Astronomer - profession of the past, present or future

Grechany Andrey

to class, school 534

Introduction

Why did I choose the topic Astronomer - profession of the past, present or future? I like the work of an astronomer, I adore astronomy. In astronomy, there are a lot of questions asked by ordinary people and astronomers themselves, based on the words whether there are and how many, for example: Are there aliens? or Does the Universe have a boundary?. There are three sections: life, getting used to it and inevitability. It is very difficult to live and survive, and one can only guess about the inevitability. Astronomers are trying to guess.

Astronomy of the past

Stone Age astronomy

astronomy science profession

It is well known that many ancient structures are oriented according to the cardinal points, but only relatively recently have scientists paid attention to archaeological sites, one of the main purposes of which was to observe the celestial bodies. Prehistoric observatories were instrumental structures, i.e. marked the places of sunrises and sunsets. Such structures are found everywhere.

Sun worshipers believed that in order for the Sun to continue to illuminate the Earth, it must be appeased. This is how the temple came into being. However, the Sun was not only a god, but also the first reliable landmark, so not only a circle of stones, but also a separate tall stone installed vertically could be related to it. Such stones were at the same time the first clock, a compass, and a calendar. Stone structures of this type are called megaliths (from the Greek megas - large and lythos - stone).

New Grange is considered to be the oldest megalithic monument associated with astronomy in Europe. It was found in Ireland. This is a structure made of white and gray stones, inside of which there is a narrow corridor leading to a small room. The tunnel is oriented to the southeast exactly at the site of sunrise on the winter solstice. The walls of New Grange are painted with patterns of circles and spirals, symbolizing the rings of time.

Newgrange was a temple of the Sun and time. Its functions included only one astronomical operation: determining the beginning of the year, which its builders associated with December 21. New Grange dates back to around 3000 BC.

Stonehenge (English Stonehenge, lit. stone henge. Henge is a type of ritual monuments found only in the British Isles. It consists of a rounded space bounded by a moat, on the outer side of which there is a rampart.) - a stone megalithic structure included in the World Heritage List is located on south of England.

The first researchers associated the construction of Stonehenge with the Druids; excavations, however, pushed back the creation of Stonehenge to the New Stone and Bronze Ages. Modern dating of Stonehenge elements is based on the radiocarbon method and has shown that the most ancient parts of the structure date back to 3020-2910. BC e.

Even the authors of the 18th century stated that the position of the stones can be linked to astronomical phenomena. It turned out that Stonehenge was a giant observatory built to monitor the movements of the Sun and Moon. With its help, the most important task was solved - determining the day of the summer solstice, when the Sun rose in the northeast, as close as possible to the point of north. From him they began to keep track of time for the whole year. Also, with the help of stones, the day of the winter solstice was determined, and observations of sunsets were made on the days of the summer and winter solstice.

Individual Stonehenge stones were used to observe the Moon and predict lunar eclipses, which were considered dangerous.

In the Republic of Khakassia there is a similar place - the Salbyk mounds in the Valley of the Kings.

Astronomy of Ancient Civilizations

Even in ancient times, observers currently unknown to us in the starry sky identified individual bright groups of stars, which were later called constellations. At the same time, among the fixed stars that do not change their mutual positions in the sky and located in permanent constellations, seven moving luminaries were found. They move from constellation to constellation, while remaining within the narrow zone that divides the starry sky. These luminaries were the Sun, the Moon and five planets - Mercury. Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.

The development of astronomy took place in the struggle between two theories of worldview. The first of them - the geocentric theory - believed that the Earth rests motionless in the center of the ball, the sun, stars and planets run around it. This theory, which prevailed for many centuries, was defended and defended by the church.

The second system, the heliocentric one, believed that at the center of the world is the Sun, around which the Earth moves along with other planets. The further development of this theory created the basis of modern astronomy.

Almost three thousand years ago, in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, one of the most ancient cultural states, Babylon, flourished. Astronomy studies in Babylon were concentrated in the hands of priests, who accumulated a significant stock of astronomical information. However, in their worldview, the Babylonian priests neglected the accumulated astronomical experience; They adapted their system of the world to the requirements of religion.

According to the teachings of the Babylonian priests. The earth is a round mountain covered by the dome of the firmament. The stars and planets are attached to this dome. The Earth and sky are surrounded by the Ocean. The sun circles the Earth from east to west and hides in the gate built in the dam that separates the Earth from the Ocean. The sky was the abode of the gods, and the underworld was considered the dwelling of the dead.

In the 5th century BC, the Greek scientist Philolaus believed that ... the most important things deserve the most respectable place, and since fire is more important than the Earth, it is placed in the middle. The Earth moves around this fire from west to east. The sun in the Philolaus system played an auxiliary role - it concentrated and reflected the rays of the central fire onto the Earth. The foggy and mystical teaching of Philolaus contained a grain of truth - a brilliant guess about the possibility of the Earth moving in cosmic space.

In the 4th century. BC, the philosopher Aristotle lived in Greece. He was the creator of the geocentric system of the world, which he derived from his doctrine of the four elements. Aristotle taught that everything around us consists of four elements: earth, water, air and fire. Elements are arranged according to their weight. Thus, the center of the universe is the globe. It is surrounded by water - oceans and seas. Above them is a sphere of air, and then fire extends to the Moon itself. Fire comes into contact with the ether, of which all the fixed stars are made. The Sun, Moon and other planets are attached to transparent solid spheres - hollow balls that rotate around the center - the Earth.

Aristotle considered heaven to be the region of perfection. In a perfect sky, all movements occur in perfect orbits - circles. Deep thematic, astronomical and philosophical knowledge could not free Aristotle from the captivity of religious idealistic ideas. In his system of the world, he was forced to resort to the help of a deity, in whom he saw the cause of the movement of the Sun, planets and fixed stars. Aristotle's ideas dominated the minds of scientists for more than ten centuries.

In the 4th century. BC, a new cultural center arose in the Nile River delta - Alexandria. The great astronomer from the island of Samos, Aristarchus, worked in the well-equipped observatory of this city. Aristarchus of Samos was the first to substantiate and develop the heliocentric system of the world. He took advantage of the teachings of Philolaus. but instead of the mystical fire he placed the Sun in the center of the world. According to the teachings of Aristarchus, the universe is enclosed by the sphere of fixed stars. Between the Sun and this sphere the Earth, Moon and other planets move in circular orbits. Aristarchus derived his theory from observations and confirmed it with numerous calculations. This was the first scientifically substantiated and experimentally confirmed theory.

Around 150 AD, a work by the Alexandrian astronomer Claudius Ptolemy appeared. It was called the Great Mathematical Work of Astronomy. In it, Ptolemy used mathematics to prove that the globe rests motionless in the center of the world. The Sun, planets and stars revolve around it. The apparent path of these planets is much more complex than their perfect uniform motion in a circle, as Aristotle and other astronomers assumed. The planets seem to wander across the sky, now in one direction, then in the other. Ptolemy explained this correctly. that the apparent path of the planets consists of two movements. But what are these movements? Adhering to the idea of ​​the perfect movement of planets in circles. Ptolemy believed that the planets move in small circles - epicycles, and the centers of the epicycles, in turn, rotate in large concentric circles - deferents. At the center of all deferents the Earth supposedly rests.

By skilfully selecting the radii of epicycles, Ptolemy managed to reconcile the apparent motion of the planets with his theory. Despite its cumbersome nature, Ptolemy's theory made it possible to conduct astronomical observations and calculations quite accurately. Ptolemy's theory, called the geocentric system of the world, lasted until the 16th century, when the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus proved its physical fallacy and substantiated the heliocentric system of the world.

Ptolemy knew that if we allowed for the possibility of the Earth rotating around its axis, this would greatly simplify his theory. But, being strongly influenced by Aristotle, he did not dare to do this.

Even as a child, being a curious child, I dreamed of becoming an astronaut. And naturally, as I grew up, my interest turned to the stars. Gradually reading books on astronomy and physics, I slowly studied the basics. At the same time as reading books, I mastered the map of the starry sky. Because I grew up in a village, so I had a fairly good view of the starry sky. Now in my free time I continue to read books, publications and try to follow modern scientific achievements in this field of knowledge. In the future I would like to purchase my own telescope.

Astronomy is the science of the movement, structure and development of celestial bodies and their systems, up to the Universe as a whole.

Man, at his core, has an extraordinary curiosity that leads him to study the world around him, so astronomy gradually arose in all corners of the world where people lived.

Astronomical activity can be traced in sources from at least the 6th-4th millennium BC. e., and the earliest mentions of the names of the luminaries are found in the “Pyramid Texts”, dating from the 25th-23rd centuries. BC e. - a religious monument. Certain features of megalithic structures and even rock paintings of primitive people are interpreted as astronomical. There are also many similar motifs in folklore.

Figure 1 – Heavenly disk from Nebra

So, one of the first “astronomers” can be called the Sumerians and Babylonians. The Babylonian priests left many astronomical tables. They also identified the main constellations and the zodiac, introduced the division of a full angle into 360 degrees, and developed trigonometry. In the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Sumerians developed a lunar calendar, improved in the 1st millennium BC. e. The year consisted of 12 synodic months - six of 29 days and six of 30 days, for a total of 354 days. Having processed their observation tables, the priests discovered many laws of the movement of the planets, the Moon and the Sun, and were able to predict eclipses. It was probably in Babylon that the seven-day week appeared (each day was dedicated to one of the 7 luminaries). But not only the Sumerians had their own calendar; Egypt created its own “sothic” calendar. The sothic year is the period between the two heliacal risings of Sirius, that is, it coincided with the sidereal year, and the civil year consisted of 12 months of 30 days plus five additional days, for a total of 365 days. A lunar calendar with a metonic cycle, consistent with the civil one, was also used in Egypt. Later, under the influence of Babylon, a seven-day week appeared. The day was divided into 24 hours, which at first were unequal (separately for light and dark times of the day), but at the end of the 4th century BC. e. have acquired a modern look. The Egyptians also divided the sky into constellations. Evidence of this can include references in texts, as well as drawings on the ceilings of temples and tombs.

Among the countries of East Asia, ancient astronomy received the greatest development in China. In China there were two positions of court astronomers. Around the 6th century BC. e. The Chinese specified the length of the solar year (365.25 days). Accordingly, the celestial circle was divided into 365.25 degrees or 28 constellations (according to the movement of the Moon). Observatories appeared in the 12th century BC. e. But much earlier, Chinese astronomers diligently recorded all unusual events in the sky. The first record of the appearance of a comet dates back to 631 BC. e., about a lunar eclipse - by 1137 BC. e., about the solar - by 1328 BC. e., the first meteor shower was described in 687 BC. e. Among other achievements of Chinese astronomy, it is worth noting the correct explanation of the causes of solar and lunar eclipses, the discovery of the uneven movement of the Moon, the measurement of the sidereal period, first for Jupiter, and from the 3rd century BC. e. - and for all other planets, both sidereal and synodic, with good accuracy. There were many calendars in China. By the 6th century BC. e. The Metonic cycle was discovered and the lunisolar calendar was established. The beginning of the year is the winter solstice, the beginning of the month is the new moon. The day was divided into 12 hours (the names of which were also used as the names of months) or into 100 parts.

Parallel to China, on the opposite side of the earth, the Mayan civilization is in a hurry to acquire astronomical knowledge, as evidenced by numerous archaeological excavations at the sites of the cities of this civilization. The ancient Mayan astronomers were able to predict eclipses, and very carefully observed various, most clearly visible astronomical objects, such as the Pleiades, Mercury, Venus, Mars and Jupiter. The remains of cities and observatory temples look impressive. Unfortunately, only 4 manuscripts of different ages and texts on steles have survived. The Mayans determined with great accuracy the synodic periods of all 5 planets (Venus was especially revered), and came up with a very accurate calendar. The Mayan month contained 20 days, and the week - 13. Astronomy also developed in India, although it did not have much success there. Among the Incas, astronomy is directly related to cosmology and mythology, this is reflected in many legends. The Incas knew the difference between stars and planets. In Europe, the situation was worse, but the Druids of the Celtic tribes definitely had some kind of astronomical knowledge.

In the early stages of its development, astronomy was thoroughly mixed with astrology. The attitude of scientists towards astrology in the past has been controversial. Educated people in general have always been skeptical about natal astrology. But the belief in universal harmony and the search for connections in nature stimulated the development of science. Therefore, the natural interest of ancient thinkers was aroused by natural astrology, which established an empirical connection between celestial phenomena of a calendar nature and signs of weather, harvest, and the timing of household work. Astrology originates from Sumerian-Babylonian astral myths, in which celestial bodies (Sun, Moon, planets) and constellations were associated with gods and mythological characters; the influence of gods on earthly life within the framework of this mythology was transformed into the influence on the life of celestial bodies - symbols deities Babylonian astrology was borrowed by the Greeks and then, through contacts with the Hellenistic world, penetrated into India. The final identification of scientific astronomy occurred during the Renaissance and took a long time.

The formation of astronomy as a science should probably be attributed to the ancient Greeks, because they made a huge contribution to the development of science. The works of ancient Greek scientists contain the origins of many ideas that underlie the science of modern times. There is a relationship of direct continuity between modern and ancient Greek astronomy, while the science of other ancient civilizations influenced modern one only through the mediation of the Greeks.

In Ancient Greece, astronomy was already one of the most developed sciences. To explain the visible movements of the planets, Greek astronomers, the largest of them Hipparchus (2nd century BC), created the geometric theory of epicycles, which formed the basis of the geocentric system of the world of Ptolemy (2nd century AD). Although fundamentally incorrect, Ptolemy's system nevertheless made it possible to pre-calculate the approximate positions of the planets in the sky and therefore satisfied, to a certain extent, practical needs for several centuries.

The Ptolemaic system of the world completes the stage of development of ancient Greek astronomy. The development of feudalism and the spread of the Christian religion entailed a significant decline in the natural sciences, and the development of astronomy in Europe slowed down for many centuries. During the Dark Middle Ages, astronomers were concerned only with observing the apparent movements of the planets and reconciling these observations with the accepted geocentric system of Ptolemy.

During this period, astronomy received rational development only among the Arabs and the peoples of Central Asia and the Caucasus, in the works of outstanding astronomers of that time - Al-Battani (850-929), Biruni (973-1048), Ulugbek (1394-1449) .) etc. During the period of the emergence and formation of capitalism in Europe, which replaced feudal society, the further development of astronomy began. It developed especially quickly during the era of great geographical discoveries (XV-XVI centuries). The emerging new bourgeois class was interested in exploiting new lands and equipped numerous expeditions to discover them. But long journeys across the ocean required more accurate and simpler methods of orientation and time calculation than those that the Ptolemaic system could provide. The development of trade and navigation urgently required the improvement of astronomical knowledge and, in particular, the theory of planetary motion. The development of productive forces and the requirements of practice, on the one hand, and the accumulated observational material, on the other, prepared the ground for a revolution in astronomy, which was carried out by the great Polish scientist Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who developed his heliocentric system of the world, published in the year his death.

The teachings of Copernicus were the beginning of a new stage in the development of astronomy. Kepler in 1609-1618. the laws of planetary motion were discovered, and in 1687 Newton published the law of universal gravitation.

New astronomy gained the opportunity to study not only the visible, but also the actual movements of celestial bodies. Her numerous and brilliant successes in this area were crowned in the middle of the 19th century. the discovery of the planet Neptune, and in our time - the calculation of the orbits of artificial celestial bodies.

Astronomy and its methods are of great importance in the life of modern society. Issues related to measuring time and providing humanity with knowledge of exact time are now being resolved by special laboratories - time services, organized, as a rule, at astronomical institutions.

Astronomical orientation methods, along with others, are still widely used in navigation and aviation, and in recent years - in astronautics. The calculation and compilation of the calendar, which is widely used in the national economy, is also based on astronomical knowledge.

Figure 2 – Gnomon - the oldest goniometer tool

Drawing up geographical and topographic maps, pre-calculating the onset of sea tides, determining the force of gravity at various points on the earth's surface in order to detect mineral deposits - all this is based on astronomical methods.

Studies of processes occurring on various celestial bodies allow astronomers to study matter in states that have not yet been achieved in earthly laboratory conditions. Therefore, astronomy, and in particular astrophysics, which is closely related to physics, chemistry, and mathematics, contributes to the development of the latter, and they, as we know, are the basis of all modern technology. Suffice it to say that the question of the role of intra-atomic energy was first raised by astrophysicists, and the greatest achievement of modern technology - the creation of artificial celestial bodies (satellites, space stations and ships) would generally be unthinkable without astronomical knowledge.

Astronomy is of exceptionally great importance in the fight against idealism, religion, mysticism and clericalism. Its role in the formation of a correct dialectical-materialistic worldview is enormous, for it is it that determines the position of the Earth, and with it man, in the world around us, in the Universe. Observations of celestial phenomena themselves do not give us grounds to directly discover their true causes. In the absence of scientific knowledge, this leads to their incorrect explanation, to superstition, mysticism, and to the deification of the phenomena themselves and individual celestial bodies. For example, in ancient times the Sun, Moon and planets were considered deities and were worshiped. The basis of all religions and the entire worldview was the idea of ​​​​the central position of the Earth and its immobility. Many people’s superstitions were associated (and even now not everyone has freed themselves from them) with solar and lunar eclipses, with the appearance of comets, with the appearance of meteors and fireballs, the fall of meteorites, etc. So, for example, comets were considered the harbingers of various disasters befalling humanity on Earth (fires, disease epidemics, wars), meteors were mistaken for the souls of dead people flying into the sky, etc.

Astronomy, by studying celestial phenomena, exploring the nature, structure and development of celestial bodies, proves the materiality of the Universe, its natural, regular development in time and space without the intervention of any supernatural forces.

The history of astronomy shows that it has been and remains the arena of a fierce struggle between materialistic and idealistic worldviews. Currently, many simple questions and phenomena no longer determine or cause a struggle between these two basic worldviews. Now the struggle between materialistic and idealistic philosophies is taking place in the area of ​​more complex issues, more complex problems. It concerns the basic views on the structure of matter and the Universe, on the emergence, development and further fate of both individual parts and the entire Universe as a whole.

The twentieth century for astronomy means more than just another hundred years. It was in the 20th century that they learned the physical nature of stars and unraveled the mystery of their birth, studied the world of galaxies and almost completely restored the history of the Universe, visited neighboring planets and discovered other planetary systems.

Having been able at the beginning of the century to measure distances only to the nearest stars, at the end of the century astronomers “reached” almost to the boundaries of the Universe. But until now, measuring distances remains a sore problem in astronomy. It is not enough to “reach out”; it is necessary to accurately determine the distance to the most distant objects; only in this way will we know their true characteristics, physical nature and history.

Advances in astronomy in the 20th century. were closely connected with the revolution in physics. Astronomical data was used to create and test the theory of relativity and the quantum theory of the atom. On the other hand, progress in physics has enriched astronomy with new methods and possibilities.

It is no secret that the rapid growth in the number of scientists in the 20th century. was caused by the needs of technology, mainly military. But astronomy is not as necessary for the development of technology as physics, chemistry, and geology. Therefore, even now, at the end of the 20th century, there are not so many professional astronomers in the world - only about 10 thousand. Not bound by conditions of secrecy, astronomers at the beginning of the century, in 1909, united into the International Astronomical Union (MAC), which coordinates the joint study of a common starry sky for all. Collaboration between astronomers from different countries has especially intensified in the last decade thanks to computer networks.

Figure 3 – Radio telescopes

Now in the 21st century, astronomy faces many tasks, including such complex ones as studying the most general properties of the Universe; this requires the creation of a more general physical theory capable of describing the state of matter and physical processes. To solve this problem, observational data are required in regions of the Universe located at distances of several billion light years. Modern technical capabilities do not allow detailed exploration of these areas. However, this problem is now the most pressing and is being successfully solved by astronomers in a number of countries.

But it is quite possible that these problems will not be the main focus of the new generation of astronomers. Nowadays, the first timid steps are taken by neutrino and gravitational wave astronomy. Probably, in a couple of decades, they will be the ones who will reveal to us a new face of the Universe.

One feature of astronomy remains unchanged, despite its rapid development. The subject of her interest is the starry sky, accessible for admiring and studying from any place on Earth. The sky is the same for everyone, and everyone can study it if they wish. Even now, amateur astronomers make significant contributions to some areas of observational astronomy. And this brings not only benefits to science, but also enormous, incomparable joy for themselves.

Modern technologies make it possible to simulate space objects and provide data to the average user. There are not many such programs yet, but their number is growing and they are constantly being improved. Here are some programs that will be interesting and useful even to people far from astronomy:

• The RedShift computer planetarium, a product of Maris Technologies Ltd., is widely known in the world. This is the best-selling program in its class, it has already earned more than 20 prestigious international awards. The first version appeared back in 1993. It immediately met with an enthusiastic reception from Western users and gained a leading position in the market for full-featured computer planetariums. In fact, RedShift has transformed the global market for software for astronomy enthusiasts. With the power of modern computers, dull columns of numbers are transformed into virtual reality, which contains a high-precision model of the solar system, millions of deep space objects, and an abundance of reference material.
• Google Earth is a Google project in which satellite photographs of the entire earth's surface were posted on the Internet. Photos of some regions have an unprecedented high resolution. Unlike other similar services that display satellite images in a regular browser (for example, Google Maps), this service uses a special client program downloaded to the user's computer Google Earth.
• Google Maps is a set of applications built on the free mapping service and technology provided by Google. The service is a map and satellite images of the whole world (as well as the Moon and Mars).
• Celestia is a free 3D astronomy program. The program, based on the HIPPARCOS Catalog, allows the user to view objects ranging in size from artificial satellites to full galaxies in three dimensions using OpenGL technology. Unlike most other virtual planetariums, the user can freely travel around the Universe. Add-ons to the program allow you to add both real-life objects and objects from fictional universes created by their fans.
• KStars is a virtual planetarium included in the KDE Education Project package of educational programs. KStars shows the night sky from anywhere on the planet. You can observe the starry sky not only in real time, but also what it was or will be by indicating the desired date and time. The program displays 130,000 stars, 8 planets of the solar system, the Sun, the Moon, thousands of asteroids and comets.
• Stellarium is a free virtual planetarium. With Stellarium it is possible to see what can be seen with a medium and even large telescope. The program also provides observations of solar eclipses and the movements of comets.

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The ancient sages knew EVERYTHING that could be known in this Cosmos about Time and times. Time is such a relative concept that even on Mars, the planet closest to us, earthly time is meaningless. This is what Ancient wisdom says. And she also teaches: what is present on Earth can be... the future in Space, and the past can be the present.

The most ancient law of Analogy states that everything in the world reflects everything - both above and below. For both the small and the great, the laws of the Cosmos are the same - there is neither small nor large. Just like physicists studying ultra-small objects of the Universe and discovering the Subtle and Super-subtle worlds (in which, as it turned out, there is neither time nor space), so astrophysicists studying ultra-large objects of the Universe have experimentally proven that Time is One.

This outstanding discovery in astrophysics was made at the Pulkovo Observatory, located near St. Petersburg (and at that time near Leningrad), by the outstanding Soviet scientist Nikolai Kozyrev.

Nikolay Kozyrev(1908-1983)

Initially, Kozyrev's telescope was directed to the point in the sky where there was a visible star. A sensitive device that detects radiation from the star, of course, registered the signal. But it was... not a real star! It was just... a mirage! Looking at the stars, we actually do not see them, but only the light coming from them. But this physical light does not spread instantly. The current position in space of any visible star is just its... past. In fact, the star at which Kozyrev was pointing his telescope was no longer there a long time ago... in the place in space where it was visible now.

Of course, the astrophysicist knew this. According to his calculations, this star should have been located at a different point in space today. And Kozyrev directed the telescope to the calculation point - to the “emptiness”. From there, the light had not yet reached the Earth, and therefore the observer had not yet seen the star with his physical eyes, although it had already been shining for a long time.

I didn’t see the star with my eyes, but sensitive instruments sensed its radiation. Thus, the signal emitted by the “empty space” was registered!

Now Kozyrev directed the telescope to the place where, according to calculations, the same star would appear in... the distant future. That is, the telescope was directed to the point in space where the star would be at the time when the light signal from the Earth, sent at the moment of observation, reached it. The devices again... registered a signal. But there wasn’t a star there yet... And that means she hasn’t emitted a single ray yet! But the instruments showed: there is radiation! The future star... is already here! And it is located exactly in the place exactly calculated by earthly scientists! A non-existent star... existed. And it was already shining.

The scientist’s conclusion was truly fantastic for materialistic science: Past, Present and Future exist simultaneously!

So, contrary to all the laws of classical physics, it is still possible to come into contact with both the Past and the Future?

The structure of the Universe, built by narrowly materialistic science, began to crack so much that it was already clear that one more touch of “mysticism” and it would completely fall apart.

Nikolai Kozyrev’s experiments were scrupulously tested by I. Eganova’s group, working under the leadership of Academician M. Lavrentiev. The results were the same. In 1991, the results of N. Kozyrev’s work were confirmed by the experiments of A. Pugach (Ukrainian Academy of Sciences). In other countries, Kozyrev’s experiments were also repeated many times with the same positive results.

Do astrophysicists know about this outstanding discovery in schools? "Unfortunately no!" But the discoveries we are talking about are, in worldview science, akin to a 12-magnitude earthquake, when the rivers are already flowing backwards. That is, a revision of the worldview is no longer required only partially, but fundamentally. Such discoveries are tantamount to the shock when a convinced atheist suddenly changes his belief to the exact opposite, becoming a convinced theist. Moreover, not those who blindly believe in a humanoid God. An educated person of the 20th century began to approach Eastern Pantheism, which affirmed, in particular, the Unity of the Past, Present and Future. Just look at the ancient symbol that became the symbol of the Roerich Pact on the Banner of Peace - the Sign of the Trinity: on a white cloth - three circles in one Big Circle. One of the aspects of this sign is the unity of the Three Times in Eternity...

But as has happened in all centuries, this prophet of the twentieth century named Nikolai Kozyrev was not honored in his Fatherland. Little of. Thanks to his discovery, which exudes such a frightening aroma of oriental mysticism, the great scientist turned out to be... a dissident, an objectionable person. So objectionable and dangerous that the friends of the great scientist were not allowed to publish even a decent... obituary about him on the pages of the Soviet press.

Some part of the Soviet public learned about Nikolai Kozyrev’s greatest discovery after his death in 1983.

Larisa Dmitrieva (excerpt from the book)

Source: website "The Secret Doctrine of the East in the works of Larisa Dmitrieva"

For information: Larisa Dmitrieva is a philosopher, writer, poet, journalist, researcher of the creative heritage of the Roerich family and Helena Blavatsky.

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Another report dedicated to the discovery of Nikolai Kozyrev

WHAT THE STARS SAID ABOUT

(astronomical observations of N.A. Kozyrev - the path to understanding the reality of the “energy” world)

September 2, 2008 marked the 100th anniversary of the birth of NicholasAleksandrovich Kozyrev, an outstanding Russian researcher of the problem Time.

In the 50s, the scientist came to the idea that time is an active attribute of the universe, feeding all the structures of the Universe with its energy. The main property of Time is its orientation against entropy (chaos). For physicists XX century, time is only a geometric characteristic that allows events to be arranged in a certain order. Therefore, the Universe is in danger of thermal death, stars live off the energy of the decay of atoms, and the Moon is a dead body. But for Kozyrev, the idea of ​​the direction of time follows from the very fact of the existence of life in all its manifestations. Indeed, the essence of life lies in the presence of processes that go against entropy, i.e. disorder. And the life of any organism is a combination of a great variety of processes, each of which has its own pace of time, and all the times of each of the structures of the Universe form the Unified Time of the Universe.

Kozyrev dealt with this complex problem for 30 years until his death (February 27, 1983). He withstood direct denial of the achieved results from scientists and disguised skepticism, but firmly believed that the truth would triumph. He had his reasons for optimism. Thus, he discovered the eruptions of the lunar crater Alphonse. According to modern astronomy, the Moon has completed its evolution and shines only with reflected sunlight, and therefore Kozyrev’s statement about the possibility of volcanism on the Moon was treated with mockery for a long time. But this phenomenon was predicted by him on the basis of the theory of Time, according to which the Moon and Earth are a cause-and-effect pair in which the components exchange energies. Year after year, he followed the Moon through a telescope and finally, on November 3, 1958, he discovered a glow in the center of the Alphonse crater. While developing a photographic plate, Kozyrev noticed that the luminescence stripes corresponded to the release of gases from the bowels of the Moon, and a year later he established the emission of ash. Kozyrev’s message caused a wave of mistrust in scientific circles, and the director of the Lunar-Planet Observatory (USA) even declared him a charlatan. True, he later came to Pulkovo, personally became convinced of the authenticity of the spectrogram and declared: “It was worth crossing the ocean for this.” The dispute continued for a long time, and only on the eve of 1970 Kozyrev’s priority in the discovery of volcanoes on the Moon was recorded, and the International Astronautical Academy awarded him a personalized Gold Medal with a diamond image of the seven stars of the Ursa Major bucket. Many examples of his providence can be cited, for the scientist belonged to those of our contemporaries who were ahead of their time.

N.A. Kozyrev’s research is a demonstration of the manifestations of the “immaterial” or “energy” world in the familiar material world. And what Kozyrev calls Time, religious people usually call the word God.

Through understanding the results of the experiments of the outstanding Russian astronomer Nikolai Aleksandrovich KOZYREV concerning the physical nature of Time, the authors of the article lead the reader to the understanding that the familiar material world, perceived by the vast majority of people as the only reality, is an integral part of the more general “energy” world (in the Teaching of Living Ethics, in the "Secret Doctrine" called the Fiery and Subtle worlds).

In the spring and autumn of 1977 and 1978. Nikolai Aleksandrovich Kozyrev conducted a series of astronomical observations on the 125-centimeter reflecting telescope of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory. 18 filling stars were observed in the constellations Hercules and Aquarius and another galaxy, the Andromeda nebula. A resistor (resistance) was installed as a receiving device (sensor) in the focal plane of the telescope. Observations have shown that a change (increase) in the electrical conductivity of the resistor occurs when the telescope is pointed at one of three points in the sky, coinciding with three positions of any space object (star , globular cluster of stars, galaxy), corresponding to the positions of this object in the past, present and future. In what follows we will call them Past, Present (True) and Future images of the object.

The past coincides with the apparent position of the object in the sky. The true image corresponds to the position of the object at the current moment in time according to the observer’s clock, i.e. the observer's own time. The future corresponds to the position that the object will occupy when a signal sent from the Earth at the moment of observation and propagating at a speed of 300,000 km arrives at it. c ek. All three images follow along the trajectory of the object’s own movement: the True (Present) position is in the center, and the Past and Future are located symmetrically on either side of the Present.

Observational astronomy, which deals only with visible images of objects, has never known anything like this before. (We will call images visible not only in optical, but also in any range of electromagnetic radiation. It corresponds to the position in the sky that the object occupied at the moment when it just emitted a signal propagating at the speed of light). For astronomers, the apparent position of a distant space object is its “past image” observed from Earth in the optical range of electromagnetic radiation. So observational astronomy deals with “past images” of various objects in the Universe - from planets to the most distant galaxies. But in fact, this object no longer exists in that place in the sky, because during the time the stream of photons flies from it to the Earth, it shifts along its trajectory of “its own motion.” And the more distant it is from us, the longer it takes to fly to 3 e next to it is a light (or any other electromagnetic signal.

Questions arise: how and where to find the “true image” of the Sun, planet, star, galaxy? After all, a light signal from the Sun flies to Earth for about 8 minutes, from one of the neighboring stars - 4 years, from the nearest Andromeda galaxy - millions of years. Kozyrev answers both questions: using data known in astronomy about the own speed and direction of movement of the object he is observing, he determines the point in the sky where it should be at the moment of observation, and directs a reflector telescope there (a mirror one, which is very important!). The instrument is equipped in such a way that instead of the eyepiece there is a resistor included in the device (Wheatstone bridge), whose equilibrium state depends on the electrical conductivity of the resistor. It turns out that the device reacts not only to the visible, but also to the true (!) position of the object. This means that an earthly observer can receive information about the state of a particular formation of the Universe for the present moment in time using his watch and record its true position.

But that is not all! A telescope mounted in this way makes it possible to obtain information about the future state of the object, because it registers the position that it will occupy when a signal arrives at it, as if sent from the Earth at the speed of light at the moment of observation. In addition, it turned out that the detected radiation is not subject to refraction (its “rays” are not deflected in the Earth’s atmosphere like rays of light), affects the resistor even if the telescope lens is closed (!) with a 2 mm thick duralumin cover, in the case of extended objects (globular clusters and galaxies) weakens as it approaches from the center of the object to its edges.

L.B.Borisova, D.D.Rabunsky

Introduction

Why did I choose the topic “Astronomer-profession of the past present or future”? I like the work of an astronomer, I adore astronomy. In astronomy, there are a lot of questions asked by ordinary people and astronomers themselves, based on the words whether there are and how many, for example: “Are there aliens?” or “Does the Universe have a boundary?” There are three sections: life, getting used to it and inevitability. It is very difficult to live and survive, and one can only guess about the inevitability. Astronomers are trying to guess.

Astronomy of the past

Stone Age astronomy

astronomy science profession

It is well known that many ancient structures are oriented according to the cardinal points, but only relatively recently have scientists paid attention to archaeological sites, one of the main purposes of which was to observe the celestial bodies. Prehistoric observatories were instrumental structures, i.e. marked the places of sunrises and sunsets. Such structures are found everywhere.

Sun worshipers believed that in order for the Sun to continue to illuminate the Earth, it must be appeased. This is how the temple came into being. However, the Sun was not only a god, but also the first reliable landmark, so not only a circle of stones, but also a separate tall stone installed vertically could be related to it. Such stones were at the same time the first clock, a compass, and a calendar. Stone structures of this type are called megaliths (from the Greek “megas” - “big” and “lythos” - “stone”).

New Grange is considered to be the oldest megalithic monument associated with astronomy in Europe. It was found in Ireland. This is a structure made of white and gray stones, inside of which there is a narrow corridor leading to a small room. The tunnel is oriented to the southeast exactly at the site of sunrise on the winter solstice. The walls of New Grange are painted with patterns of circles and spirals, symbolizing the rings of time.

Newgrange was a temple of the Sun and time. Its functions included only one astronomical operation: determining the beginning of the year, which its builders associated with December 21. New Grange dates back to around 3000 BC.

stonehenge the structure is located in the south of England.

The first researchers associated the construction of Stonehenge with the Druids; excavations, however, pushed back the creation of Stonehenge to the New Stone and Bronze Ages. Modern dating of Stonehenge elements is based on the radiocarbon method and has shown that the most ancient parts of the structure date back to 3020-2910. BC e.

Even the authors of the 18th century stated that the position of the stones can be linked to astronomical phenomena. It turned out that Stonehenge was a giant observatory built to monitor the movements of the Sun and Moon. With its help, the most important task was solved - determining the day of the summer solstice, when the Sun rose in the northeast, as close as possible to the point of north. From him they began to keep track of time for the whole year. Also, with the help of stones, the day of the winter solstice was determined, and observations of sunsets were made on the days of the summer and winter solstice.

Individual Stonehenge stones were used to observe the Moon and predict lunar eclipses, which were considered dangerous.

In the Republic of Khakassia there is a similar place - the Salbyk mounds in the Valley of the Kings.

Moscow Committee of Education
Moscow City Pedagogical University
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGY

“Changes in the gas composition of the atmosphere in the past and present”

abstract on GENERAL GROUND SCIENCE
1st year student, gr. 3 "B"
Yakovleva M.L.
Head: Art. teacher Klevkova I.V.

Moscow
2001

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………..…3

I. APPEARANCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE……………………………………………………………………………….4
1) Origin of the Earth;
2) The appearance of the atmosphere;
3) The importance of atmosphere;

II. COMPOUND
ATMOSPHERES………………....……………………………………………………….5
1) Primary composition;
2) Current composition;
3) Trends of change;

III. CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES
CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE………………………………..11
1) Reasons
a) anthropogenic impacts;
b) natural influences;
2) Consequences
a) destruction of the ozone screen;
b) global warming;

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………15

LIST
LITERATURES………………………….……………………...…………………..16

INTRODUCTION

The atmosphere is the gaseous shell of the Earth; it is thanks to the atmosphere that the origin and further development of life on our planet became possible. The importance of the atmosphere for the Earth is colossal - the atmosphere will disappear, the planet will disappear. But lately, from television screens and radio speakers, we have been hearing more and more often about the problem of air pollution, the problem of destruction of the ozone layer, and the harmful effects of solar radiation on living organisms, including humans. Here and there, environmental disasters occur that have varying degrees of negative impact on the earth’s atmosphere, directly affecting its gas composition. Unfortunately, we have to admit that with every year of human industrial activity the atmosphere becomes less and less suitable for the normal functioning of living organisms.

In my work, I strive to consider the entire history of the earth’s atmosphere, namely its gas composition, from the moment of formation to our time. At the same time, we touched upon the initial stage of the development of the atmosphere, the primary and current gas, as well as the causes and consequences of its change.

The main task of the work is to identify the dynamics of changes in the content of various gases in the atmosphere over time, and to indicate those influencing factors that serve as catalysts in these processes.

I. APPEARANCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1. The birth of the Earth.

Before talking about the origin of planet Earth, it is necessary to highlight the question of the origin of the entire solar system as a whole. “Immanuel Kant (1755) believed that the solar system arose during the evolutionary development of a cold dust nebula, with the Sun formed in the center and planets in the peripheral parts” (3). The French mathematician Laplace also adhered to the same theory. But there were also other versions of the formation of the solar system. According to the theory of O.Yu. Schmidt, the planets were formed as a result of the ejection of a huge prominence by the Sun, which was the result of a collision of the Sun with some cosmic object. According to the third theory, the Sun was captured by a cloud, as a result of which planets were formed.

“Most scientists believe that the Sun and planets formed about 4.6 billion years ago from a huge cloud of solid, tiny particles and gases called a nebula. Solid particles and part of the gas remained from former stars that had already died out. Obeying its own internal gravity, the nebula began to rotate and shrink. Particles of matter, colliding at incredible speeds in the center of the nebula, released so much heat that the sparkling star Sun was born. The rest of the nebula formed a ring around the Sun, the collisions of particles within which led to the formation of planets. For some time the planets were hot” (2). This is how our planet, along with others, was formed.

2. The appearance of the atmosphere.

The age of the atmosphere is usually equated to the age of planet Earth itself - approximately 5000 million years. At the initial stage of its formation, the Earth warmed up to impressive temperatures. “If, as most scientists believe, the newly formed Earth was extremely hot (had a temperature of about 9000 ° C), then most of the gases that made up the atmosphere would have left it. As the Earth gradually cooled and solidified, gases dissolved in the liquid earth’s crust would escape from it” (8). From these gases the primary earth's atmosphere was formed, thanks to which the origin of life became possible.

II.. COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

1. Primary composition.

As soon as the Earth cooled, an atmosphere formed around it from the released gases. Unfortunately, it is not possible to determine the exact percentage of elements in the chemical composition of the primary atmosphere, but it can be accurately assumed that the gases included in its composition were similar to those that are now emitted by volcanoes - carbon dioxide, water vapor and nitrogen. “Volcanic gases in the form of superheated water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, acid fumes, noble gases and oxygen formed the proto-atmosphere. At this time, the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere did not occur, since it was spent on the oxidation of acidic fumes (HCl, SiO 2, H 2 S)” (1).

There are two theories about the origin of the most important chemical element for life - oxygen. As the Earth cooled, the temperature dropped to about 100° C, most of the water vapor condensed and fell to the earth's surface as the first rain, resulting in the formation of rivers, seas and oceans - the hydrosphere. “The water shell on Earth provided the possibility of accumulating endogenous oxygen, becoming its accumulator and (when saturated) supplier to the atmosphere, which by this time had already been cleared of water, carbon dioxide, acidic fumes, and other gases as a result of past rainstorms” (1).

Another theory states that oxygen was formed during photosynthesis as a result of the life activity of primitive cellular organisms, when plant organisms settled throughout the Earth, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere began to increase rapidly. However, many scientists tend to consider both versions without mutual exclusion.

2. Current composition.

The chemical composition of the atmosphere today (Fig. 1) is dominated by nitrogen and oxygen. The representation of elements such as carbon dioxide, argon and other inert gases is very small, a total of about 1%, but a minimal change in their content can have a serious impact on the life of our planet.

Fig. 1 Chemical composition of the atmosphere (Neklyukova, 1976).

Dominant gases. Let's consider the properties of the chemical elements dominant in the composition of the earth's atmosphere.

Oxygen. Oxygen is one of the main gases in the atmosphere (almost 21%), the most important for life on the planet. “The atmosphere contains about 10 15 tons of free oxygen, while in the earth’s crust there is probably more than 10 19 tons” (1). The most common element on Earth (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2 The ratio of oxygen and other chemical elements on Earth (Bgatov, 1985).

It is thanks to it that breathing of living organisms is possible. Oxygen is chemically active and easily reacts with many chemical elements and compounds. Three isotopes of oxygen are known - 16 O, 17 O, 18 O. Under normal conditions, their content in the atmosphere is 99.74, 0.04 and 0.20, respectively. “The strongest oxidizing agent is the triatomic compound of oxygen - ozone (O 3). It constitutes an insignificant admixture in the atmosphere” (4). At an altitude of approximately 22 - 25 km, ozone reaches its maximum concentration - an ozone screen that absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun (0.29 microns), which is destructive for all living things.

Nitrogen. “Nitrogen is one of the main components of organic matter, and due to the fact that it is much less chemically active than oxygen, special conditions are required for the formation of nitrogen compounds and for its assimilation by living organisms. These conditions have not yet been sufficiently studied” (4). Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere, about 78%. “Atmospheric nitrogen plays a huge role in geochemical processes, actively participating in the differentiation of mineral matter, on the one hand, and in the synthesis of organic substances, on the other. The latter is provided by biochemical reactions. It is known that nitrogen is involved in photosynthesis, the synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids. Consequently, without nitrogen, life in the form in which we know it is impossible” (1).

Carbon. Carbon in the earth's atmosphere is mainly represented by carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon dioxide is necessary for plants because they use it for respiration. The CO 2 content in the atmosphere also affects the Earth's heat balance. Human activity (burning coal and oil) leads to an increase in its concentration.

Water vapor Water vapor plays a major role in the formation of the greenhouse effect. Water vapor transmits short-wave solar radiation and absorbs long-wave radiation from the Earth. The formation of cloud systems is associated with it.

3. Trends of change.

“There is no consensus on the nature and nature of changes in the composition of the atmosphere over the past 1000 million years. Geological processes (volcanic activity, formation of limestone and coal) should have had a certain impact on the composition of the atmosphere. And there is reason to believe that during the last 300 million years the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide, as these gases are associated with the above-mentioned processes, has fluctuated significantly relative to present levels" (4).

Rice. 3 “Graph of the increase in CO 2 content in the atmosphere during the period from the 19th-20th centuries. (Neklyukova 1976).

This change in CO 2 content is, of course, caused by human activity - burning coal (Fig. 3). “Since 1900, the amount of fuel burned has doubled every 10 years. Since coal consists of 90% carbon, which combines with oxygen during combustion, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases” (8).

The content of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere directly depends on periods of warming on our planet (Fig. 4). “A correlation has been established between periods of warming and the content of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere. 18 thousand years ago, during the era of maximum glaciation, when the ice shell covered the entire northern half of Europe and North America, the content of greenhouse gases was lower” (5).

“Over the past 850 years, there have been five ice ages on Earth, during which temperatures on Earth dropped 3°C below current temperatures” (7).

Basically, more or less strong changes in the gas composition of the atmosphere occurred in the last two centuries, because it was during this period that humanity took significant steps in its technical development. The arrival of the NTR (Scientific and Technical Revolution) had a particularly strong impact on the atmosphere. “Human activities began to affect the atmosphere at the beginning of the 19th century. due to the development of severe

Rice. 4 Temperature fluctuations on Earth over the past 850,000 years

(Mirskaya, 1997).

industry. The smoke of thousands of factory chimneys and the soot of millions of coal fireplaces in city houses filled the sky with smog. The problem of smog exists in many countries even now”(7).

rice. 5 Concentration of atmospheric CO 2 (Kostitsyn, 1984).

III. CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF CHANGES IN THE GAS COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

1. Reasons.

There are many reasons for changes in the gas composition of the atmosphere - the first, and most important, is human activity. The second, oddly enough, is the activity of nature itself.

a) anthropogenic impact. Human activity has a destructive effect on the chemical composition of the atmosphere. During production, carbon dioxide and a number of other greenhouse gases are released into the environment. CO 2 emissions from various factories and enterprises are especially dangerous (Fig. 5). “All major cities, as a rule, lie in a layer of dense fog. And not because they are often located in lowlands or near water, but because of condensation nuclei concentrated above cities. In some places, the air is so polluted with particles from exhaust gases and industrial emissions that cyclists are forced to wear masks. These particles serve as condensation nuclei for the fog”(7). Car exhaust gases containing nitrogen oxide, lead, and large amounts of carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide) also have a detrimental effect.

One of the main features of the atmosphere is the presence of an ozone screen. Freons - fluorine containing chemical elements, are widely used in the production of aerosols and refrigerators, have a strong effect on the ozone screen, destroying it.

“Every year, tropical forests are cut down for pasture on an area equal to the size of Iceland, mainly in the Amazon River basin (Brazil). This could lead to a reduction in precipitation because... the amount of moisture evaporated by trees is reduced. Deforestation also contributes to the strengthening of the greenhouse effect, because plants absorb carbon dioxide” (7).

b) natural influence. And nature makes its contribution to the history of the Earth’s atmosphere, mainly by polluting it. “Huge masses of dust are lifted into the air by desert winds. It is carried to great heights and can travel very far. Let's take the same Sahara. The smallest particles of rocks, lifted into the air here, cover the horizon, and the Sun shines dimly through the dusty blanket” (6). But it's not just the winds that are dangerous.

In August 1883, a disaster broke out on one of the islands of Indonesia - the Krakatoa volcano exploded. At the same time, about seven cubic kilometers of volcanic dust were released into the atmosphere. The winds carried this dust to a height of 70-80 km. Only years later did this dust settle.

The appearance of huge amounts of dust in the atmosphere is also caused by meteorites falling to the Earth. When they hit the earth's surface, they raise huge masses of dust into the air.

Also, ozone holes periodically appear and disappear in the atmosphere - holes in the ozone screen. Many scientists consider this phenomenon a natural process of development of the geographical envelope of the Earth.

2. Consequences.

Due to industrial activities of man and nature, the Earth's atmosphere is polluted by various substances ranging from dust to complex chemical compounds. The result of this is, first of all, global warming and the destruction of the planet’s ozone screen. “Small changes in atmospheric chemistry appear to be insignificant for the atmosphere as a whole. But it should be recalled that rare gases that make up the atmosphere can have a significant impact on climate and weather” (8).

a) Ozone screen. The destruction of the ozone shield occurs under the influence of fluorine-containing components, which are contained in aerosols and refrigerators. Once in the atmosphere, they enter into a chemical reaction with ozone, destroying it. The destruction of the ozone screen leads to the inevitable death of all life on the planet from ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.

b) Climate warming. “Some scientists, for example, believe that in recent years, with the increase in carbon dioxide, the thermal balance of the atmosphere has changed, because the Earth began to absorb more infrared radiation, the loss of heat from the Earth into space decreased, and the average temperature of the natural layer of air increased. Some researchers estimate the temperature rise to be 0.01°C per year. This indicates a close connection between the Earth’s temperature and the chemical composition of the atmosphere” (8). Rising temperatures lead to climate warming, which leads to the melting of glaciers in Antarctica and Antarctica, and as a result, rising sea levels and flooding of coastal areas.

Global warming is possible as a result of the greenhouse effect. “Due to the greenhouse effect, there will be a noticeable shift in climate zones. As a result, some large regions of the world will become warmer and drier, while others will become warmer and wetter” (5).

Table 1. Forecast of temperature warming on Earth (Maksakovsky, 1996).

Rice. 6 Graph of temperature warming on Earth (Mirskaya, 1997).

According to the data (Table 1, Fig. 6), it can be assumed that by 2050 the temperature on Earth will increase by an average of 2 degrees, so we can safely talk about global warming of the climate on planet Earth.

CONCLUSION

As a result of the work done, a number of patterns have been established that occur as a result of changes in the gas composition of the atmosphere.
The composition of the atmosphere did not remain constant, but changed over time, sensitively reacting to events and phenomena occurring on the earth's surface. The chemical composition of the primordial atmosphere is fundamentally different from the composition of the atmosphere of our days.

As a result of active industrial human activity, significant changes in the gas composition of the atmosphere occurred only in the last two centuries, but even such a short period of time was enough for severe pollution of the atmosphere and the beginning of the destruction of the planet’s ozone screen.

The main consequence of all these changes is global warming of the Earth’s climate. On average, it has been established that by about 2050 the average annual temperature will increase by two degrees, which should lead to rising sea levels and flooding of the coastal areas of the continents.

It’s sad to realize this, but the trends are depressing. In the next 1000 years, a strong increase in the greenhouse effect is possible and the consequence of this will be not only the melting of the centuries-old poor, but also the extinction of living organisms.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bgatov V.I. History of oxygen in the earth's atmosphere. – M.: Nedra, 1985.

2. Grabham S. Around the World. – New York: Kingfisher, 1995.

3. Neklyukova N.P. General Geography. – M.: Education, 1976.

4. Kostitsyn V.A. Evolution of the biosphere atmosphere and climate. – M.: Nauka, 1984.

5. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. – Yaroslavl: Vehne-Volzhskoe book publishing house, 1996.

6. Mezentsev V.A. Encyclopedia of miracles. – M.: Knowledge, 1983.

7. Mirskaya E. Weather, - London: Dorling Kindersley Limited, 1997.

8. Chandler T. The air around us. – L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1974.

Moscow Committee of Education Moscow City Pedagogical University DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGY “Changes in the gas composition of the atmosphere in the past and present” abstract on GENERAL EARTH SCIENCE by a first-year student, g