., and the student's cognition proceeds more rapidly and is greatly facilitated by the teacher's skill. The scientist learns the new in its original form, therefore it may be incomplete, and the student learns the simplified material, didactically adapted to the age-related learning opportunities and characteristics of the students. In addition, educational cognition necessarily involves the direct or indirect influence of the teacher, and the scientist often dispenses with interpersonal interaction.
Despite the rather significant differences in the cognition of a student and a scientist, these processes are basically analogous, i.e. have a single methodological basis. Cognition begins with sensations, with sensory acquaintance with the material. This position was substantiated by F. Bacon in his sensationalist theory: all knowledge must begin with sensory perception and end with rational generalization. The theory of teaching by Ya. A. Komensky is based on this theory, it also predetermined the cornerstone of his didactics - the "golden rule": if any objects can be perceived by several senses at once, let them be immediately embraced by several senses.
The materialistic theory of knowledge shows that what is displayed does not depend on our consciousness and is determined by the ascent from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice. Cognition itself without the dialectics of its development is nothing, cognition expresses the interconnection of processes, elements within a single whole. But the very essence of the dialectic of cognition is its contradictoriness.
Driving forces of the learning process
The learning process as a specific process of cognition must be considered in its contradictoriness - as a process constant movement and development. In this regard, the teacher must proceed from the fact that the process of a student's cognition cannot be reduced to memorizing ready-made knowledge, that it does not have a straightforwardness given once and for all, a constant mechanical movement on the way to the truth, that it has big and small leaps, recessions, unexpected turns of thought, possible insights. Knowledge, figuratively speaking, is woven from contradictions. It coexists strict logical reasoning, induction and deduction, meaningful and formalized.
The main contradiction is the driving force of the learning process because it is inexhaustible, just as the process of cognition is inexhaustible. M. A. Danilov formulates it as a contradiction between the cognitive and practical tasks put forward by the course of teaching and the existing level of knowledge, skills and abilities of students, their mental development and relationships. Contradiction becomes the driving force behind learning if it is meaningful, i.e. meaningful in the eyes of students, and the resolution of the contradiction is clearly perceived by them as a necessity. The condition for the formation of a contradiction as a driving force of learning is its proportionality with the cognitive potential of students. Equally important is the preparedness of the contradiction by the very course of the educational process, its logic, so that the students not only “grab”, “sharpen” it, but also independently find a way of solving it. The cognitive task, once put forward and accepted by the students, turns into a chain of internally connected tasks that cause the students' own desire to learn the new, the unknown and to apply this knowledge in life. The secret of successful learning and mental development of students lies in the ability to see a cognitive task and the desire to find its solution. "

§ 4. Activities of teachers and students in the learning process

Purpose and structure of the teacher

The process of teaching students at school takes place under the guidance of a teacher. The purpose of his activity is to control the active and conscious cognitive activity of students. The teacher sets tasks for the students, gradually complicating them and thereby ensuring the progressive movement of the child's thoughts along the path of cognition. The teacher also creates the necessary conditions for the successful course of the teaching: selects the content in accordance with the set goals; thinks over and applies various forms of training organization; uses a variety of methods by which content is made available to learners.
Management of the learning process involves the passage of certain stages in accordance with the given structure of the pedagogical process and the pedagogical activity itself: planning, organization, regulation (stimulation), control, assessment and analysis of results.

The planning stage 0 in the teacher's activity ends with the drawing up of calendar-thematic or lesson plans, depending on what tasks are to be solved: strategic tactical or operational. The drawing up of plans is preceded by a long painstaking work. It includes: analysis of the initial level of preparedness of students, their educational capabilities, the state of the material base and methodological equipment, their personal professional capabilities; determination of specific educational, upbringing and developmental tasks, based on the didactic goal of the lesson and the formation of the class as a team; selection of content: thinking through the forms and methods of conducting a lesson, specific types of work, etc.

The organization of student activities includes the formulation of an educational task for students and the creation of favorable conditions for its implementation. At the same time, such techniques are used as instruction, distribution of functions, presentation of an algorithm, etc. Modern didactics recommends the rules for the advancement of cognitive tasks (M. A. Danilov):
the cognitive task must flow from the subject content in order to preserve the system of knowledge and the logic of science;
it is necessary to take into account the current level of development of students and
their preparation so that real conditions are created for the task;
the task must contain the information necessary for the development of the mind, imagination, creative processes;
it is necessary to arrange for the implementation of the objective activity of students (create a positive motivation);
it is necessary to teach students to solve the problem, equip them with the necessary methods, first together with the teacher, then in collective work, gradually transferring them into a plan of independent individual actions.
Teaching involves the regulation and correction of the learning process on the basis of continuous monitoring, i.e. obtaining information about the progress of learning of students and the effectiveness of techniques and methods of their own activities. the results of current control, carried out in the form of simple observation, oral and written interrogations, checking class and home independent work and with the help of other techniques and methods, are taken into account by the teacher both directly in this lesson and in the future. This can be a slowdown or acceleration of the pace of educational work, a decrease or increase in the amount of proposed types of work, changes in the order of presentation of the material, leading questions and additional explanations, prevention of difficulties, etc. A special place at this stage of the teacher's activity is occupied by the stimulation of the activity and independence of students.
Regulation and correction of the learning process with the use of incentives is provided not only by a well-thought-out assessment system, which implies encouragement, inspiration, instilling confidence in one's own strengths and learning opportunities, passion for prospects, censure, etc., but also by the use of a grading system that works especially in the initial and middle grades. Great stimulating opportunities are inherent in the forms and methods of pedagogical activity (educational discussions, conferences, discussion of essays, pair-group methods of teaching, mutual testing, etc.).
The final stage of training, as well as of the pedagogical process as a whole, is the analysis of the results of solving the pedagogical problem. It is carried out from the standpoint of achieving in the unity of educational, educational and developmental goals, as well as the methods and conditions for their achievement. In this case, it is necessary to proceed from the requirements of the principle of optimality, taking into account that the required result can be achieved also due to the overload of both students and teachers. The analysis should identify the causes of deficiencies in learning and the foundations of success, outline the ways for further pedagogical interaction within the framework of the learning process.

Student activities in the learning process

Learning as a specific type of activity has its own structure, patterns of development and functioning. The possibility of its implementation is due to the ability of a person to regulate their actions in accordance with the goal.
The purpose of teaching is cognition, collection and processing of information about the world around us, ultimately expressed in knowledge, skills and abilities, a system of relationships and general development.
The most important component of teaching is motives, i.e. those motives that the student is guided by, carrying out certain educational actions or educational activities in general. And in order for the teaching to arise, in the learning situation there must be motives driving the student towards the gnostic goal - to mastering certain knowledge and skills. The student is prompted to learn by not one, but a number of motives of various properties, each of which appears not in isolation, but in interaction with others. The teaching, therefore, has a multi-motivated character.

All the variety of motives for the educational activities of schoolchildren can be represented by three interrelated groups.
1. Directly motivating motives based on the emotional manifestations of the personality, on positive or negative emotions: brightness, novelty, amusement, external attractive attributes; interesting teaching, attractiveness of the teacher's personality; desire to receive praise, a reward (as soon as the assignment is completed), fear of receiving a negative grade, punishment, fear of the teacher, unwillingness to be the object of discussion in the class, etc.
2. Perspective-motivating motives based on understanding the importance of knowledge in general and of the academic subject in particular: awareness of the worldview, social, practical and applied value of the subject, certain specific knowledge and skills; linking the subject with a future independent life (entering college, choosing a profession, creating a family, etc.); expectation in the prospect of receiving an award, a developed sense of duty, responsibility.
3. Intellectual and motivating motives based on obtaining satisfaction from the process of cognition itself: interest in knowledge, curiosity, the desire to expand one's cultural level, master certain skills and abilities, enthusiasm for the very process of solving educational and cognitive problems, etc.
Among the intellectually stimulating motives, cognitive interests and needs occupy a special place. The objective basis for the development of the cognitive interests of schoolchildren is a high level of education with its truly scientific content and pedagogically expedient organization of active and independent cognition.
It is customary to distinguish between the levels of cognitive interest and, accordingly, to determine the paths and create the conditions for its formation (G.I.Shchukina). The lowest elementary level of cognitive interest is expressed in attention to specific facts, knowledge - descriptions, actions according to a model. The second level characterizes the interest in addictions, cause-and-effect relationships, in their independent establishment. The highest level is expressed in interest in deep theoretical problems, creative activities for the development of knowledge. The formation of the highest level of cognitive interest gives grounds to speak of the presence of a cognitive need.
Cognitive interest is formed in the learning process through the subject content of the activity and the emerging relationships between the participants in the educational process. This is facilitated by the widespread use of the factor of novelty of knowledge, elements of problematicity in training, the use of data on modern achievements science and technology, showing the social and personal significance of knowledge, skills and abilities, organizing independent work of a creative nature, organizing mutual learning, mutual control of students, etc.

The next component of learning is learning activities. (operations) performed in accordance with a perceived purpose. They appear at all stages of solving the educational problem and can be external (observable) and internal (unobservable). External actions include all types of objective actions (writing, drawing, setting up experiments, etc.), perceptual actions (listening, examining, observing, touching, etc.), symbolic actions associated with the use of speech. To internal - mnemonic actions (memorizing material, its ordering and organization), actions of imagination (emergent) and actions of thinking (intellectual).
The main tool of cognition is thinking. Therefore, given its relationship with other cognitive processes and without diminishing their role in organizing the teaching of schoolchildren, the main attention in the process of managing their activities should be paid to the development of mental actions and specific mental operations (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, generalization, etc.).
The integral structural components of learning are actions of control, assessment and analysis of results. Self-control, self-assessment and introspection, which are carried out by students in the learning process, are formed on the basis of observation of similar teaching actions of the teacher. The formation of these actions is facilitated by the techniques of attracting students to the observation of the activities of their peers, the organization of mutual control, mutual evaluation and mutual analysis of the results of activities on the basis of established criteria.
§ 5. The logic of the educational process and the structure of the assimilation process
In the traditional practice of teaching, the logic of teaching from the perception of specific objects and phenomena to the formation of ideas and from the generalization of specific ideas to concepts has been established and has become virtually universal. This logic is natural for learning in primary grades, is also used in the organization of teaching adolescents and older students. Meanwhile, both in theory and in practice, the need to apply in teaching both the inductive-analytical and deductive-synthetic logic of the educational process in their close interaction has been convincingly proven. The essence of this solution lies in the fact that almost simultaneously with the perception of specific objects and phenomena, those scientific concepts and principles are introduced, thanks to which the perception of a specific material becomes deeper and more meaningful. This does not contradict the basic scheme of cognition: from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice, which determines the structure of the process of assimilating knowledge.

Sensory cognition ("living contemplation") 0. Sensory cognition is based on primary cognitive processes: sensation and perception.
Perception. - the process of reflection in the human mind of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the sense organs.

Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the totality of its properties.
When organizing perception as a purposeful activity, i.e. observation, it is necessary to proceed from the fact that the visual analyzer has the greatest throughput. However, in learning, the throughput is regulated not by the analyzer itself, but by the brain, therefore, as established in experiments and confirmed empirically, for one unit of information to be assimilated, it is necessary to give two units of explanation, i.e. additional information.
The perception of information in the learning process is influenced by many factors, in particular the frequency of transmission of information, speed (pace), mental state of the student, day of the week, hours of classes, etc. The content of perception also depends on the task set for the student, on the motives of his activities and attitudes as well as emotions that can change the content of perception.
To control the process of perception, the fact of its dependence on the characteristics of the student's personality, his interests, worldview, beliefs and orientation in general is essential. The dependence of perception on past experience and the content of the entire mental life of a person, on the characteristics of his personality is called apperception.

Abstract thinking (understanding, comprehension, generalization). Perception is closely connected with thinking, with understanding the essence of perceived objects and phenomena. Consciously perceiving an object means mentally naming it, i.e. correlate with a specific group, class of objects, generalize it in a word.
Understanding the information being communicated. carried out through the establishment of primary, largely generalized connections and relationships between objects, phenomena and processes, identifying their composition, purpose, causes and sources of functioning. Understanding is based on the establishment of links between new material and previously studied, which, in turn, is the basis for a deeper and more versatile understanding of the educational material.
Comprehension of the studied information requires the use of general educational skills and abilities based on such methods of mental activity, which are based on complex mental operations: analysis and synthesis, comparison and comparison, classification and systematization, etc. Comprehension of educational material is accompanied by the formation of certain attitudes among students towards it , understanding of its social, including practical, meaning and personal significance. Comprehension directly develops into the process of generalizing knowledge.
Generalization. characterized by the allocation and systematization of common essential features objects and phenomena. This is a higher, in comparison with comprehension, stage of abstraction from the concrete, the moment of transition from understanding the meaning to the definition of the concept. Scientific concepts are always abstract, since abstraction from concrete objects and phenomena is recorded in them. Operating with scientific concepts at the stage of generalizing knowledge leads to the establishment of connections between them, to the formation of judgments. And the comparison of judgments leads to inferences, to independent conclusions and proofs.
Generalization completes (mostly) learning if the inductive-analytical path is chosen. In deductive-synthetic logic, on the contrary, generalized data in the form of concepts, definitions, theories, laws are introduced at the beginning of the study of the topic or in the process of its study.

Application of knowledge (practice). The necessary structural components of the assimilation process are closely interconnected consolidation and application of knowledge. Consolidation presupposes rethinking and repeated reproduction of what is being studied with the aim of introducing new material into the structure of the student's personal experience. It naturally requires the use of memory mechanisms, but it cannot be reduced to the mechanical memorization of facts, definitions, methods of proof, etc. Anchoring efficiency, i.e. the value, strength and effectiveness of knowledge is tested by practice. The application of knowledge is based on the process of ascending from the abstract to the concrete, i.e. concretization. Concretization as a mental operation is expressed in the ability to apply abstract knowledge to the solution of specific practical problems, to particular cases of educational and cognitive activity. In educational practice, concretization begins with the ability to give your example. In the future, this thinking ability is revealed through the ability to solve a more complex problem without the help of a teacher, through the use of knowledge in situations of extracurricular activities.
The application of knowledge can be carried out in various forms and types of activity, depending on the specifics of the content of the material being studied. This can be exercises for educational purposes, laboratory work, research assignments, work in the school area, in the workshop in production, etc.

§ 6. Types of training and their characteristics
Historically, the first known type of systematic education is the method of finding the truth by posing leading questions, widely used by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates and his students. It was called the method of Socratic conversation .. The teacher (as a rule, a philosopher) by posing the question aroused curiosity, the cognitive interest of the student, and himself, verbally reasoning, in search of an answer to it, led the student's thought along the path of cognition. To maintain the interest of the teaching reasoning, teachers were interspersed with the posing of most often rhetorical questions. Socratic conversations were conducted with one or more students.
The first type of collective organization of cognitive activity is dogmatic teaching, which was widespread in the Middle Ages. Teaching in Latin is typical for him, since the main content of training was the mastery of religious scriptures. The main activities of the students were listening and rote memorization. A distinctive feature of this type of teaching was the separation of form from content.
Explanatory and illustrative teaching replaced dogmatic teaching. due to widespread involvement in studying proccess clarity. Its methodological basis is the theory of sensationalism (F. Bacon, J. Locke and others). The founder of this type of education is Ya. A. Komensky. The main goal of this training is the assimilation of knowledge and their subsequent application in practice, i.e. the formation of skills and abilities. Explanatory-illustrative learning requires deeper thinking activity, but reproductive thinking. This is passive-contemplative teaching, which still occupies a large place in the traditional school. The main task of the teacher is reduced to the presentation of the material so that the students understand and assimilate it. Explanatory-illustrative training is economical in terms of the time required to assimilate knowledge, but it is not developmental and ultimately prepares the performer, but not the creator.
In the early 20s. of the present century, as a result of the search for ways to improve explanatory and illustrative teaching, a new type of education has emerged - independent acquisition of knowledge under the guidance of a teacher-consultant (Daltonplan, brigade-laboratory method, project method, etc.). Common in different approaches was that on introductory lesson the teacher posed the problem, pointed out the literature, instructed the students and outlined the deadlines for completing the assignment. Later, the students carried out an independent search for answers to the questions posed by reading books, setting up laboratory work, completing practical tasks, etc. At the end of the stages (several days, weeks and even months), the teacher checked the assignments, generalized knowledge and gave new assignments. In its pure form, this type of teaching had many disadvantages: the systematic nature of knowledge was not ensured, the course of learning was practically not controlled, due to the passive position of the teacher, teaching did not fulfill all the functions assigned to it.
B. Skinler (1904) - American psychologist, leader of modern behaviorism. He put forward the concept of "operant", reinforced learning.
Programmed learning is a special type of independent acquisition of knowledge. Its methodological basis is the theory of poperant learning of animals, which follows from the general behavioristic Concept (B. Skinper). Mechanically transferring it to humans, B. Skinper formulated the following principles of programmed learning:
submission of information in small portions;
setting up a test task to control the assimilation of each piece of information;
presentation of an answer for self-control;
giving instructions depending on the correct answer. The fourth point may vary depending on the construction of programs, which is linear or branched.
In accordance with the linear construction of programs, students work on all portions of information (frames, bits, doses, steps) that are to be assimilated, according to a single scheme, in one direction: A, - \ - Ad- \ -, etc. An extensive program involves the choice by students of their individual path of advancement along the path of knowledge, depending on the level of preparedness:
When justifying programmed learning, a cybernetic approach can also be used, according to which learning is viewed as a complex dynamic system that is controlled on the basis of direct (sending commands) and feedback with the control center - the teacher - and the controlled object - the student. There are internal and external feedback, where the internal receipt of information by the student himself (assessment of the answer), and external receipt of information by the teacher about the progress of students' learning.
In programmed teaching, direct and feedback are carried out using special means, i.e. programmed manuals of various types and training machines. The manuals include programmed textbooks, programmed collections of exercises and tasks, test-type control tasks, programmed additions to a regular textbook. Programmed teaching techniques include teaching machines for feeding educational information, tutoring machines, control machines.
The positive side of programmed learning is that it allows you to establish strong external and internal feedback, i.e. receive information about the results of knowledge assimilation; it develops independence, opens up the opportunity for each student to work at his own pace and rhythm.
At the same time, it does not reveal the very course of learning, does not stimulate creativity, has limitations in application, including due to the difficulties of material support.
Algorithmization of the learning process is closely related to programmed learning, which, like programming, has a cybernetic approach.
Algorithmization of learning involves the identification of algorithms for teacher activity and mental activity of students. An algorithm is a generally accepted prescription for performing elementary operations in a certain sequence to solve any of the problems belonging to a certain class, for example: how to solve a problem, how to parse a sentence, how to find GCD, LCM in mathematics, etc.
The teacher's activity in the algorithmicization of students' activities, i.e. dividing it into a number of interrelated elements consists of the following operations:
highlight the conditions necessary for the implementation of training actions;
highlight the learning actions themselves;
to define a way of communication of trainers and training activities... Algorithmization of teaching increases the proportion of students' independent work and contributes to improving the management of the educational process, equips students with control tools for their mental and practical actions.
Modern tendencies development of education, including those associated with the expansion of the network of private, largely elite schools, determine the formation of an independent type of differentiated and individual education.

§ 7. Modern theories of teaching (didactic concepts)

To date, there are two main theories of learning: associative (associative-reflex) and activity. The associative theory of learning took shape in the 17th century. Its methodological foundations were developed by J. Locke, who suggested the term "association". The associative theory of learning received its final form in the classroom-lesson system of Ya. A. Komensky.
The basic principles of this theory are as follows: the mechanism of any act of learning is the association; any teaching is based on clarity, i.e. relies on sensory cognition, therefore, the enrichment of the student's consciousness with images and ideas is the main task of educational activity; visual images are not important in and of themselves: they are necessary insofar as they ensure the advancement of consciousness towards generalizations based on comparison; the main method of associative learning is exercise.
Associative theories underlie the explanatory-illustrative teaching that dominates the modern traditional school. In many ways, this is the reason that school graduates do not receive a full-fledged education, namely: they do not develop experience of creative activity, the ability to independently acquire knowledge, and the willingness to freely engage in any managerial field of activity.
Realizing the limitations of explanatory and illustrative teaching, modern pedagogical science focuses not on passive adaptation to the existing level of development of students, but on the formation of mental functions, creating conditions for their development in the learning process. Of enduring methodological significance is the idea of ​​such a structure of teaching, which would take into account the "zone of proximal development" of the individual, i.e. focused not on the level of development available today, but on the tomorrow that the student can achieve under the guidance and with the help of a teacher (L. S. Vygotsky).
For mental development, as established by the research of D. N. Bogoyavlensky and N. A. Menchinskaya, even a complex and mobile system of knowledge is not enough. Students must master those mental operations with the help of which knowledge is assimilated and operated. N. A. Menchinskaya great attention pays the development of learning, which is characterized by generalization of mental activity, efficiency, independence and flexibility of thinking, semantic memory, communication between visual-figurative and verbal-logical components of thinking; the development of learning, according to N. A. Menchinskaya, is a reliable way to increase the efficiency of the process of assimilating knowledge and learning in general.
Sufficiently effective concept of increasing the developmental function traditional learning suggested by L. V. Zankov. His didactic system, focused on younger students, also gives a developmental effect when working with adolescents and older students, subject to the following principles: building education at a high level of difficulty (subject to a clearly distinguishable measure of difficulty); fast pace of study of the material (of course, within reasonable limits); the principle of the leading role of theoretical knowledge; students' awareness of the learning process. The search for ways to improve learning, which is based on associative theories, is aimed at identifying ways and conditions for the development of cognitive independence, activity and creative thinking of students. In this respect, the experience of educators-innovators is indicative: the enlargement of the didactic units of assimilation (P.M. Erdniev, B.P. Erdniev), the intensification of teaching based on the Principle of visibility (V.F.Shatalov, S.D. Shevchenko, etc.), advancing teaching and commenting (S.N. Lysenkova), increasing the upbringing potential of the lesson (E.N. Ilyin, T.I. , S. Yu. Kurganov, V. K. Dyachenko, A. B. Reznik N. P. Guzik and others), individualization of training (I. P. Volkov and others). Associative theories of learning, which are not initially focused on the development of the creative potential of students, are opposed by theories based on the activity approach. These include the theory of problem learning (A.M. Matyushkin, M.I. . V. Davydov, D. B. Elkonin and others).
The theory of problem learning is based on the concepts of "task" and "action", i.e. on what fully characterizes the activity approach. A problem situation is a cognitive task that is characterized by a contradiction between the students' knowledge, skills, attitudes and requirements. The meaning of a cognitive task is that it causes students to strive for independent searches for its solution by analyzing the conditions and mobilizing their knowledge. A cognitive task evokes activity when it relies on previous experience and is the next step in the study of a subject or in the application of a learned law, concept, technique, method of activity.
Problematic situations can be classified within any academic subject by focus on acquiring something new (knowledge, methods of action, the possibility of applying knowledge and skills in new conditions, changing attitudes); according to the degree of difficulty and severity (depending on the preparedness of the students); by the nature of the contradictions (between everyday and scientific knowledge). In a problematic situation, the very fact of its vision by students is important, therefore it must be distinguished from problematic questions, for example: why does a nail sink, but a ship made of metal does not?
Student activity in problem learning involves going through the following stages:
the discretion of the problem, its formulation (for example, 2 + 5 x3 = 17; 2 + 5x3 = 21);
analysis of conditions, separation of the known from the unknown; putting forward hypotheses (options) and choosing a solution plan (either based on known methods, or searching for a fundamentally new approach);
implementation of the solution plan;
finding ways to check the correctness of actions and results. Depending on the degree of teacher participation in independent software
In the student's claim, there are several levels of problematicity in teaching. The first level is characterized by the participation of the teacher in the first three stages; for the second - on the first and partially on the second; for the third, who approaches the activity of a scientist, the teacher only directs the research search.
The teacher's activity in problem learning is as follows:
finding (thinking over) a way to create a problem situation, enumerating possible options for its solution by the student;
guidance by pupils' discernment of the problem;
clarification of the problem formulation;
assisting students in analyzing conditions;
assistance in choosing a solution plan;
consulting in the process of solving;
help in finding ways of self-control;
analysis of individual mistakes or general discussion of the solution to the problem.
Problem-based learning contributes to the development of mental abilities, independence and creative thinking of students, it ensures the strength and effectiveness of knowledge, since emotionally, by its nature, it causes a feeling of satisfaction from knowledge. At the same time, it has limitations in its application, since it is uneconomical, although it can be used at all stages of explanatory and illustrative learning. In its pure form, problem-based learning at school is not organized, and this is understandable: a significant part of knowledge must be assimilated based on traditional teaching methods (factual information, axioms, illustrations of certain phenomena, etc.).
The theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions, developed by P. Ya. Galperin and developed by NF Talyzina, mainly concerns the structure of the process of assimilation of knowledge. The success of assimilation in accordance with this theory is determined by the creation and understanding by the student of an indicative basis for actions, a thorough acquaintance with the very procedure for performing actions. The authors of the concept in the experiment found that the ability to control the learning process is significantly increased if students are sequentially guided through five interrelated stages: preliminary acquaintance with the action, with the conditions for its implementation; the formation of an action in a material (or materialized with the help of models) form with the deployment of all operations included in it; formation of action in the external plane as external speech; formation of actions on internal speech; transition of action into deep curtailed processes of thinking. This mechanism for the transition of actions from the external to the internal plane is called interiorization. This theory gives good results if in teaching it is really possible to start with material or materialized actions. It has proven itself in the best way in the training of athletes, operators, musicians, drivers and specialists of other professions; its use in schools is limited by the fact that learning does not always begin with subject perception.
The theory of educational activity proceeds from the teachings of L. S. Vygotsky about the relationship between learning and development, according to which teaching plays its leading role in mental development primarily through the content of the acquired knowledge. The authors of the theory emphasize that the developmental nature of educational activity is associated with the fact that its content is theoretical knowledge. However, the educational activity of schoolchildren should be built not as a scientist's knowledge, which begins with an examination of the sensually-concrete variety of particular types of movement of an object and leads to the identification of their general internal basis, but in accordance with the way of presenting scientific knowledge, with the way of ascent from the abstract to the concrete (V . V. Davydov).
In accordance with the theory of learning activity, students should not form knowledge, but certain types of activities, in which knowledge is included as a certain element. "The knowledge of a person is in unity with his mental actions (abstraction, generalization, etc.)," ​​writes V. V. Davydov, "therefore, it is quite permissible to use the term" knowledge "to simultaneously denote both the result of thinking (reflection of reality) and the process its receipt (ie mental actions) "".
From the theory of educational activity follows the deductive-synthetic logic of constructing the educational process, which is realized when the following points are taken into account:
all concepts that constitute a given academic subject or its main sections must be assimilated by children by considering the conditions of their origin, thanks to which they become necessary (i.e., concepts are not given as ready-made knowledge);
assimilation of knowledge of a general and abstract nature precedes acquaintance with more particular and specific knowledge, the latter must be derived from the abstract as from their basis;
this follows from the attitude towards clarifying the origin of concepts and corresponds to the requirement of an ascent from the abstract to the concrete;
When studying the subject-material sources of certain concepts, students must first of all discover a genetically original, universal connection that determines the content and structure of the entire object of these concepts. For example, for the object of all the concepts of school mathematics, such a universal connection is the general ratio of quantities; for school grammar - the relation of form and meaning in a word;
this connection must be reproduced in special subject, graphic or letter models that allow studying its properties in a "pure form". For example, children can depict general relations of quantities in the form of letter formulas convenient for further study of the properties of these relations; the structure of the word can be depicted using special graphic schemes;
in schoolchildren it is necessary to specially formulate such object-related actions by means of which they can reveal in the educational material and reproduce in models the essential connection of the object, and then study its properties. For example, in order to identify the connection underlying the concepts of whole, fractional and real numbers, children need to form special actions to determine a short ratio of quantities;
students should gradually and in a timely manner move from objective actions to their implementation in the mental plane (according to V.V.Davydov).
The implementation of these conditions, according to the supporters of the theory of educational activity, is the most important way of forming the theoretical thinking of students as an important ability of a creative person.
Opponents of the authors of the theory of educational activity point to the absolutization of the deductive-synthetic path of cognition and, accordingly, the diminution of the role of the logic of the educational process from the particular to the general. Modern didactics also does not accept a narrow interpretation of knowledge, i.e. only as an element of activity, since the theory of educational activity does not take into account the general logic of constructing the goals and content of education, where the formation of knowledge is singled out as a special important goal... In addition, it is not taken into account that knowledge exists objectively not only in the consciousness of the individual, but also in the form of information stored in books, "computer banks", etc., which becomes the property of the individual in the process of cognitive activity.

QUESTIONS AND ASSIGNMENTS
1. How are the processes of cognition and learning related? In what
their similarities and differences?
2. Describe the main functions of the learning process.
3. Expand the features of the structure of the teacher's activities and the activities of students.
4. What is the logic of the educational process and what is the mechanism of the process of assimilating knowledge?
5. What are the main types of training and their characteristics.
6. What is the fundamental difference between associative and activity theories of learning?

7. What does the optimization of the learning process mean?

The concept of the educational process... In the theory and practice of teaching, we often talk about the educational process, which implies two pedagogical components: study and education. In reality, education is more diverse and also includes the development of students, their interaction with the teacher, with each other and with the outside world, creative activity, the conditions for organizing training, regulatory norms, social factors, etc. Therefore, the concept of “educational process".

Educational process - pedagogically grounded, consistent, continuous change in the states of learning subjects in a specially organized environment in order to achieve their educational results.

Educational results are understood as external and internal products of the activities of participants in the educational process (students, teachers, administrators, parents, etc.). External educational products can be expressed in the form of essays, solved problems, creative works, products of collective labor. Internal - these are personal increments of knowledge, abilities, skills, mastered methods of action, developed abilities. Educational results are aimed at personal growth of students in order to ensure their effective life in society.

In pedagogical literature and teaching practice, there are the concepts of "educational process", "learning process", "formation process", "development process", "pedagogical process", etc. All of them, as a rule, are associated with the concept of the educational process, or are a reflection its individual sides.

The target component of the educational process is based on the chosen model of education and includes a variety of goals and objectives related to the subjects of education: students, teachers, parents, school, region, state, society, humanity.

The organizational component of the educational process includes a management system for achieving set and emerging goals; in conjunction with the technological component ensures the achievement, diagnosis and assessment of the intended results.

Methodological model of the educational process... The needs and interests of an individual student may not coincide with the interests of society, and at the same time, remain culturally consistent. Therefore, the model of the educational process at school should be formed on the basis of a combination of variable and multi-level educational content, reproductive and creative teaching methods, various types of activities in which students are involved.

Issues related to the direction of education, its backbone and activity foundations are considered in the methodology of education. In pedagogy, methodology is defined as “teaching about the principles, methods, forms and procedures of cognition and transformation of pedagogical reality” *. In a broader sense, methodology is understood as a set of scientific methods of cognition in a particular science, or the doctrine of a scientific method in general.

* Zhuravlev V.I. The concept of "methodology" of pedagogical science // Pedagogy / Ed. P.I. Pidkasistogo. - M., 1995, p. 33.

The methodology of education is understood as a system of principles, forms, methods and means educational activities, as well as teaching (theory) about this system.

There is an interconnected hierarchy of methodologies: the methodology of science, the methodology of pedagogy, the methodology of didactics, the methodology of education, the methodology of the educational process, the methodology of educational activities, the methodology of the content of education, etc.

The leading component of education is the educational process, the main component of which, in turn, is educational activity.

The methodological image of the educational process is concentrated in models of education. Different educational models can be based on different understandings of the essence of the educational process. Depending on the conceptual meaning of education, the corresponding educational process is designed and built. For example, education can be understood as:

¨ transfer of socially significant experience by previous generations to subsequent generations;

¨ the process of progressive personality changes;

¨ organized interaction of the student with the world around him and himself.

Let us consider a model of education based on the philosophical prerequisites of the domestic teaching theory, which is based on the idea of ​​the student's interaction with the world around him and himself (the concept of entering the world around him).

Modern society is faced with an increasing number of unresolved problems, so it directly and indirectly encourages its institutions to look for ways to solve them through the disclosure of the reserves of human creative potential. In these conditions, an educational model is needed, focused not so much on the retransmission of the past, but on the construction of a progressive future, on the nature and culture-consistent development of all spheres of human activity. This model presupposes the change of the doctrine of "education as teaching" to the doctrine of "education as creation", which determines the direction of changes in the methodology. modern education.

The philosophical basis of such a model of education is the idea of ​​human infiltration into the external world through activities that ensure the creation of products that are adequate to the cognizable spheres of the external world. The development of external educational areas is accompanied by the development inner peace subject of education. The student's cognition of the external world is accompanied by his self-knowledge, which occurs on the basis of reflection on his educational activities.

The student's creative self-realization as a super task of teaching is revealed in three interrelated goals: the creation of educational products by the student in the studied educational areas; mastering the basic content of these areas through comparison with their own results; building an individual educational trajectory in each of the educational areas based on their personal qualities.

The primary in the educational process of this type is the student's cognition of reality. After receiving the appropriate knowledge and experience, the student studies the achievements of humanity in this reality. The activity leading to the creation of educational products reveals and develops the student's abilities, the originality of which contributes to building his individual educational trajectory.

Designing personal paths and models of students' education in a single general educational process is one of the goals of learning. The main goal is to educate people who are capable of creating not only personally, but also socially significant products of activity, who are able to find productive solutions to multi-level problems that arise in a continuously changing world.

The image of the student. The primary element of teaching methodology and theory is the student's image. It is the image of the student in the dynamics of his development that is the target factor in building the system of his education on the basis of the corresponding didactic or pedagogical theory.

The student's image as a model of anticipated learning outcomes is the planned result of the student's interaction with the surrounding educational environment.

Cognizing reality, the student performs the following activities: 1) cognition (mastering) of objects of the surrounding world and available knowledge about it; 2) the creation by the student of a personal product of education as an equivalent of his own educational increment; 3) self-organization of previous activities - knowledge and creation.

If we determine the minimum set of personal qualities of a student, corresponding to his anticipated image, then this will allow purposefully design educational programs, choose the optimal pedagogical technologies, select the educational material that will help organize the creation of educational products by children.

When students carry out these types of educational activities, the corresponding personality traits, from which the anticipated image of the student is formed:

1) cognitive (cognitive) qualities - the ability to feel the world around, ask questions, look for the causes of phenomena, indicate their understanding or lack of understanding of the issue, etc.;

2) creative (creative) qualities - inspiration, fantasy, flexibility of mind, sensitivity to contradictions; looseness of thoughts and feelings, movements; predictiveness; having your own opinion, etc .;

3) methodological (organizational) qualities - the ability to understand the goals of educational activities and the ability to explain them; the ability to set a goal and organize its achievement; ability to rule-making; reflective thinking; communicative qualities, etc.

The cognitive qualities of the student is necessary for him in the process of cognition of the surrounding reality (objects of the external world), distributed in accordance with general educational areas and training courses:

¨ physical and physiological qualities: the ability to see, hear, touch, feel the studied object with the help of smell, taste; developed working capacity, energy;

¨ intellectual qualities: curiosity, erudition, thoughtfulness, ingenuity, consistency, “intelligence quotient”, meaningfulness, validity, ability to analyze and synthesize, the ability to find analogies, use various forms of evidence, curiosity, insight, search for problems, a tendency to experiment, skill ask questions, see contradictions, formulate problems and hypotheses, perform theoretical and experimental research, own ways to solve various problems, draw conclusions and generalizations;

¨ possession of cultural norms and traditions lived in their own activities; the ability to argue their knowledge and the results obtained; the ability to self-determine in situations of choice, enthusiasm, efficiency of actions;

¨ the ability to indicate their understanding or misunderstanding on any emerging issues; the ability to understand and evaluate a different point of view, to enter into a meaningful dialogue or dispute;

¨ structural and systemic vision of the studied areas in their spatial and temporal hierarchy; finding connections between objects, their causes, problems associated with them; possession of a general approach to clarifying the essence of any objects and phenomena (nature, culture, politics, etc.), a multi-scientific vision;

¨ selection of fundamental objects among secondary ones, finding subordinate links between them; in [and] the definition of the hierarchy, new functions and relationships of known objects; the ability to find the reasons for the origin of an object, the ability to find the meaning of an object, its source; distinguishing between facts and non-facts about an object;

¨ having a personal understanding of the meaning of each of the studied subjects; possession of basic knowledge, skills and abilities; orientation in fundamental problems of the studied sciences, non-standard thinking;

¨ the ability to compare cultural and historical analogues with their educational products and the results of classmates, to isolate their similarities and differences, to redefine or refine their own educational results;

¨ the ability to find the reasons for the origin of a cultural and historical object or phenomenon, the ability to determine its structure and structure, find connections with related ideal objects, build a system of ideal objects, build their hierarchy based on the formulated principles and criteria; the ability to find systems of links between a cultural and historical phenomenon with the corresponding real objects;

¨ the ability to embody the acquired knowledge in spiritual and material forms, to build on their basis for their subsequent activities.

Student's creative qualities provide the conditions for creating a creative product in the educational process:

¨ emotional-figurative qualities: inspiration, spirituality, emotional uplift in creative situations; imagery, associativity, contemplation, imagination, fantasy, dreaminess, romance, a sense of novelty, unusual, sensitivity to contradictions, a tendency to creative doubt, the ability to experience inner struggle, the ability to empathy, sign creation, symbolism;

¨ initiative, ingenuity, ingenuity, readiness to invent; originality, originality, originality, originality, assertiveness;

¨ the ability to generate ideas, produce them both individually and in communication with people, text, other objects of knowledge;

¨ possession of relaxed thoughts, feelings and movements, combined with the ability to maintain the norms of behavior that are set at school, in the family, in another social environment;

¨ discernment, the ability to see the familiar in the unfamiliar and vice versa; overcoming stereotypes, the ability to enter another plane or space when solving a problem;

¨ the ability to conduct a dialogue with the object under study, to choose methods of cognition that are adequate to the object; the ability to determine the structure and structure, to find the functions and connections of an object with related objects; forecasting changes in the object, the dynamics of its growth or development; creation of new methods of cognition depending on the properties of the object;

¨ predictability, predictability, formulation of hypotheses, construction of versions, patterns, formulas, theories;

¨ possession of non-traditional heuristic procedures: intuition, insight, meditation;

¨ independence, risk appetite; the presence of personal results of education that differ from educational standards in depth, subject matter, opinion, different from the generally accepted;

¨ experience in realizing their most creative abilities in the form of performing and defending creative works, participating in competitions, Olympiads, etc.

Organizational (methodological) qualities of a student are manifested in the organization of the student's educational activity in its two previous manifestations in cognition and creativity:

¨ the student's knowledge of his individual activity characteristics, character traits, optimal rates and forms of classes in each of the academic subjects and educational areas;

¨ awareness and ability to explain the goals of his studies with certain academic subjects, a clear understanding of what he realizes himself in them;

¨ goal-setting (the ability to set goals), the presence of a worthy goal, a program to achieve it, perseverance in bringing the matter to the end, loyalty to the goal; purposefulness (focus on achieving goals), sustainability in achieving goals;

¨ the ability to set an educational goal in a given area of ​​knowledge or activity, draw up a plan to achieve it; fulfill the planned plan based on your individual characteristics and existing conditions, get and realize your result, compare it with similar results of classmates;

¨ the ability of rule-making, expressed in the ability to formulate the rules of activity, the system of its laws, to predict the results; semantic vision of the studied processes;

¨ skills of self-organization: planning of activities, programming of actions, correction of stages and methods of activities, flexibility and variability of actions, orderliness of activities, feasibility of plans; combinatorial approaches to activity, simultaneous retention of different alternatives in consciousness;

¨ introspection, introspection and self-esteem; possession of the methods of reflexive thinking - stopping, recalling an activity, analyzing its stages, isolating the methods used, searching for contradictions, "removing" the structure of the performed activity; the ability to identify the meaning of activities, build further plans, compare the results obtained with the goals set, adjust further activities;

¨ the ability to interact with other subjects of education and with the outside world; the ability to defend their ideas, endure non-recognition of others, "take a hit"; autonomy, independence, aspiration, determination, communication;

¨ the ability to organize the creativity of others (organizational and pedagogical qualities); joint cognition and generation of ideas with other students; the ability to organize a "brainstorming", to participate in it; comparison and juxtaposition of ideas, dispute, discussion.

The listed groups of student qualities are open to expansion and refinement. At the same time, these groups represent a minimum comprehensive set of guidelines to ensure a comprehensive educational process. So, for example, an orientation towards the development of only creative qualities will complicate the general educational movement of the student, since without a formed organizational basis, his work will remain spontaneous and unformed.

The student's personal qualities are used to formulate the goals of the educational process at its various stages in relation to the studied courses and individual topics. And the formulated goals can be expressed through specific tasks. For example, the goal of developing the ability to indicate your understanding or misunderstanding on any questions that arise can form the basis of such an assignment for elementary school students: “Look carefully at the pebble lying on each of you’s desk and write down: 1) what you saw and understood in mute; 2) what questions do you have. "

Primacy of cognition of reality... V scientific knowledge all the diversity of being is represented, as a rule, by the real world - the world of material objects, and the ideal world - the world of ideas (knowledge). The relationship between the real and the ideal world is manifested in the activity of the person who cognizes them. For example, a plant that belongs to the real world and the idea of ​​a plant are two different objects for a biologist, which nevertheless have a general meaning, which is understood by a scientist in the course of its development. professional activity.

In traditional schooling, the “knowledgeable” ideal world prevails as objects of cognition (study) - the world of generally accepted ideas, scientific concepts, laws, and theories. The work of students with objects of the real world is insignificant in volume and content, the study of the leading educational areas consists, as a rule, in the assimilation of a vast amount of knowledge. In curricula, manuals, and even more so in the direct practice of traditional teaching, the world of real objects is often replaced by the study of the corresponding concepts and other finished products of cognition, received not by students, but by specialists, scientists or authors of educational material. This happens not because of the difficulties of practical study of real objects or because of the lack of study time for their consideration, but because of the traditional need to preserve a common, if possible unified, structure of the content of the educational material, the convenience of its transfer to students and control over assimilation. The pedagogically processed material offered to students for study in this case acts as adapted information about the knowledge of other people - specialists in various fields: scientists, writers, engineers, etc. Studying information about other people's knowledge by students practically leaves them no room for creating their own knowledge about the real world.

Thus, in traditional school education, there is no building by students of the personal world of knowledge, which prevents them not only from building individual educational trajectories, but also from creative self-realization in general.

This problem can be solved by changing the teaching methodology, namely, with the help of the initial assignment to students as educational objects of real, not ideal objects of cognition, as well as by teaching methods of cognizing real objects and constructing the acquired knowledge. Studying an object of the real world, the student searches for and creates knowledge about it, that is, he discovers ideal theoretical constructs - facts, concepts, laws. Realizing the knowledge they have created and the methods of cognition used, the student fixes them in the form of a personal educational product, which then allows them to be applied for subsequent cognition of the real world. The educational activity of the student acts as a connecting link between the ideal and the real world - equal attributes of a harmonious person.

Each student, having the opportunity to receive, discover or construct his own knowledge about a real object, inevitably manifests and develops his personal cognitive abilities. When studying the same real educational objects for all students, students construct subjective images of these objects, which do not always coincide both with each other and with the generally accepted system of knowledge. Different educational products of cognition of the same object do not indicate their erroneousness, but about different educational positions and trajectories of students. The subjectivity of cognition means that each student penetrates into the depths of his world, expands the corresponding sphere of his personal potential.

A student, cognizing real fundamental educational objects, receives a personal educational product, which is then compared with the products of humanity in this area of ​​knowledge - cultural and historical analogues. Only then the student is enriched with “knowledge of all the riches,” and the student's result can be included as an element in the general system of knowledge, that is, in the student's general educational product. The teacher organizes various student activities for personal cognition of reality, comparing personal educational products with cultural and historical analogues, the student's reflective activity, which he also performs at all stages of learning.

The primacy of the student's cognition of reality ensures: first, the creation by the student of his own educational product, which characterizes the level of his personal educational increment, which has an internal activity source; secondly, the individual educational trajectory of the student, consisting of his educational products, compared with the cultural and historical layer of human knowledge and included in it; thirdly, the realization of the student's personal educational potential through the identification and development of his individual abilities, which ensured the creation of a personal educational product.

Subjective learning outcomes... Each student, having the opportunity to receive, discover or construct his own knowledge about the studied real object, inevitably manifests and develops his personal cognitive abilities. When studying the same educational objects for all students, students construct subjective images of these objects, which do not always coincide both with each other and with the generally accepted system of knowledge. For example, learning about a sunflower is a real educational object, one student formulates the idea of ​​a sunflower as a symbol of the Sun, another as a source of seeds for new plants, and the third as food for people or animals. Different educational products of cognition of the same object do not indicate their erroneousness, but about different educational positions and trajectories of students. The subjectivity of cognition means that each student penetrates into the depths of his ideal world, expands the corresponding individual sphere of his personal potential.

Among the set of educational objects, there are fundamental ones, which have two facets of their manifestation for the subject of his knowledge - real and ideal. Such a fundamental educational object as a tree appears, on the one hand, as the tree itself, that is, a real object, on the other, as the idea of ​​a tree, the concept of it. The idea of ​​an object belongs to the ideal world of concepts, it is more universal than a real object, since it is inherent in different objects from different areas. Two real birches have a common idea of ​​birch, birch and pine have a common idea of ​​a tree, a tree and algae have a common idea of ​​a plant, natural and cultural processes have a common idea of ​​movement, etc. The process of cognition of a fundamental educational object and the results of its cognition (the internal content of education) depends on the individuality of the subject of cognition, his abilities, level of development, applied methods of cognition. This feature is illustrated by the diagram shown in Fig. 1.2. Cognition of the same fundamental object by different subjects С 1, С 2, ... С n leads to different ideas of this object identified by them, lying in the plane of knowledge. If the fundamental educational object belongs to the real world, then the individual educational products of its cognition P 1, P 2, ... P n, are the ideal world of knowledge. Ultimately, the study by students of the same real educational objects leads not only to the receipt of various individual educational products, but also to individual educational trajectories of students.

Rice. 1.2. Model of subjective cognition of a real educational object

A feature of educational products P 1, P 2, ... P n is that they can be correct even if they are clearly different from each other. It is unacceptable to say that P 1 is correct and P 2 is wrong, or vice versa, since in this case it is illegal to transfer the subjective result to the level of the objective (general) one. The error is always subjective and relative, objective errors do not exist, therefore the truth of the subjective educational products P 1, P 2, ... can be established only within the corresponding knowledge systems, individual for each case. Only the internal logic of these systems can give an answer as to the truth or falsity of their individual elements.

The foregoing does not deny the need for a critical discussion of students' educational products and their "strength" testing. Discussion, dispute or defense by students of their educational products is the basis for the development and cultivation of personal knowledge systems of students, obtained by completing the educational products they initially received to a holistic systemic form.

As a rule, there are fewer built-up knowledge systems than student products. As a result of discussion, generalization and classification, some educational products belonging to different students turn out to be elements of one "knowledge" system.

The subjectivity of the results obtained by students serves as a prerequisite for building their individual educational trajectories. The similarities and differences in the subjective educational products of students are natural and necessary, on the one hand, for the self-realization of the individual potential of each student, on the other hand, for subsequent comparative analysis and collective work to identify the originality of the cognitive methods used by students and the classification of collectively obtained results.

Comparison of educational products P 1, P 2 ... prepares students for the subsequent perception of the corresponding cultural and historical analogues(P kia) - generally recognized products of knowledge obtained by scientists and specialists in the study of the same fundamental objects that students studied. Note that the concept of a cultural-historical analogue is broader than the concept of a scientific analogue, since it includes, in addition to scientific, other results of cognition - artistic, social, religious, craft, etc.

It is necessary to talk with students about the diversity of cultural and historical products of cognition of the same objects in the same way as about the diversity of student educational products. In science, art, religion and other spheres of human activity, there is no single knowledge and interpretation about the same real objects and related problems. In traditional educational courses, the "correct" knowledge is often passed off as truth, which, upon closer examination, turns out to be nothing more than one of the versions or theories on the issue. No science can develop without contradictions and different approaches, theories and ideas about cognizable, created and transformed reality. In parallel with the materialistic approach, the idealistic one is developing, with the logical - the figurative, with the practical - the theoretical. For example, along with the biblical description of the origin of the world, there are numerous cosmological hypotheses and theories; simultaneously with Newton's theory of color, there is Goethe's theory of color. It is also necessary to take into account the limits of applicability of various cultural analogs, reflecting the absoluteness and relativity of knowledge, the principles of correspondence and complementarity in science.

The very education of children is a kind of analogue, a prototype of "adult" professional activity, therefore it includes the main types of human activity and the variety of their results. Pupils, creating individual educational products of cognition of the same objects, model at the level of their development and education similar processes of "big" science or other sphere of adult activity. Such a process is a transition to acquaintance and comparative assimilation by students of the cultural diversity of universal human products of labor, since children master "real" ways of activity, which should have not so much educational and training, but a really effective role in their lives.

The assessment of the student's educational results occurs on the basis of identifying and diagnosing his internal increment over a certain period of time, which can be determined explicitly, for example, using psychological or other methods, or indirectly - through the diagnosis of changes in the student's external educational products. In this case, each of the students is provided with the possibility of an individual educational trajectory for mastering each of the general educational areas, with the indispensable comparison of their results with universal human achievements.

Educational activities... In traditional didactics, the learning process is presented as the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities of students. This is explained by the fact that these qualities can be easily controlled by externally expressed learning attributes - tests, control papers, oral answers. However, a more adequate understanding of the educational process should be considered the interpretation of it as a process of mastering by students in various types of activities. Activity is a broader concept, since in addition to knowledge, skills and abilities it involves motivational, evaluative and other aspects of learning.

The activity approach constitutes the initial methodological setting of the learning theory. Various aspects of this approach have been developed in the studies of psychologists and educators L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, S. A. Rubinstein, V. V. Davydov, V. D. Shadrikov, P. I. Pidkasistoy, G. P. Shchedrovitsky, G. I. Shchukina, T. I. Shamova, N. F. Talyzina and others. The following provisions follow from these studies:

¨ in the activity not only the abilities of the trainees are manifested, but in it they are created;

¨ When organizing a certain type of educational activity of students, the abilities and qualities of the individual corresponding to this type are formed.

The activity approach requires a certain form of organization, special content, different ways of working and their sequence, a specially trained teacher, teaching aids. At the same time, three main objects are distinguished: the activity of the trainees; teaching activities; interaction between the activities of the learner and the educator.

The content and structure of the activity are not unambiguously understood. In the scientific community, there are at least two approaches to the analysis of activity: psychological and methodological. The psychological approach is based on the works of the scientific school of A. N. Leontiev and psychological schools close to it. In psychological theory, activity is reduced to the activity of the individual, is interpreted as his attribute, that is, it is believed that the subject carries out activities. From this point of view, education is a system of activities replacing each other. Activity, according to A. N. Leont'ev, is a unit of life mediated by psychic reflection, the real function of which is that it orientates the subject in the objective world *.

* Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. - M .: Politizdat, 1975 .-- P. 82.

Activity in this case is a motivated process of using certain means by a student to achieve his own or externally set goal. That is, the subject, process, object, conditions, methods, and results of activity are highlighted.

The activity is decomposed into separate actions. The process of activity begins with setting a goal, then clarifying tasks, developing a plan, attitudes, schemes for future actions, after which the student proceeds to substantive actions, uses certain means and techniques, performs the necessary procedures, compares the progress and intermediate results with the set goal, makes adjustments in their subsequent activities.

Within the framework of another approach - methodological (G. P. Shchedrovitsky), the origins of which are based on the ideas of Hegel and Marx, the bearer of activity is no longer a separate individual; on the contrary, activity is a substance in itself, which captures individuals and thereby reproduces. This understanding of activity on the example of language was formulated by the German philosopher and linguist W. Humboldt. It is generally accepted, he said, that a person masters a language; but perhaps it would be more correct to say: language takes possession of a person, language captures a person and makes him move according to its own laws.

Attempts to determine in this case the bearer of the activity and its minimum unit lead to a problem: during searches you always have to go beyond the scope of the activity of one person or even interconnected groups of people and mechanisms. “If you take a human social organism, then it is no longer clear whether society is made up of individual people or whether it“ makes ”individual people from the very beginning as elements of its system<...>It turns out that there is only one unit - the entire universe of human activity ”*.

* Shchedrovitsky G.P. Philosophy. The science. Methodology. - M .: Shk. cult, politics. - 1997. - S. 253-254.

Carrying out a system-structural analysis of activity, G. P. Shchedrovitsky comes to the paradoxical conclusion: "a person is a cell within a developing system of activity." And the activity itself is neither a process nor a thing, but is structure. This structure consists of heterogeneous elements included in its own special law of development, which is realized with the help of specific mechanisms. The patterns of activity can be understood only when we take this structure as a whole *.

* Ibid, p. 262.

Thus, differences in the interpretation of activity are associated with the concept of a person, his functions and role in relation to activity.

This contradiction becomes especially relevant if we go from general concept activities to the concept of educational activities. Education itself in this case can refer to two different and interconnected entities - an individual student and a set of people, for example, all of humanity. The problem of consideration becomes the relationship and relationship between the education of an individual student and the education of all people or some of their community.

External and internal content of the activity. To solve the above contradiction between the two interpretations of the concept of activity, let us turn to the principle of the dialectical triad and refer it to the educational process. An analysis of the educational process, in which a specific individual (student) and the world around him participate, leads to the conclusion that it is necessary to divide the content of education into two similar components: internal and external.

The content of education external to the student is characterized by the educational environment that is offered to him to ensure the conditions for the development of the personality. The inner content of a student's education is an attribute of the developing personality itself. The internal content of a student's education is never a simple reflection of the external, since it is created on the basis of the student's personal experience as a result of his activities. Mastering the external content of education should be combined with the organization of the student's activities to form his internal educational content.

The external content of education is concentrated in the concept "Educational area", in which there are also two components - real reality (the subject of study of sciences and corresponding training courses) and knowledge about it (the results of scientific activity in the study of real reality). The external educational area thus has two interrelated components: the real world and curriculum.

Personal understanding of the educational area leads to its understanding as educational environment. As a result of interaction with the educational environment, the student gains experience, which he transforms into knowledge. The difference between the student's personal knowledge and external knowledge is the methods of activity he has mastered, understanding the meaning of the studied environment, self-determination in relation to it, and the student's personal increment that is reflexively recorded.

In the described interaction of the student with the world, both of the above approaches to activity are integrated. The first of them (psychological) individualizes the educational process, building it on the basis of the student's personal qualities and characteristics. The second (methodological) - includes the individuality of the student in the process of general cultural activity, embodied in the form of generally significant achievements and associated activity procedures.

From the standpoint of the personal orientation of learning, it turns out to be significant the primacy of the psychological approach, providing the student with the opportunity to create educational products prior to acquaintance with its cultural and historical counterparts. For example, a first grader constructs his own types of tabular representation of numbers before the teacher introduces him to the ready-made tables of addition and multiplication. In this case, the initial neoplasms of the student, which appeared as a result of his activity on the construction of numerical tables, will become a personal basis for comparative development the Pythagorean tables and other generally recognized achievements that act as educational standards.

Thus, the integrated psychological and methodological aspect of educational activity is interpreted in two ways:

1) as an activity of a student, organized by him jointly with a teacher and aimed at creating individual educational products;

2) as the activity of a student and a teacher to establish the place and role of student educational products in the activity structure and genesis of general human subject knowledge.

This approach - from the student's activity in mastering reality, to internal personal increments, and from them to the development of cultural and historical achievements - is the core of the educational process of a personality-oriented type.

The considered model of the educational process provides the lead, the priority of creating one's own educational product of the student's activity over the externally specified subject content. The internal potencies of the student and his abilities are manifested and formed earlier than the corresponding storehouses of human experience open before him.

The subject of the student's primary activity is directly cognizable reality. Only then is the student enriched with cultural and historical achievements related to a given reality, and his own result (product) can be included as an element in the general system of knowledge, that is, in the total educational product of the student, which he reflexively comprehends (Fig. 1.3 ).

Rice. 1.3. Model of educational activity of a student

The structure of educational activities... Educational activity has the following elements: the need and motives of educational activity; external and internal goals; activity programs; information basis and educational environment of activity; decision making as a result of student self-determination; activity products; actively important personal qualities.

The source of the main motives for the educational activities of schoolchildren is their need for self-realization (pentagon at the bottom of the diagram). The direction and nature of self-realization are determined by the individual characteristics of students - personal qualities related to the knowledge of the surrounding world, self-knowledge, communications and other educational spheres and areas. Educational activities provide students with the opportunity to create educational products in any area of ​​their interests: in nature, society, technology, etc.

The listed elements are interconnected and form the system shown in Fig. 1.4.

Rice. 1.4. Functional system of educational activities

The goals of educational activities in relation to the student are divided into external normative and internal subjective (hexagons at the bottom of the diagram on the sides). External goals are set by the teacher in various forms and types, providing, for example, the implementation of educational standards. Internal goals are those that the student has formulated independently or with the help of a teacher in relation to the educational area or object of study.

The child performs an activity, linking it with world culture; from external and internal educational goals, the norms of educational activity are formed, which are the general guidelines for its implementation and the basis for drawing up curricula (upper part of the diagram).

Educational programs in accordance with internal and external goals are divided into general for all and individual for each student. There is a dynamic connection and interaction between the two types of programs: the general program of activities involves the development and inclusion of individual programs, which, in turn, affect the adjustment of the general program. In relation to educational standards, the general education program is based on the federal, national-regional and school components of educational standards, and the individual program - on the variable part of education, established on the basis of the individual characteristics and personal choice of the student.

The external educational environment and the information basis for educational activities determine the conditions for its implementation and include: fundamental educational objects, cultural and historical analogues of knowledge about them, specially selected educational information, necessary manuals, materials, etc.

Self-determination of students and their decision-making in the process of educational activity (the center of the scheme) occurs continuously, since its key element is the educational situation. The creation and awareness of such situations encourages the student and teacher to make decisions about the effective ways of their actions. The most important components of such methods are methodological actions: stop and reflection. Stopping objective activity, that is, activity related to the educational content of the subject, is necessary in order to switch to another activity - reflexive, with the help of which the methodological basis of objective activity is revealed.

External, the materialized form of activity is the educational products of students related to the studied educational area or course - a question, hypothesis, essay, model, craft, drawing, diagram, etc .; internal - methods of activity mastered or mastered by him in the course of creating these products, as well as reflexive knowledge about these methods and the nature of all activity, other personal new formations.

The result of educational activities are educational products of students related to the studied areas: sciences, arts, technical spheres, communication processes, etc. The creation of an external materialized product satisfies, thereby, the students' need for self-realization and contributes to the development of their respective personal qualities: cognitive, creative, org-activity, etc.

Thus, educational activity is characterized by the following features:

1) is carried out by the subject of activity on the basis of his personal educational potential, individual abilities, motives and goals;

2) causes subjective difficulties and problems in the activity of the subject, caused by insufficient possession of methods, means and other conditions necessary for its implementation;

3) leads to the creation of a new educational product for the subject, corresponding to the type of activity carried out by him.

Learning pace... Educational activity is characterized by such interrelated concepts as the pace of learning and the educational product of the student. The pace of learning, interpreted as the speed or intensity of educational activity, is determined by the individual characteristics of the student: his motivation, developed abilities, the level of preparedness, psychological, physiological and other characteristics.

The pace of learning determines one of the main components of the content of education - the educational products of the student. So, with the same time interval (t 1 - t 2) set by the teacher for studying the fundamental educational object (FEE), the volume of the educational product (V o p) may be greater for the student who learns at a higher pace (Fig. 1.5 ).

Rice. 1.5. Dependence of the volume of the educational product on the pace of learning

Students' educational products differ not only in volume, but also in content. This difference is due to individual abilities and the corresponding types of activities used by students in the study of the same educational object. So, the emotional-figurative approach to the study of the concept of number in the first grade ("revitalizing" numbers, composing fairy tales about them, drawing a "geometric garden", traveling through the "number city") provides a qualitatively different content of the student's educational product than solving logical examples and problems with numbers.

A teacher can and should offer students various types of activity for assimilation: emotional-figurative, logical and others, but if we take into account the priority types of activity individually for each child, children should be allowed to choose these types when studying the same educational objects. In this case, not one general educational trajectory will be provided for all students, differing in the volume of assimilation of the given standards, but individual trajectories that lead students to create personal educational products that differ in both volume and content.

Outwardly expressed educational product of a student reflects his personal educational changes or increments. The student's educational product (EP) depends on the achieved knowledge about the studied fundamental educational object (OBE), the development of the student's individual abilities (IS), the assimilation of methods and types of activities (VD). This dependence can be expressed by the formula: OP = f (FOO, IS, VD).

From this formula, the conclusion follows: even with the same knowledge about fundamental educational objects (FEE = const), the educational products of different students are different, since the types of activities they have mastered and the level of their development are different. Thus, thanks to an expanded understanding of the educational product, we come to the need to introduce the concept of an individual educational trajectory with all the ensuing consequences: individual student goal-setting, planning and pace of educational activity, the personal component of the content of education, the choice of optimal forms and methods of teaching, monitoring and evaluation systems.

Organization of the educational process... The RF Law "On Education" (Article 15) provides General requirements to the organization of the educational process:

1. The organization of the educational process in an educational institution is governed by the curriculum (breakdown of the content of the educational program by course, by discipline and by year of study), the annual educational calendar and class schedules developed and approved by the educational institution independently. State educational authorities ensure the development of exemplary curricula and programs of courses, disciplines.

2. Public authorities, educational authorities and bodies local government does not have the right to change the curriculum and curriculum of a civil educational institution after their approval, with the exception of cases provided for by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

3. The educational institution independently in the choice of the assessment system, form, order and frequency of intermediate certification of students.

4. Mastering educational programs of basic general, secondary (complete) general and all types vocational education ends with a mandatory final certification of graduates.

5. Scientific and methodological support of final attestations and objective control of the quality of graduates' training at the end of each level of education are provided by the state attestation service, independent of the education authorities, in accordance with state educational standards.

6. Discipline in an educational institution is supported on the basis of respect for the human dignity of students, pupils, teachers. The use of methods of physical and mental violence in relation to students, pupils is not allowed.

7. Parents (legal representatives) of minor students, pupils should be provided with the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the course and content of the educational process, as well as with assessments of students' progress.

Thus, the educational process in each school and for each student has its own uniqueness and originality, due to the possibility of participation in its design by subjects of different levels - from the state to a specific teacher and student.

Summary

Educational process- pedagogically grounded, consistent, continuous change in the states of learning subjects in a specially organized environment in order to achieve educational results.

The educational process has target, content, activity, organizational, technological, temporal and other characteristics, each of which is a description of the structural elements of the general educational system.

The methodology of the educational process establishes the structure, content, organization, system of specific methods and forms of educational activity. The main element of the methodology and theory of teaching is the image of the student in the dynamics of his development, which is the target factor in building his education system. The student's image as a model of anticipated learning outcomes is made up of his personal qualities: cognitive, creative, organizational, and others. Personal qualities correspond to certain types of activities, in the course of which the student is educated.

There are at least two approaches to understanding activity: psychological (A. N. Leont'ev) and methodological (G. P. Shchedrovitsky). In the first case, it is considered that the subject carries out activities. In the second, activity is a substance in itself, which captures individuals and thus is reproduced. For a personality-oriented and at the same time culturally appropriate educational process, the integration of the two named approaches is appropriate:

This approach ensures the anticipation, the priority of the student's creation of his own educational product over the externally specified subject content. The trainee's abilities are manifested and formed before the corresponding storehouses of human experience open before him.

Educational activities has the following elements: the need and motives of the student; external and internal goals; activity programs; information basis and educational environment of activity; decision making as a result of student self-determination; activity products; actively important personal qualities.

The study of the same real educational objects leads to different educational outcomes different students, not always coinciding with each other and with the generally accepted system of knowledge. The subjectivity of the results obtained by students serves as a prerequisite for building their individual educational trajectories.

The simultaneity of the implementation of personal models of education of students in relation to the general educational standards of various levels is the meaning of a personality-oriented cultural education.

Questions and exercises

1. Formulate the feelings and sensations that have arisen as a result of studying this topic. What are the main results you have achieved?

2. What do you mean by the educational process? What methodological issues related to it do you consider to be the main ones? What remains unclear? Formulate your questions.

3. What, in your opinion, are the connections between the student's personal qualities, his abilities, types of activities, individual activities and actions? Explain the forward and backward connections between them.

4. In this paragraph, a methodological approach to the design of the educational process is formulated - from the student's activity in mastering reality, to internal personal increments, and from them to the development of cultural and historical achievements. Suggest other possible structural foundations of the educational process.

5. List the advantages and disadvantages of students' subjective cognition of real educational objects.

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LECTURE 1

THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN EDUCATION

Pedagogy as a science is a body of knowledge that underlies the description, analysis, organization, design and forecasting of ways to improve the pedagogical process, as well as the search for effective pedagogical systems for the development and preparation of a person for life in society.

It is known that any branch of knowledge is formed as a science only if a specific subject of research is identified.

The subject of pedagogyas science is an pedagogical process ... That is the process of teaching and educating a person as a special function of society, implemented in the conditions of certain pedagogical systems.

The main categories of pedagogy... During the formation of pedagogy as a science, three fundamental categories (basic concepts of pedagogy) -upbringing, training, education .

V modern science education as a social phenomenon is understood as transfer of historical and cultural experience from generation to generation... In this case, the educator:

1) transfers the experience accumulated by humanity;

2) introduces to the world of culture;

3) stimulates self-education;

4) helps to understand difficult life situations and find a way out of a difficult situation.

In turn, the pupil:

1) master the experience of human relations and the foundations of culture;

2) works on himself;

3) learns ways of communication and behavior.

As a result, the pupil changes his understanding of the world and his attitude towards people and himself.

Education is dialectically interconnected with learning.

Education- this is an orderly interaction of a teacher with students, aimed at achieving a didactic goal, which includes the following main links of interaction:

1) the activities of the teacher:

› explaining to the trainees the goals and objectives of training;

›Familiarization with new knowledge;

› management of the process of awareness and acquisition of knowledge and skills;

› management of the process of cognition of scientific laws and laws, the transition from theory to practice;

› organization of heuristic and research activities;

› checking and evaluating changes in learning and development of trainees;

2) trainees' activities:

› own activities to create a positive motivation for learning;

› perception of new knowledge, skills, analysis, synthesis, comparison and systematization of patterns and laws;

› understanding causal relationships; acquisition of skills and abilities, their motivation;

› practical activities to independently solve emerging problems; self-control and self-assessment of achievements.

1) value developing person and society;

2) the process of teaching and educating a person;

3) the result of the training and education process;

4) system.

In an educational institution, the content of education is the content of the activities of the subjects of the educational process (teacher and student), it is concretized in the curriculum of the educational institution. The content of each discipline of the curriculum is concretized in educational programs, each educational program is meaningfully reflected in textbooks and teaching aids.

The functioning of any educational system is subordinated to one goal or another. Educational purposes - these are deliberately defined expected results that a given society, country, state seeks to achieve with the help of the existing education system as a whole, at the present time and in the near future. These goals are socially dependent on various conditions: on the nature of society, on the state educational policy, on the level of cultural development and the entire system of education and upbringing in the country, on the system of main values.

The goals of the educational system are a specific description of the program for human development by means of education, a description of the knowledge system, those norms of activity and relations that the student must master upon graduation from the educational institution. Learning objectives of a specific academic discipline clarify and determine the goals of education of a modern person as such and the goals of a particular educational institution, taking into account the specifics of the discipline, the amount of hours training course, age and other individual characteristics of students. As a rule, the goals show the general strategic guidelines and directions for the activities of teachers and students.

It is important to clarify the similarities and differences in the use of the concepts of value and purpose - these two categories are often referred to together. The goal (from the Greek "telos" - the result, completion) is a conscious anticipation of the result of an activity. In its most general form, the goal can be defined (following Aristotle) ​​as “for the sake of which”. High significance - value - some object in the eyes of a given person can induce him to strive for possession of it, i.e. set yourself such a goal. Thus, value as an experienced attitude and a goal as an anticipated result of activity can be locked on the same objects, but are located in different planes of consideration.

A person is more likely to feel their values ​​than to be aware of their goals. In the process of development, it develops values, norms and ideals, which determine (together with the totality of the circumstances of the external environment) its path.

With all the variety of values ​​in the educational sphere, they can be conditionally divided into two main groups:

· the value of maintaining the status quo

· the values ​​of its transformation.

Declared values ​​are revealed in existing educational models:

1. Model of education as a state-departmental organization. In this case, the education system is considered by the structures of state power as an independent direction in a number of other sectors of the national economy. It is built according to the departmental principle with a rigid centralized definition of goals, content of education, the range of educational institutions and academic disciplines within the framework of a particular type of educational system. At the same time, educational institutions are unambiguously subordinate and controlled by administrative or special bodies.

2. Developmental education model(V.V.Davydov, V.V. Rubtsov and others). This model assumes the organization of education as a special infrastructure through broad cooperation of the activities of educational systems of different rank, type and level. This structure allows you to provide and meet the needs of various segments of the country's population in educational services; quickly decide educational objectives and ensure the expansion of the range of educational services. Education also gets a real opportunity to be in demand in other areas - directly, without additional approvals from the state authorities.

3. Traditional model of education(J. Majot, L. Crots, J. Capel, D. Ravich, C. Finn and others) is a model of systematic academic education as a way of transmitting universal elements of culture to the younger generation, whose role is mainly reduced to reproducing the culture of the past. Traditionalists see the main role of education in preserving and transmitting elements of the cultural heritage of human civilization to the younger generation. First of all, this means the diversity of knowledge, skills and abilities, ideals and values ​​that contribute to both the individual development of a person and the preservation of social order. In accordance with the concept of traditionalism, the educational system should primarily solve the problem of the formation of basic knowledge, skills and abilities (within the framework of the existing cultural and educational tradition), allowing an individual to move on to independent assimilation of knowledge, values ​​and skills of a higher rank in comparison with the mastered.

4. Rationalistic model of education(P. Bloom, R. Gagne, B. Skinner, etc.) presupposes such an organization that, first of all, ensures the assimilation of knowledge, skills, and practical adaptation of the young generation to the existing society. Within the framework of this model, the transfer-assimilation of only such cultural values ​​is ensured that allow a young person to painlessly fit into existing social structures. At the same time, any educational program can be translated into the “behavioral” aspect of knowledge, skills and abilities that a student should master.

In the ideology of the modern rationalistic model of education, the behavioral (from the English. behavior - behavior) concept of social engineering. Rationalists proceed from the relatively passive role of students, who, having acquired certain knowledge, skills and abilities, thus acquire an adaptive “behavioral repertoire” necessary for an adequate life arrangement in accordance with social norms, requirements and expectations of society. In the rationalistic model, there is no place for such phenomena as creativity, independence, responsibility, individuality, naturalness, etc. Behavioral goals bring the spirit of narrow utilitarianism into the educational process and impose an inflexible and mechanical way of action on the teacher. The ideal in this case is the exact adherence to the prescribed pattern, and the teacher's activity turns into training students (for example, to take tests).

5. Phenomenological model of education(A. Maslow, A. Combs, K. Rogers, etc.) assumes a personal nature of training, taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of students, careful and respectful attitude to their interests and needs. Its representatives reject the view of the school as an "educational conveyor". They consider education as humanistic in the sense that it most fully and adequately corresponds to the true nature of man, helped him discover what is already in it by nature, and not "cast" into a certain form, invented by someone in advance, a priori. Teachers of this orientation create conditions for self-knowledge and support for the unique development of each student in accordance with his inherited nature, provide as much freedom of choice and conditions as possible for the child to realize his natural potentials and self-realization. Supporters of this trend defend the individual's right to autonomy of development and education.

6. Non-institutional model of education(P. Goodman, I. Illich, J. Goodlad, F. Klein, J. Holt, L. Bernard and others) is focused on organizing education outside social institutions, in particular schools and universities. This is education in "nature", with the help of the Internet, in the conditions of "open schools", distance learning, etc.

Modern education is developing in different directions and is characterized by the following properties, how: humanization, humanitarization, differentiation, diversification, standardization, multivariate, multilevel, fundamentalization, informatization, individualization, continuity.

Humanization education is the orientation of the educational system and the entire educational process towards the development and formation of relations of mutual respect between students and teachers, based on respect for the rights of each person; to preserve and strengthen their health, self-esteem and the development of personal potential. It is this kind of education that guarantees students the right to choose an individual path of development.

Humanitarization - it is an orientation towards mastering the content of education, regardless of its level and type, which makes it possible to readily solve the main social problems for the good and in the name of man; communicate freely with people of different nationalities and peoples, any professions and specialties; know the native language, history and culture well; fluently own foreign languages; to be economically and legally literate person.

Differentiation - it is the orientation of educational institutions towards the achievement of pupils or students while taking into account, satisfying and developing the interests, inclinations and abilities of all participants in the educational process. Differentiation can be put into practice in different ways, for example, by grouping students according to their academic performance; division of academic disciplines into compulsory and optional; division of educational institutions into elite, mass and intended for students with developmental delays or disabilities; drawing up individual plans and educational routes for individual pupils or students in accordance with interests and vocational guidance, etc.

Diversification is a wide variety educational institutions, educational programs and governing bodies.

Standardization - it is the orientation of the educational system towards the implementation, first of all, of the state educational standard - a set of compulsory academic disciplines in a clearly defined amount of hours.

Multivariance means creating conditions for choice in the educational system and giving each subject a chance for success, stimulating pupils or students to make an independent choice and making a responsible decision, ensuring the development of alternative and independent thinking. In practice, multivariance manifests itself through the ability to choose the pace of learning, achieve different levels of education, choose the type of educational institution, as well as the differentiation of learning conditions depending on the individual characteristics of students or students (in the classroom, group, individually, using a computer, etc.) and etc.

Multilevel- is the organization of a multi-stage educational process that ensures the possibility of achieving at each stage of education that level of education that corresponds to the capabilities and interests of a person. Each level is a period, which has its own goals, terms of study and its own characteristics. The moment of completion of training at each stage is the quality completeness of education. For example, the multi-level system of higher education is focused on three levels: the first level - general higher education (2 years), the second level - basic higher education - bachelor's degree (2 years of general education + 2 years), the third level - complete higher education - master's degree (4 years of bachelor's + 2 years of master's degree).

Fundamentalization - strengthening the relationship between theoretical and practical training of a young person for modern life. Particular importance is attached here to the deep and systematic development of scientific and theoretical knowledge in all disciplines of the curriculum of the educational system.

Informatization education is associated with the wide and increasingly widespread use of computers and information technology in the process of human learning. Informatization of education has become most widespread throughout the world precisely in the last decade. - due to the accessibility for the education system and the relative ease of use of various types of modern video, audio equipment and computers.

Personalization - it is taking into account and developing the individual characteristics of pupils and students in all forms of interaction with them in the process of teaching and upbringing.

Continuity does not mean education, received once and for all, for the whole life, but the process of constant education and self-education of a person throughout his life in connection with the rapidly changing living conditions in modern society.

Principles formation of the content of education:

1. Compliance principle the content of education to the requirements of the development of society, science, culture and personality. It involves the inclusion in the content of general education of traditionally necessary knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as those that reflect the current level of development of society, scientific knowledge, cultural life and opportunities for personal growth.

2. The principle of a single content and procedural side of training involves taking into account the peculiarities of a specific educational process.

3. The principle of structural cohesion educational content on different levels presupposes the consistency of the following components of learning: theoretical presentation, academic subject, educational material, pedagogical activity, personality of the student.

4. The principle of humanization the content of general education is associated with the creation of conditions for active creative and practical development of the general human culture by students. Humanities education is aimed at the formation of a humanitarian culture of the individual, which characterizes his inner wealth, the level of development of spiritual needs and abilities and the level of intensity of their manifestation in social practice. Humanitarian culture is the harmony of the culture of knowledge, culture of feelings, communication and creative action.

5. Fundamentalization principle education involves the awareness of students of the essence of cognitive and practical transformative activity. At the same time, training is not only a way of acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities, but also a means of equipping students with methods of obtaining new knowledge, independent acquisition of skills and abilities.

6. Compliance principle the main components of the content of general education, the structure of the basic culture of the individual is a consequence of the implementation of the principles of humanization and fundamentalization of the content of general education.

The main elements of education as a specific educational institution is:

1) the goals of education;

3) means and methods of obtaining education;

4) forms of organization of the educational process;

5) the real educational process as a unity of teaching, upbringing and human development;

6) subjects and objects of the educational process;

7) educational environment;

8) the result of education, i.e. the level of education of a person in a given educational institution.

Sections of pedagogy are "Didactics" and "Education".

Didactics - this is branch of pedagogy aimed at studying and disclosing theoretical foundations organization of the learning process (patterns, principles, teaching methods), as well as the search and development of new principles, strategies, methods, technologies and learning systems.

Didactics has its item studying : these are the laws and principles of teaching, its goals, scientific foundations of the content of education, methods and means of teaching. There are general and specific (subject teaching methods) didactics. This is how teaching methods were formed for individual academic disciplines (methods of teaching mathematics, physics, a foreign language).

Learning, teaching, learning, learning activities - the main categories of didactics.

Education - it is a way of organizing the educational process. It is the most reliable way to receive a systematic education. Any kind or type of education is based on the teaching-learning system.

Teaching- this is an activity for:

Transfer of information;

Organization of educational and cognitive activities of students;

Providing assistance in case of difficulty in the learning process;

Stimulating the interest, independence and creativity of students;

Assessment of educational achievements of students.

The purpose of teaching is the organization of effective teaching of each student in the process of transferring information, monitoring and evaluating its assimilation, as well as interaction with students and the organization of both joint and independent activities.

Teaching- this is an activity that implies:

Mastering, consolidation and application of knowledge, skills and abilities;

Self-stimulation to search, solve educational problems, self-assess educational achievements;

Awareness of the personal meaning and social significance of cultural values ​​and human experience, processes and phenomena of the surrounding reality.

The purpose of teaching is the cognition, collection and processing of information about the world around. Learning outcomes are expressed in knowledge, skills, attitudes, and overall student development.

Educational activities includes:

Mastering knowledge systems and operating them;

Mastering the systems of generalized and more specific actions, methods (methods) of educational work, ways of transferring and finding them - skills and abilities;

The development of the motives of learning, the formation of motivation and the meaning of the latter;

Mastering the methods of managing one's educational activity and one's mental processes (will, emotions, etc.).

In didactics, such concepts are also used: learnability and training.

Learnability - it is the internal readiness acquired by the student (under the influence of education and upbringing) for various psychological restructuring and transformations in accordance with new programs and goals of further education - the general ability to assimilate knowledge. The most important indicator of learning ability is the amount of dosed help that a student needs to achieve a given result.

Trainedness- this is a stock of learned concepts and methods of activity; those. a system of knowledge, skills and abilities corresponding to the norm (the expected result set in the educational standard).

Patterns of learning. Allocate external and internal patterns of learning.

TO external laws relate:

Social conditioning of goals, content and teaching methods;

The upbringing and developing character of the latter;

Learning is always carried out in communication and is based on a verbal-activity approach;

The dependence of learning outcomes on the characteristics of the student's interaction with the outside world.

TO internal patterns the learning process include:

The dependence of its development on the method of resolving the main contradiction between cognitive or practical tasks and the available level of knowledge, skills and abilities of students, mental development necessary for their solution;

The relationship between teacher-student interaction and learning outcomes;

Subordination of the effectiveness of training to the methods of managing the process of the latter and the activity of the student himself;

The task structure, i.e. with the successful solution of one educational problem and the formulation of the next, the student moves from ignorance to knowledge, from knowledge to skill, from skill to skill.

Let's give examples private (specific) patterns:

Didactic (content-procedural) patterns:

1. The productivity of assimilation of a given amount of knowledge and skills (within certain limits) is inversely proportional to the difficulty and complexity of the material being studied, skills being formed.

2. Learning outcomes (within certain limits) are directly proportional to the significance of the assimilated content for the student.

3. Learning outcomes are directly proportional to the skill (qualifications, professionalism) of the teacher, etc.

Epistemological patterns:

1. The productivity of assimilation of knowledge, abilities, skills (ZUN) within certain limits is directly proportional to the volume of practical application of ZUN.

2. Learning outcomes depend on the ability to include the studied subject (phenomenon) in those connections, the carrier of which is the studied quality of the object, etc.

Psychological patterns:

1. The productivity of training (within certain limits) is directly proportional to the interest of students in educational and cognitive activity (UPA).

2. The productivity of training depends on the level, strength, intensity and characteristics of the thinking of the trainees.

3. The productivity of learning (within certain limits) depends on the level of development of students' memory.

4. All other things being equal, the effectiveness of distributed memorization is higher than the effectiveness of concentrated memorization (I. Cain, R. Willie).

5. The strength of memorization of the studied material depends on the method of reproducing this material (E. R. Hilgard).

6. Learning by “doing” is 6-7 times more productive than learning by “listening” (IP Podlasy) and others.

Cybernetic patterns:

1. The quality of teaching is directly proportional to the quality of management of the educational process.

2. The effectiveness of management is directly dependent on the quantity and quality of control information, states and capabilities of students who perceive and process control actions, etc.

Sociological patterns:

1. Productivity of training depends on the volume and intensity of cognitive contacts.

2. The effectiveness of training increases in conditions of cognitive tension caused by competition.

3. The effectiveness of training depends on the quality (level, style) of communication between the teacher and students, etc.

Organizational patterns:

1. The effectiveness of training depends on its organization, clarity and orderly implementation.

2. The productivity of training depends on the level of organization of pedagogical work.

3. Learning outcomes (within certain limits) are directly proportional to the level of students' proficiency in the skills of the scientific organization of educational work (LEUT), as well as the attitude of students to the UPD, etc.

The system of didactic principles and their content. The concept "principle" comes from the Latin "principium" - the beginning, the basis. By their origin, the principles of teaching ( didactic principles ) are a theoretical generalization of pedagogical practice, arise from the experience of practical activity and, therefore, are objective in nature. However, in the form of their existence, the principles are subjective, since reflected in the mind of the teacher with varying degrees of completeness and accuracy.Ignorance of the principles, unwillingness to follow their requirements, misunderstanding them do not cancel their existence, but make the entire learning process unscientific, contradictory and ineffective. Consequently, adherence to the principles of teaching is an element of the teacher's pedagogical culture, the most important condition for the effectiveness of his professional activity.

Learning principles – these are the most general guidelines that express the requirements for the content, organization, technology and methodology of teaching cadets and trainees.

In modern didactics of higher education, the following set of teaching principles is distinguished:

· Social conditioning and scientific character in teaching;

· Practical orientation;

· Purposefulness, systematicity and consistency;

· Training at a high level of difficulty;

· Clarity;

· Consciousness, activity and independence of students;

· The strength of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities;

· Differentiated and individual approach to training;

· The unity of training and education.

Let us consider the meaningful characteristics of each of the named didactic principles.

The principle of social conditioning and scientific nature in teaching determines the need for a teacher to comply with the requirements of the state in the preparation of future specialists, as reflected in the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education and qualification requirements for the training of specific specialists in this higher educational institution.

The implementation of the named principle in practice is ensured by compliance with the requirements:

· When organizing training, carry out a scientifically grounded approach to the selection of the content of educational material;

· In the course of classes, consider all the phenomena in development and interconnection, see the patterns and contradictions of the educational process, ways of improving it;

· To present educational material from the standpoint of the latest achievements of science and technology.

Practical Learning Principle orients the teacher to the training of future specialists at the university to fulfill their professional duties for their intended purpose. It determines the content of training and the conditions for professional training of students, gives training a practical orientation, ensures its connection with the modern level of development of science and technology, military affairs.

The practical principle contains the following requirements :

· Make the most of the possibilities of the educational process for modeling certain aspects of the future professional activity of specialists;

· Flexibly combine theoretical and practical methods and forms of training, choosing the most effective in each case;

Help them master theory and practice scientifically organized activities;

· Teach to apply productive and economical working methods;

· Analyze, program and forecast their activities.

The principle of purposefulness, consistency and consistency in training determines the direction and logic of the organization of the educational process.

This principle involves the implementation of a number of interrelated pedagogical requirements by the teacher:

In the learning process, be guided by all planning documents ( curricula, programs, class schedules, etc.), strictly observe the logic of the educational process, closely link the previously studied material with the new;

· To highlight the main thing in the studied material, to formulate and reveal the general goal and concept of each topic, section, course as a whole;

· To guide and develop the logical thinking of students, to teach them to be independent, to show them the prospects for their educational and cognitive activities;

· To achieve the assimilation of the knowledge system by students on each topic, section and course as a whole, using the variety of available forms and methods of assessment, control and correction of their educational and cognitive activity;

· To systematically supervise the independent work of students, to know their successes and shortcomings, to increase the sense of responsibility for the results of their studies.

The principle of learning at a high level of difficulty defines such an organization and technology of education at a university, in which students consciously and actively acquire knowledge, skills and abilities, form professional positions, psychological qualities, taking into account their own real abilities. In compliance with this principle, the teacher is required to follow the following pedagogical rules:

· To ensure the selection, grouping and submission of educational material, taking into account the intellectual capabilities of each student, to carry out constant care of compliance with the rules of accessibility in training;

· To foster a conscious attitude of students to overcoming real learning difficulties, to encourage them and provide individual assistance, to conduct additional classes with those who are lagging behind in their studies.

The principle of consciousness, activity and independence of students determines the position and attitude of the students themselves to participation in the learning process.

Consciousness in learning- This is the understanding by students of the essence of the problems being studied, the belief in the correctness and practical value of the knowledge and skills acquired, a positive attitude towards learning. Consciousness gives the learning process an educational character and greatly contributes to the formation of high psychological and significant professional qualities personality.

Student activity in learning - their intensive mental (intellectual) and physical activity to master knowledge, skills and abilities.

Independence in learning- active advancement of students to the heights of professional excellence, focusing on their own efforts in the educational process, needs and goals, motives and will.

This principle requires the teacher to comply with the following pedagogical rules:

· To achieve awareness by students of the importance of their future professional activities; bring to them the goals and objectives of each lesson;

· To form a positive attitude of students to the educational process, to arouse interest in the material being studied;

· To support the activity and creative endeavors of students, to stimulate their cognitive activity, to develop motivation;

· Put learners in situations requiring them to detect and explain discrepancies between observed or cited facts and existing knowledge;

· Ensure that students understand the meaning of each word, sentence, concept, revealing them, rely on the knowledge and experience of students;

· To equip students with methods and techniques of independent work to acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities, to promote their independent use in solving educational and practical professional tasks.

The principle of the solidity of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities. To solve educational and cognitive tasks, students objectively need an integral complex of interrelated knowledge, skills and abilities that have sufficient strength for their use in professional activities. The stronger they are, the faster and more thoroughly the students master the new educational material, their future specialty.

This principle assumes that the teacher adheres to the following pedagogical requirements:

· To provide slow, but error-free actions at the initial acquaintance with the material and operations, with the skills of actions being mastered, gradually reducing the terms of their implementation while maintaining a high quality of working out;

· Not to start learning new things without first forming positive motives and incentives among cadets and listeners;

· Follow the logic of the presentation of educational material, because the strength of knowledge that are logically related to each other always exceeds the strength of assimilation of scattered, loosely connected knowledge;

· To form the attitude of students for long-term memorization of educational material, relying on all types of memory and methods of memorization; stimulate the work of students, teach them the rules and techniques of self-education;

· To encourage students to consciously perform actions, to encourage conscientiousness, initiative, independence.

The principle of a differentiated and individual approach to teaching determines the organization of group activities in the classroom in various academic subjects and disciplines in close combination with an individual approach to teaching each student.

This principle involves the implementation of the following pedagogical requirements by the teacher:

· Systematically study students, identify their characteristics and capabilities;

· Constantly show attention to each of them, regardless of academic performance and behavior;

· Take into account the intellectual and physical abilities of students and organize the educational process in strict accordance with them;

· Develop the individual abilities of each student in the interests of the formation and cohesion of student teams, creating a positive socio-psychological climate in the study group.

The principle of the unity of training and education determines the obligation to implement a holistic pedagogical process. Indeed, in the learning process, students form views, feelings, values, personality traits, character traits, and behavioral habits. All this can happen both unintentionally and due to the special organization of the educational process. The unity of teaching and upbringing in the course of training sessions should be achieved through the efforts of all its participants: both teachers and students.

Teaching methods: essence, functions and classification. The word "method" in translation from Greek means "research, method, way to achieve the goal." The etymology of this word also affects its interpretation as a scientific category. So, for example, in the philosophical encyclopedic dictionary, a method in its most general meaning is understood as "a way to achieve a certain goal, a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical mastering of reality."

In modern pedagogy, there are three main groups of methods:

· teaching methods,

Methods of education,

· Methods of pedagogical research.

IP Podlasy believes that the teaching method is, first of all, “the orderly activity of the teacher and students, aimed at achieving a given goal. At the same time, the methods of teaching activities of the teacher (teaching) and the methods of educational activities of students (teaching) are closely related. "

IF Kharlamov proposes to understand the teaching methods as "the methods of teaching work of the teacher and the organization of management of the cognitive activity of students to solve various didactic problems aimed at mastering the material being studied."

Structurally, the method acts as an ordered set of techniques, and the reception is considered as an element, link, elementary act of the pedagogical process. Individual techniques can be part of different methods. For example, the recording of basic concepts is used both when the teacher explains new material and when students work independently. In pedagogical practice, methodological techniques are used to enhance the attention of students when they perceive new material or repeat what they have passed, stimulate cognitive activity. Method and technique can be reversed. For example, if a teacher communicates new knowledge by the method of explanation, during which he demonstrates visual aids, then this demonstration acts as a technique. If the visual aid is the object of study and the cadets and listeners receive basic knowledge on the basis of its consideration, then verbal explanations act as a technique, and demonstration as a teaching method.

In the educational process of the university teaching methods perform the following functions:

1) training (implement training goals in practice);

2) developing (set the pace and level of development of cadets and listeners);

3) upbringing (influence the results of upbringing);

4) motivating (act as a means of encouraging learning);

5) control and correction (diagnostics and management of the learning process of cadets and students).

One of the most debated problems of modern didactics is the presentation of existing teaching methods from a systemic standpoint. There is currently no single point of view on this issue. Due to the fact that different authors when distributing teaching methods into groups and subgroups, different signs are used, there are a number of classifications. Let us dwell on those that are most often found in the domestic pedagogical literature.

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The famous German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer compared philosophy to a high alpine road, to which a steep narrow path leads. The traveler often stops over a terrible abyss. Below, there are green valleys, in which it is irresistibly pulling, but you need to strengthen yourself and continue your path, leaving traces of bloody feet on it. But having reached the very top, the daredevil sees the whole world in front of him, sandy deserts disappear before his gaze, all irregularities are smoothed out, annoying sounds no longer reach his ears, he breathes in the fresh alpine air and sees the light in clear-vision, while below still reigns deep darkness.

Attempts to examine from the height of the newest or most widespread philosophical theories and ideas of the problems of the development of a certain branch of science have become traditional. Between philosophy and the main generalizing scientific theories, intermediate links and corresponding specializations began to arise, for example, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of education, and others. The close connection of philosophy with the theory of pedagogy has led to the fact that, for example, in Great Britain they tend to think that the philosophy of education and general theory pedagogy are one and the same thing. However, most modern scientists involved in the development of ideological and methodological problems of education believe that the philosophy of modern education is an intermediate link between philosophy and the theory of pedagogy, which arose in order to solve those complex problems that arose at the junction of philosophy with pedagogical activity, and is designed to play the role of the ideological and methodological foundations of reforming modern education.

The main functions of the philosophy of modern education:

1. Creation of opportunities for choosing philosophical ideas or a certain philosophical system as a general methodological basis for solving some important problems of pedagogical activity and the holistic process of reforming modern education.

2. Didactic technologization of those chosen for the solution pedagogical problems philosophical ideas with the aim of introducing them into pedagogical practice and checking their truth or developing the corresponding theoretical and practical pedagogical mechanisms introduction into the processes of personality formation.

3. Revealing the general patterns of the reverse effect of education on philosophy.

4. Fulfillment of the role of the general methodological basis for the systematization of all functions and elements of pedagogical activity both in the theory of pedagogy and in any types of pedagogical activity.

Problems of modern philosophy of education:

1. The formation of a new type of worldview in the coming generation, the general initial principle of which, in the opinion of most authors, is basically formulated as follows: the solution of global problems should become the main goal (interest, value) for modern mankind, and such a solution is impossible without the subordination of all types of our activities of this goal (V.S. Lutai). The development of such a worldview requires the unity and interaction of new directions in philosophy and education.

2. Finding ways to solve the main issue of modern philosophy of education by means of education - the establishment of peace in the world and in the souls of people, the ability to "listen and understand" someone else's ", tolerate someone else's" (Miro Quesada).

3. Education of the younger generations on the ideas of noospheric civilization, which would ensure harmonious interaction of man with nature and other people and, in the opinion of many scientists, could lead mankind out of its crisis state.

4. Confirmation in the worldview principles of the younger generations understanding the need to combine, in order to solve the global problems of mankind, the conceptual-technocratic and humanistic or antiscendent directions, since each of them is a manifestation of a certain extreme. The first of them is associated with statements that the successes of the scientific and technological revolution will solve all the most important problems of mankind. The second, considering the reason for the aggravation of global problems of domination in the minds of people of cultural and technocratic values, sees a way out of the impasse in the subordination of the development of technology and economy to such universal human spiritual values ​​as: goodness, love, harmony, beauty.

5. Despite the fact that the mentioned contradiction manifests itself widely in the field of pedagogical activity in the form of problems of the ratio of the educational and upbringing functions of the pedagogical process and the same ratio in the teaching of natural and humanitarian disciplines, one of the critical tasks the national concept of school reform - the humanization of education.

6. Since the main task of modern education is the need continuing education and the advanced nature of the development of society (the amount of information doubles every 10 years) and due to the impossibility of predicting which specialized knowledge society will need in ten years, then main feature the anticipatory nature of education must be considered - the preparation of such a person who is capable of highly productive individual creativity and, on this basis, solutions to any problems that life will pose to her.

7. Reflection in education of one of the global problems modern society- information crisis (the amount of existing information, important for solving any problem, is so great that it is almost impossible to find it in the "ocean of information", and this, according to many scientists, led to the disintegration of our knowledge into a set of elements that are poorly connected with each other another) - there is a well-known "fragmentation", which causes the absence of "that synthetic approach that links different sciences" (/. Prigogy). According to V.V. Davydov and V.P. Zinchenko, the education system, trying to copy the differentiation of science and seeks to embrace the immensity.

8. The problem of alienation of education from the individual interests of many people and their immediate experiences remains unresolved, which is a reflection of the complex contradictory relationship between the individual and society and generates the main contradiction in the pedagogical process - the contradiction between the student's personal “want” and the general civil “must”.

What is meant by a methodological approach to modern primary education? What factors determine the teacher's choice of methodological approaches? So which approach should you take? ? ?

The methodological approach in education is a system of general principles for the design and organization of the educational process at a certain stage. Methodological approach to primary education is a system of general principles for the design and organization of the educational process in primary school.

Factors determining methodological approaches to primary education: 1. Socio-economic conditions 2. Features of social development of primary schoolchildren

Features of the social development of primary schoolchildren 1. Mastering the new social role of the student 2. The dominant educational influence of mass media sources 3. The conflict between the nature of his assimilation of knowledge and values ​​in school and outside school 4. Isolation of children from adult problems

Axiological approach to primary education 1. Strengthening the value-semantic orientation of teaching and upbringing in primary school 2. Determination of goals primary education based on core values

The goals of primary education 1. Formation of the foundations of the civic identity of the individual 2. Formation psychological conditions development of communication, cooperation 3. Development of the value-semantic sphere of the individual on the basis of universal principles and humanism 4. Development of the ability to learn 5. Development of independence, initiative and responsibility of the individual

“There are no two relationships to the child, pedagogical and human. There is one thing and only one thing - human. " Simon Soloveichik

Humanistic approach to primary education 1. Transfer of the child to the position of the subject of the educational process 2. Ensuring the development of personality

E. N. Shiyanov - Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor, Full Member of the Russian Academy of Social Sciences, International Slavic Academy of Education named after V.I. Ya. A. Komensky, rector of the North Caucasian Social Institute.

Laws of humanization of the pedagogical process (according to E. N. Shiyanov) 1. Conditionality of personality education by the nature of the child's interaction with adults and with the social environment. 2. Addiction creative development a child from the harmony of his general cultural and social and moral development. 3. The dependence of the child's development on the age-appropriate organization of the educational process.

Regularities of humanization of the pedagogical process (according to E. N. Shiyanov) 4. The dependence of personality self-development on the degree of creative orientation of the educational process. 5. The dependence of the effectiveness of education of a person on the variety and productivity of activities that are significant for her.

Principles for the implementation of the humanistic approach (according to E. N. Shiyanov) 1. Dialogue approach, cooperation between the teacher and children. 2. Organization of active interaction of the child with the social environment. 3. Development of children's ability to orientate in various life situations and solve life problems.

Principles for the implementation of the humanistic approach (according to E. N. Shiyanov) 4. Inclusion of children in a variety of productive activities. 5. Creation of conditions for self-development of the child's creative individuality.

Sh. A. Amonashvili: “Every child came to this world for a reason ... He has his own life mission. And our duty is to help him fulfill it. "

Principles for the implementation of the humanistic approach (according to Sh. A. Amonashvili) 1. A humanely democratic orientation of pedagogical interaction 2. Cooperation 3. Creation of conditions for children to show initiative, independence, creativity 4. Disclosure of individuality and uniqueness of personality

Personally oriented approach to primary education 1. Child development the highest values ​​and the main criteria for the effectiveness of the educational process. 2. Transformation of education and upbringing into processes that are personally significant for each child.

Regularities of the implementation of a personality-oriented approach (according to E. V. Bondarevskaya, E. N. Stepanov, V. V. Serikov, N. G. Alekseev, I. S. Yakimanskaya) Dependence of the effectiveness of education on: influence on personality development; the teacher's activities to actualize and enrich the child's subjective experience; his personal significance for the child;

Regularities of the implementation of a personality-oriented approach (according to E. V. Bondarevskaya, E. N. Stepanov, V. V. Serikov, N. G. Alekseev, I. S. Yakimanskaya) The dependence of the effectiveness of education on: development of the child's creative abilities; the child's success in teaching and upbringing.

The principles of implementing a personality-oriented approach to self-actualization; individuality; subjectivity; choice; creativity and success; trust and support.

Gender approach to primary education (T. P. Khrizman, V. D. Eremeeva) taking into account the gender of children in the educational process: 1. Differentiation of educational tasks 2. Differentiation of activities 3. Differentiation of forms, methods and means of teaching and education.

A culturological approach to primary education (L. S. Vygotsky, N. B. Krylova, M. M. Bakhtin, V. S. Bibler, E. N. Shiyanov) Introducing younger students to the leading values ​​of national and world culture; developing in them a sense of respect for the values ​​of other cultures.

Implementation of a culturological approach in primary education 1. Providing conditions for cultural self-determination and cultural identification of the child. 2. Building an educational environment based on an equal dialogue and a polylogue of cultures and cultural values.

Implementation of a culturological approach in primary education 3. Providing a system of cultural functions: translation of cultural experience; education on cultural models; communication based on culture; dissemination and preservation of culture; reproduction and creation of cultural artifacts 4. Appeal to cultural values ​​in the process of the formation of personality traits and the development of individual abilities of the student. 5. Free creative expression of the personal culture of each participant in the educational process and ensuring the growth of personal culture.

“Childhood is an everyday discovery of the world…. In the surrounding world, it is necessary to acquaint children with each object in its connections with others, “open it so that a piece of life will play in front of the children with all the colors of the rainbow” (V. A. Sukhomlinsky).

An integrative approach to primary education (A. Ya. Danilyuk, K. Yu. Kolesina, E. Yu. Sukharevskaya) Formation in a child of a holistic idea of ​​the world around him, a person, his creative activity.

Implementation of an integrative approach in primary education 1. Consolidation of content different areas knowledge around the subject of knowledge. 2. Establishing links between elements of the content of education within the discipline.

Competence-based approach to primary education (V. A. Bolotov, V. V. Serikov, A. V. Khutorskoy) Formation of a system of competencies in the educational process in junior schoolchildren.

Educational competence is a set of interrelated semantic orientations, knowledge, abilities, skills and experience of a student's activity in relation to a certain range of objects of reality, necessary for the implementation of personally and socially significant productive activities.

key competencies - refer to the general (metasubject) content of education; - general subject competences - refer to a certain range of academic subjects and educational areas; subject competences - private in relation to the two previous levels of competence, having a specific description and the possibility of forming within the framework of academic subjects.

Valuable semantic competence, worldview, value orientations of the student, mechanisms of self-determination in various situations. General cultural competence knowledge and experience of activities in the field of national and human culture.

Information competence search, analysis and selection of the necessary information, its transformation, storage and transmission; possession of modern information technologies.

Communicative competence knowledge of languages, ways of interacting with surrounding and distant people and events; skills of working in a group, team, possession of various social roles

Educational cognitive competence elements of logical, methodological, general educational activities; goal setting, planning, analysis, reflection, self-esteem; methods for solving educational and cognitive problems; functional literacy.

Social and labor competence performing the role of a citizen, observer, voter, representative, consumer, buyer, client, manufacturer, family member;

The competence of personal self-improvement; methods of physical, spiritual and intellectual self-development; emotional self-regulation and self-support; personal hygiene, taking care of one's own health, sex literacy

Competence - the student's possession of the relevant competence, including his personal attitude towards it and the subject of activity.