The reign of Catherine II the Great. Five myths about the Russian Empress Catherine II. Accession to the throne

Upon closer examination, the biography of Catherine II the Great is replete with a large number of events that significantly influenced the Empress of the Russian Empire.

Origin

Family tree of the Romanovs

Family ties of Peter III and Catherine II

Catherine the Great's hometown is Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland), which was then the capital city of Pomerania. On May 2, 1729, a girl was born in the castle of the above-mentioned city, named at birth Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst.

The mother was the cousin of Peter III (who was just a boy at that time) Johanna Elisabeth, Princess of Holstein-Gottorp. The father was the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst - Christian August, who was the governor of Stettin. Thus, the future empress was of very noble blood, although not from a royally rich family.

Childhood and youth

Francis Boucher - Young Catherine the Great

While receiving home education, Frederica, in addition to her native German, studied Italian, English and French. The basics of geography and theology, music and dancing - the corresponding noble education coexisted with very active children's games. The girl was interested in everything that was happening around her, and despite some dissatisfaction from her parents, she took part in games with boys on the streets of her hometown.

Having first seen her future husband in 1739, at Eytin Castle, Frederica did not yet know about the impending invitation to Russia. In 1744, she, fifteen years old, and her mother traveled through Riga to Russia at the invitation of Empress Elizabeth. Immediately after her arrival, she began an active study of the language, traditions, history and religion of her new homeland. The most prominent teachers of the princess were Vasily Adadurov, who taught language, Simon Todorsky, who taught Orthodoxy lessons with Frederica, and choreographer Lange.

On July 9, Sofia Federica Augusta officially accepted baptism and converted to Orthodoxy, named Ekaterina Alekseevna - it was this name that she would later glorify.

Marriage

Despite the intrigues of her mother, through whom the Prussian king Frederick II tried to displace Chancellor Bestuzhev and increase influence on the foreign policy of the Russian Empire, Catherine did not fall into disgrace and on September 1, 1745 she was married to Peter Fedorovich, who was her second cousin.

Crowning of Catherine II. September 22, 1762. Confirmation. Engraving by A.Ya. Kolpashnikov. Last quarter of the 18th century.

Due to the categorical inattention on the part of her young husband, who was interested exclusively in the art of war and drill, the future empress devoted her time to the study of literature, art and sciences. At the same time, along with studying the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu and other educators, the biography of her young years is filled with hunting, various balls and masquerades.

The lack of intimacy with the legal spouse could not but affect the appearance of lovers, while Empress Elizabeth was not happy with the lack of heirs and grandchildren.

Having suffered two unsuccessful pregnancies, Catherine gave birth to Pavel, who, by Elizabeth’s personal decree, was separated from his mother and raised separately. According to an unconfirmed theory, Pavel’s father was S.V. Saltykov, who was sent away from the capital immediately after the birth of the child. This statement can be supported by the fact that after the birth of his son, Peter III finally ceased to be interested in his wife and did not hesitate to have favorites.

S. Saltykov

Stanislav August Poniatowski

However, Catherine herself was not inferior to her husband and, thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Williams, entered into a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland (thanks to the patronage of Catherine II herself). According to some historians, it was from Poniatowski that Anna was born, whose own paternity Peter questioned.

Williams, for some time, was a friend and confidant of Catherine, gave her loans, manipulated and received confidential information regarding Russia's foreign policy plans and the actions of its military units during the seven-year war with Prussia.

The future Catherine the Great began to hatch and voice her first plans to overthrow her husband back in 1756, in letters to Williams. Seeing the painful state of Empress Elizabeth, and Peter’s own incompetence beyond doubt, Chancellor Bestuzhev promised to support Catherine. In addition, Catherine attracted English loans to bribe her supporters.

In 1758, Elizabeth began to suspect the commander-in-chief of the Russian Empire, Apraksin, and Chancellor Bestuzhev, of a conspiracy. The latter managed to avoid disgrace by destroying all correspondence with Catherine in time. Former favorites, including Williams, who was recalled to England, were removed from Catherine and she was forced to look for new supporters - they became Dashkova and the Orlov brothers.

British Ambassador Ch, Williams

Brothers Alexey and Grigory Orlov

On January 5, 1761, Empress Elizabeth died and Peter III ascended the throne by right of inheritance. The next round in Catherine’s biography began. The new emperor sent his wife to the other end of the Winter Palace, replacing her with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova. In 1762, Catherine’s carefully hidden pregnancy from Count Grigory Orlov, with whom she began a relationship back in 1760, could in no way be explained by her relationship with her legal spouse.

For this reason, to distract attention, on April 22, 1762, one of Catherine’s devoted servants set fire to her own house - Peter III, who loved such spectacles, left the palace and Catherine calmly gave birth to Alexei Grigorievich Bobrinsky.

Organization of the coup

From the very beginning of his reign, Peter III caused discontent among his subordinates - an alliance with Prussia, which was defeated in the Seven Years' War, and aggravation of relations with Denmark. secularization of church lands and plans to change religious practices.

Taking advantage of her husband's unpopularity among the military, Catherine's supporters began to actively agitate the guards units to go over to the side of the future empress in the event of a coup.

The early morning of July 9, 1762 marked the beginning of the overthrow of Peter III. Ekaterina Alekseevna arrived in St. Petersburg from Peterhof, accompanied by the Orlov brothers, and taking advantage of her husband’s absence, took the oath first to the guards units, and then to other regiments.

Oath of the Izmailovsky Regiment to Catherine II. Unknown artist. The end of the 18th - first third of the 19th century.

Moving along with the joining troops, the Empress first received from Peter a proposal for negotiations, and why abdication of the throne.

After his conclusion, the biography of the ex-emperor was as sad as it was vague. The arrested husband died while under arrest in Ropsha, and the circumstances of his death remained unclear. According to a number of sources, he was either poisoned or died suddenly from an unknown illness.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine the Great issued a manifesto accusing Peter III of attempting to change religion and make peace with hostile Prussia.

Beginning of reign

In foreign policy, the beginning was made of the creation of the so-called Northern System, which consisted of the northern non-Catholic states: Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and Saxony, plus Catholic Poland, uniting against Austria and France. The first step towards the implementation of the project was considered to be the conclusion of an agreement with Prussia. Secret articles were attached to the agreement, according to which both allies pledged to act together in Sweden and Poland in order to prevent their strengthening.

Prussian King - Frederick II the Great

Catherine and Frederick were especially concerned about the course of affairs in Poland. They agreed to prevent changes in the Polish constitution, to prevent and destroy all intentions that could lead to this, even resorting to weapons. In a separate article, the allies agreed to patronize Polish dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants) and persuade the Polish king to equalize their rights with Catholics.

The former king Augustus III died back in 1763. Frederick and Catherine set themselves the difficult task of placing their protege on the Polish throne. The Empress wanted it to be her former lover, Count Poniatowski. In achieving this, she did not stop either at bribing the Sejm deputies or at the introduction of Russian troops into Poland.

The entire first half of the year was spent in active propaganda of the Russian protege. On August 26, Poniatowski was elected king of Poland. Catherine greatly rejoiced at this success and, without delaying the matter, ordered Poniatowski to raise the question of the rights of dissidents, despite the fact that everyone who knew the state of affairs in Poland pointed out the great difficulty and almost impossibility of achieving this goal. Poniatowski wrote to his ambassador in St. Petersburg, Rzhevusky:

“The orders given to Repnin (the Russian ambassador in Warsaw) to introduce dissidents into the legislative activities of the republic are thunderclaps both for the country and for me personally. If there is any human possibility, inspire the empress that the crown that she delivered to me will become for me the clothes of Nessus: I will burn in it and my end will be terrible. I clearly foresee the terrible choice ahead of me if the empress insists on her orders: either I will have to renounce her friendship, so dear to my heart and so necessary for my reign and for my state, or I will have to appear as a traitor to my fatherland.”

Russian diplomat N.V. Repnin

Even Repnin was horrified by Catherine’s intentions:
“The orders given” regarding the dissident case are terrible,” he wrote to Panin, “my hair truly stands on end when I think about it, having almost no hope, except for the only force, to fulfill the will of the most merciful empress regarding civil dissident benefits.” .

But Catherine was not horrified and ordered Poniatovsky to answer that she absolutely did not understand how dissidents admitted to legislative activity would, as a result, be more hostile towards the Polish state and government than they are now; cannot understand how the king considers himself a traitor to the fatherland for what justice requires, which will constitute his glory and the solid good of the state.
“If the king views this matter this way,” Catherine concluded, “then I am left with eternal and sensitive regret that I could have been deceived in the king’s friendship, in the way of his thoughts and feelings.”

As soon as the empress so unequivocally expressed her desire, Repnin in Warsaw was forced to act with all possible firmness. Through intrigue, bribery and threats, the introduction of Russian troops into the outskirts of Warsaw and the arrest of the most stubborn opponents, Repnin achieved his goal on February 9, 1768. The Sejm agreed to freedom of religion for dissidents and their political equation with the Catholic gentry.

It seemed that the goal had been achieved, but in reality this was only the beginning of a big war. The dissident “equation” set fire to all of Poland. The Sejm, which approved the treaty on February 13, had barely dispersed when the lawyer Puławski raised a confederation against it in Bar. With his light hand, anti-dissident confederations began to break out throughout Poland.

The Orthodox response to the Bar Confederation was the Haydamak revolt of 1768, in which, together with the Haydamaks (Russian fugitives who had gone to the steppes), the Cossacks led by Zheleznyak and the serfs with the centurion Gonta rose up. At the height of the uprising, one of the Haidamak detachments crossed the border river Kolyma and plundered the Tatar town of Galta. As soon as this became known in Istanbul, a 20,000-strong Turkish corps was moved to the borders. On September 25, the Russian ambassador Obrezkov was arrested, diplomatic relations were severed - the Russian-Turkish war began. The dissident case took such an unexpected turn.

First wars

Having suddenly received two wars on her hands, Catherine was not at all embarrassed. On the contrary, threats from the west and south only gave her more enthusiasm. She wrote to Count Chernyshev:
“The Turks and the French decided to wake up the cat, who was sleeping; I am this cat who promises to make myself known to them, so that the memory does not quickly disappear. I find that we have freed ourselves from a great burden that oppresses the imagination when we got rid of the peace treaty... Now I am free, I can do everything that my means allow, and Russia, you know, has quite a lot of means... and now we will set the ringing tone for what didn’t expect it, and now the Turks will be beaten.”

The Empress's enthusiasm was transmitted to those around her. Already at the first meeting of the Council on November 4, it was decided to wage an offensive war, not a defensive one, and first of all try to raise the Christians oppressed by Turkey. To this end, on November 12, Grigory Orlov proposed sending an expedition to the Mediterranean Sea in order to promote the uprising of the Greeks.

Catherine liked this plan, and she energetically began to implement it. On November 16, she wrote to Chernyshev:
“I tickled our seamen so much in their craft that they became fire.”

And a few days later:
“I now have a fleet in excellent care, and I will truly use it in such a way, if God so commands, as it has never been before...”

Prince A. M. Golitsyn

Hostilities began in 1769. The army of General Golitsyn crossed the Dnieper and took Khotyn. But Catherine was dissatisfied with his slowness and transferred the supreme command to Rumyantsev, who soon captured Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as the coast of the Azov Sea with Azov and Taganrog. Catherine ordered to strengthen these cities and begin organizing a flotilla.

This year she developed amazing energy, worked like a real chief of the general staff, went into the details of military preparations, drew up plans and instructions. In April, Catherine wrote to Chernyshev:
“I am setting fire to the Turkish empire from all four corners; I don’t know whether it will catch fire and burn, but I know that since the beginning they have not yet been used against their great troubles and worries... We have brewed a lot of porridge, it will be tasty for someone. I have an army in the Kuban, armies against the brainless Poles, ready to fight with the Swedes, and three more inpetto turmoil, which I don’t dare show..."

In fact, there were a lot of troubles and worries. In July 1769, a squadron under the command of Spiridov finally sailed from Kronstadt. Of the 15 large and small ships of the squadron, only eight reached the Mediterranean Sea.

With these forces, Alexey Orlov, who was being treated in Italy and asked to be the leader of the uprising of Turkish Christians, raised the Morea, but could not give the rebels a solid military structure, and, having suffered failure from the approaching Turkish army, abandoned the Greeks to their fate, irritated by the fact that he did not find Themistocles in them. Catherine approved of all his actions.

Having united with another squadron of Elfingston, which had meanwhile approached, Orlov chased the Turkish fleet and in the Strait of Chios near the fortress of Chesme overtook an armada with a number of ships more than twice as strong as the Russian fleet. After a four-hour battle, the Turks took refuge in Chesme Bay (June 24, 1770). A day later, on a moonlit night, the Russians launched fire ships and by morning the Turkish fleet crowded in the bay was burned (June 26).

Amazing naval victories in the Archipelago were followed by similar land victories in Bessarabia. Ekaterina wrote to Rumyantsev:
“I hope for Divine help and your skill in military affairs, that you will not abandon this in the best possible way and carry out such deeds that will gain you glory and prove how great your zeal is for the fatherland and for me. The Romans did not ask when, where there were two or three legions of them, how many the enemy was against them, but where he was; They attacked him and struck him, and it was not by the numbers of their troops that they defeated the multitude against their crowd...”

Inspired by this letter, Rumyantsev twice defeated the vastly superior Turkish armies at Larga and Kagul in July 1770. At the same time, an important fortress on the Dniester, Bendery, was taken. In 1771, General Dolgorukov broke through Perekop into the Crimea and captured the fortresses of Kafu, Kerch and Yenikale. Khan Selim-Girey fled to Turkey. The new khan Sahib-Girey hastened to make peace with the Russians. At this point the active actions ended and long negotiations about peace began, again returning Catherine to Polish affairs.

Assault Bender

Russia's military successes aroused envy and fear in neighboring countries, especially Austria and Prussia. Misunderstandings with Austria reached the point that they started talking loudly about the possibility of war with her. Frederick strenuously instilled in the Russian empress that Russia’s desire to annex Crimea and Moldova could lead to a new European war, since Austria would never agree to this. It would be much more reasonable to take part of the Polish possessions as compensation. He directly wrote to his ambassador Solms that it does not matter to Russia where it will receive the reward to which it is entitled for military losses, and since the war began solely because of Poland, Russia has the right to take its reward from the border regions of this republic. Austria should have received its part in this case - this would moderate its hostility. The king, too, cannot do without acquiring a part of Poland for himself. This will reward him for the subsidies and other expenses he incurred during the war.

In St. Petersburg, the idea of ​​dividing Poland was liked. On July 25, 1772, an agreement followed between the three shareholder powers, according to which Austria received all of Galicia, Prussia received Western Prussia, and Russia received Belarus. Having settled the contradictions with its European neighbors at the expense of Poland, Catherine could begin Turkish negotiations.

Break with Orlov

At the beginning of 1772, through the Austrians, they agreed to begin a peace congress with the Turks in Focsani in June. Count Grigory Orlov and the former Russian ambassador to Istanbul Obrezkov were appointed plenipotentiaries on the Russian side.

It seemed that nothing foreshadowed the end of the empress’s 11-year relationship with her favorite, and yet Orlov’s star had already set. True, before breaking up with him, Catherine endured as much from her lover as a rare woman is able to endure from her legal husband

Already in 1765, seven years before the final break between them, Beranger reported from St. Petersburg:
“This Russian openly violates the laws of love in relation to the Empress. He has mistresses in the city who not only do not incur the wrath of the empress for their compliance with Orlov, but, on the contrary, enjoy her patronage. Senator Muravyov, who found his wife with him, almost caused a scandal by demanding a divorce; but the queen pacified him by giving him lands in Livonia.”

But, apparently, Catherine was in fact not at all as indifferent to these betrayals as it might seem. Less than two weeks had passed after Orlov’s departure, and the Prussian envoy Solms was already reporting to Berlin:
“I can no longer restrain myself from informing Your Majesty about an interesting event that has just happened at this court. The absence of Count Orlov revealed a very natural, but nevertheless unexpected circumstance: Her Majesty found it possible to do without him, change her feelings for him and transfer her affection to another subject.

A. S. Vasilchakov

The Horse Guards cornet Vasilchikov, accidentally sent with a small detachment to Tsarskoe Selo to stand guard, attracted the attention of his empress, completely unexpectedly for everyone, because there was nothing special in his appearance, and he himself never tried to advance and is very little known in society . When the royal court moved from Tsarskoye Selo to Peterhof, Her Majesty for the first time showed him a sign of her favor by presenting him with a golden snuffbox for the proper maintenance of the guards.

This incident was not given any importance, but Vasilchikov’s frequent visits to Peterhof, the care with which she hastened to distinguish him from others, the calmer and cheerful disposition of her spirit since Orlov’s removal, the displeasure of the latter’s relatives and friends, and finally many other small circumstances opened the eyes of the courtiers .

Although everything is still kept secret, none of those close to him doubt that Vasilchikov is already in complete favor with the empress; They were convinced of this especially from the day when he was granted a chamber cadet...”

Meanwhile, Orlov encountered insurmountable obstacles to concluding peace in Focsani. The Turks did not want to recognize the independence of the Tatars. On August 18, Orlov broke off the negotiations and left for Iasi, to the headquarters of the Russian army. It was here that he received the news about the drastic change that had followed in his life. Orlov abandoned everything and rushed to St. Petersburg on post horses, hoping to regain his former rights. A hundred miles from the capital, he was stopped by an order from the empress: Orlov was ordered to go to his estates and not leave there until the end of the quarantine (he was traveling from the territory where the plague was raging). Although the favorite did not immediately have to reconcile, at the beginning of 1773 he nevertheless arrived in St. Petersburg and was greeted favorably by the empress, but the previous relationship was no longer out of the question.

“I owe a lot to the Orlov family,” said Catherine, “I showered them with riches and honors; and I will always patronize them, and they can be useful to me; but my decision is unchanged: I endured for eleven years; Now I want to live as I please, and completely independently. As for the prince, he can do absolutely whatever he wants: he is free to travel or stay in the empire, drink, hunt, have mistresses... If he behaves well, honor and glory to him, if he behaves badly, it’s a shame for him...”
***

The years 1773 and 1774 turned out to be restless for Catherine: the Poles continued to resist, the Turks did not want to make peace. The war, exhausting the state budget, continued, and meanwhile a new threat arose in the Urals. In September, Emelyan Pugachev rebelled. In October, the rebels accumulated forces for the siege of Orenburg and the nobles around the empress openly panicked.

Matters of the heart did not go well for Catherine either. She later confessed to Potemkin, referring to her relationship with Vasilchikov:
“I have been more sad than I can say, and never more than when other people are happy, and all kinds of caresses forced tears in me, so I think that since I was born I have not cried as much as I have these year and a half; At first I thought that I would get used to it, but what happened next became worse, because on the other side (that is, on Vasilchikov’s side) they began to sulk for three months, and I must admit that I have never been happier than when he gets angry and leaves him alone, but His caress forced me to cry.”

It is known that in her favorites Catherine sought not only lovers, but also assistants in the matter of government. She eventually managed to make good statesmen out of the Orlovs. Vasilchikov was less fortunate. However, another contender remained in reserve, whom Catherine had long liked - Grigory Potemkin. Catherine has known and celebrated him for 12 years. In 1762, Potemkin served as a sergeant in the Horse Guards regiment and took an active part in the coup. In the list of awards after the events of June 28, he was assigned the rank of cornet. Catherine crossed out this line and wrote “captain-lieutenant” in her own hand.

In 1773 he was promoted to lieutenant general. In June of this year, Potemkin was in the battle under the walls of Silistria. But a few months later, he suddenly asked for leave and quickly, hastily left the army. The reason for this was an event that decided his life: he received the following letter from Catherine:
“Mr. Lieutenant General! You, I imagine, are so busy with the sight of Silistria that you have no time to read letters. I do not know whether the bombing has been successful so far, but, despite this, I am sure that - whatever you personally undertake - cannot be prescribed for any other purpose than your ardent zeal for the benefit of me personally and my dear homeland, whom you lovingly serve. But, on the other hand, since I want to preserve zealous, brave, intelligent and efficient people, I ask you not to expose yourself to danger unnecessarily. After reading this letter, you may ask why it was written; To this I can answer you: so that you have confidence in how I think about you, just as I wish you well.”

In January 1774, Potemkin was in St. Petersburg, waited another six weeks, testing the waters, strengthening his chances, and on February 27 he wrote a letter to the Empress in which he asked to graciously appoint him adjutant general, “if she considered his services worthy.” Three days later he received a favorable response, and on March 20 Vasilchikov was sent the highest order to go to Moscow. He retired, giving way to Potemkin, who was destined to become Catherine's most famous and powerful favorite. In a matter of months, he made a dizzying career.

In May he was made a member of the Council, in June he was promoted to count, in October he was promoted to general-in-chief, and in November he was awarded the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. All of Catherine’s friends were perplexed and found the empress’s choice strange, extravagant, even tasteless, for Potemkin was ugly, crooked in one eye, bow-legged, harsh and even rude. Grimm could not hide his amazement.
"Why? - Catherine answered him. “I bet it’s because I moved away from a certain excellent, but overly boring gentleman, who was immediately replaced, I really don’t know how, by one of the greatest funnymen, the most interesting eccentric that can be found in our Iron Age.”

She was very pleased with her new acquisition.
“Oh, what a head this man has,” she said, “and that good head is as funny as the devil.”

Several months passed, and Potemkin became a real ruler, an omnipotent man, before whom all rivals cowered and all heads bowed, starting with Catherine’s. His entry into the Council was tantamount to becoming First Minister. He directs domestic and foreign policy and forces Chernyshev to give him the place of chairman of the military board.

On July 10, 1774, negotiations with Turkey ended with the signing of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty, according to which:

• the independence of the Tatars and the Crimean Khanate from the Ottoman Empire was recognized;
• Kerch and Yenikale in Crimea go to Russia;
• Russia receives the Kinburn castle and the steppe between the Dnieper and the Bug, Azov, Greater and Lesser Kabarda;
• free navigation of merchant ships of the Russian Empire through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits;
• Moldova and Wallachia received the right to autonomy and came under Russian protection;
• The Russian Empire received the right to build a Christian church in Constantinople, and the Turkish authorities pledged to provide its protection
• A ban on the oppression of Orthodox Christians in Transcaucasia, on the collection of tribute by people from Georgia and Mingrelia.
• 4.5 million rubles in indemnity.

The empress's joy was great - no one had counted on such a profitable peace. But at the same time, more and more alarming news came from the east. Pugachev had already been defeated twice. He fled, but his flight seemed like an invasion. Never has the success of the uprising been greater than in the summer of 1774; never has the rebellion raged with such power and cruelty.

Indignation spread like fire from one village to another, from province to province. This sad news made a deep impression in St. Petersburg and darkened the victorious mood after the end of the Turkish War. Only in August Pugachev was finally defeated and captured. On January 10, 1775, he was executed in Moscow.

In Polish affairs, on February 16, 1775, the Sejm finally passed a law giving dissidents equal political rights with Catholics. Thus, despite all the obstacles, Catherine completed this difficult task and successfully ended three bloody wars - two external and one internal.

Execution of Emelyan Pugachev

***
The Pugachev uprising revealed serious shortcomings of the existing regional administration: firstly, the former provinces represented too large administrative districts, secondly, these districts were supplied with too insufficient number of institutions with meager personnel, thirdly, various departments were mixed in this administration: one and the same department was in charge of administrative affairs, finance, and criminal and civil courts. In order to eliminate these shortcomings, in 1775 Catherine began a provincial reform.

First of all, she introduced a new regional division: instead of 20 vast provinces into which Russia was then divided, now the entire empire was divided into 50 provinces. The basis of the provincial division was based solely on the number of population. The provinces of Catherine are districts of 300-400 thousand inhabitants. They were divided into counties with a population of 20-30 thousand inhabitants. Each province received a uniform structure, administrative and judicial.

In the summer of 1775, Catherine stayed in Moscow, where the house of the Golitsyn princes at the Prechistensky Gate was given to her. At the beginning of July, the victorious Turks, Field Marshal Count Rumyantsev, arrived in Moscow. The news has been preserved that Catherine, dressed in a Russian sundress, met Rumyantsev. on the porch of the Golitsyn house and, hugging and kissing. Then she drew attention to Zavadovsky, a powerful, stately and exceptionally handsome man accompanying the field marshal. Noticing the empress's affectionate and interested glance at Zavadovsky, the field marshal immediately introduced the handsome man to Catherine, speaking flatteringly of him as a well-educated, hardworking, honest and brave man.

Catherine granted Zavadovsky a diamond ring with her name and appointed him as her cabinet secretary. Soon he was promoted to major general and adjutant general, began to be in charge of the personal office of the empress and became one of the people closest to her. At the same time, Potemkin noticed that his charm for the empress had weakened. In April 1776, he went on vacation to inspect the Novgorod province. A few days after his departure, Zavadovsky settled in his place.

P. V. Zavadovsky

But, having ceased to be a lover, Potemkin, who was granted a prince in 1776, retained all his influence and the sincere friendship of the empress. Almost until his death, he remained the second person in the state, determined domestic and foreign policy, and none of the subsequent numerous favorites, up to Platon Zubov, even tried to play the role of a statesman. All of them were brought close to Catherine by Potemkin himself, who tried in this way to influence the empress’s disposition.

First of all, he tried to remove Zavadovsky. Potemkin had to spend almost a year on this, and luck did not come before he discovered Semyon Zorich. He was a cavalry hero and a handsome man, Serbian by birth. Potemkin took Zorich as his adjutant and almost immediately nominated him for appointment as commander of a life hussar squadron. Since the life hussars were the empress’s personal guard, Zorich’s appointment to the post was preceded by his introduction to Catherine.

S. G. Zorich

In May 1777, Potemkin arranged an audience for the empress with a potential favorite - and he was not mistaken in his calculations. Zavadovsky was suddenly granted a six-month leave, and Zorich was promoted to colonel, adjutant and chief of the life hussar squadron. Zorich was already approaching forty, and he was full of manly beauty, however, unlike Zavadovsky, he had little education (later he himself admitted that he had gone to war at the age of 15 and that before his intimacy with the empress he remained a complete ignoramus). Catherine tried to instill in him literary and scientific tastes, but, it seems, she had little success in this.

Zorich was stubborn and reluctant to be educated. In September 1777 he became a major general, and in the fall of 1778 - a count. But having received this title, he was suddenly offended, since he expected a princely title. Soon after this, he had a quarrel with Potemkin, which almost ended in a duel. Finding out about this, Catherine ordered Zorich to go to her estate Shklov.

Even before that, Potemkin began to look for a new favorite for his girlfriend. Several candidates were considered, among which, they say, there was even a Persian distinguished by extraordinary physical characteristics. Finally, Potemkin settled on three officers - Bergman, Rontsov and Ivan Korsakov. Gelbich says that Catherine went out to the reception room when all three candidates appointed for the audience were there. Each of them stood with a bouquet of flowers, and she graciously talked first with Bergman, then with Rontsov and, finally, with Korsakov. The extraordinary beauty and grace of the latter captivated her. Catherine smiled mercifully at everyone, but with a bouquet of flowers she sent Korsakov to Potemkin, who became the next favorite. It is known from other sources that Korsakov did not immediately achieve the desired position.

In general, in 1778, Catherine experienced a kind of moral breakdown and became interested in several young people at once. In June, the Englishman Harris notes the rise of Korsakov, and in August he already speaks of his rivals who are trying to take away the empress’s favors from him; they are supported on the one hand by Potemkin, and on the other by Panin together with Orlov; in September Strakhov, a “jester of the lowest order,” gains the upper hand over everyone; four months later, his place is taken by Major Levashev of the Semenovsky regiment, a young man protected by Countess Bruce. Then Korsakov again returns to his previous position, but now fights with some Stoyanov, Potemkin’s favorite. In 1779, he finally achieved complete victory over his competitors and became chamberlain and adjutant general.

To Grimm, who considered his friend’s hobby a mere whim, Catherine wrote:
"Whim? Do you know what this is: the expression is completely inappropriate in this case, when talking about Pyrrhus, King of Epirus (as Catherine called Korsakov), and about this subject of temptation for all artists and despair for all sculptors. Admiration, enthusiasm, and not whim excite such exemplary creations of nature... Pyrrhus never made a single ignoble or ungraceful gesture or movement... But all this in general is not effeminacy, but, on the contrary, courage, and he is what you would like him to be he was…"

In addition to his amazing appearance, Korsakov charmed the empress with his wonderful voice. The reign of the new favorite constitutes an era in the history of Russian music. Catherine invited the first artists of Italy to St. Petersburg so that Korsakov could sing with them. She wrote to Grimm:

“Never have I met anyone so capable of enjoying harmonic sounds as Pyrrha, the king of Epirus.”

Rimsky-Korsakov I. N.

Unfortunately for himself, Korsakov was unable to maintain his height. One day at the beginning of 1780, Catherine found her favorite in the arms of her friend and confidante Countess Bruce. This greatly cooled her ardor, and soon Korsakov’s place was taken by 22-year-old horse guard Alexander Lanskoy.

Lanskoy was introduced to Catherine by Chief of Police Tolstoy, and the Empress liked him at first sight: she appointed him to the adjutant wing and gave him 10,000 rubles for the establishment. But he did not become a favorite. However, Lanskoy showed a lot of common sense from the very beginning and turned to Potemkin for support, who appointed him one of his adjutants and supervised his court education for about six months.

He discovered a lot of wonderful qualities in his pupil and in the spring of 1780, with a light heart, he recommended him to the Empress as a warm friend. Catherine promoted Lansky to colonel, then to adjutant general and chamberlain, and soon he settled in the palace in the empty apartments of his former favorite.

Of all Catherine's lovers, this was, without a doubt, the most pleasant and sweet. According to contemporaries, Lanskoy did not enter into any intrigues, tried not to harm anyone and completely abandoned government affairs, rightly believing that politics would force him to make enemies for himself. Lansky’s only all-consuming passion was Catherine. He wanted to reign in her heart alone and did everything to achieve this. There was something maternal in the passion of the 54-year-old empress for him. She caressed and educated him like her beloved child. Catherine wrote to Grimm:
“So that you can form an idea about this young man, you need to convey what Prince Orlov said about him to one of his friends: “See what kind of person she will make of him!..” He absorbs everything with greed! He began by swallowing all the poets and their poems in one winter; and in the other - several historians... Without studying anything, we will have countless knowledge and find pleasure in communicating with everything that is the best and most dedicated. In addition, we build and plant; Moreover, we are charitable, cheerful, honest and full of simplicity.”

Under the guidance of his mentor, Lanskoy studied French, became acquainted with philosophy and, finally, became interested in works of art with which the empress loved to surround herself. The four years lived in Lansky’s company were perhaps the calmest and happiest in Catherine’s life, as evidenced by many contemporaries. However, she always led a very moderate and measured life.
***

Daily routine of the Empress

Catherine usually woke up at six o'clock in the morning. At the beginning of her reign, she dressed herself and lit the fireplace. Later she was dressed in the mornings by chamberlain-jungfer Perekusikhin. Catherine rinsed her mouth with warm water, rubbed ice on her cheeks and went to her office. Here, very strong morning coffee awaited her, usually served with thick cream and cookies. The Empress herself ate little, but half a dozen Italian greyhounds, who always shared breakfast with Catherine, emptied the sugar bowl and the basket of biscuits. Having finished eating, the Empress let the dogs out for a walk, and she sat down to work and wrote until nine o’clock.

At nine she returned to the bedroom and received the speakers. The chief of police was the first to enter. To read the papers submitted for signature, the Empress put on glasses. Then the secretary appeared and work with documents began.

As you know, the Empress read and wrote in three languages, but at the same time she made many syntactical and grammatical errors, not only in Russian and French, but also in her native German. Errors in Russian, of course, were the most annoying thing. Catherine was aware of this and once admitted to one of her secretaries:
“Don't laugh at my Russian spelling; I'll tell you why I didn't have time to study it well. Upon my arrival here, I began to study Russian with great diligence. Aunt Elizaveta Petrovna, having learned about this, told my chamberlain: it’s enough to teach her, she’s already smart. Thus, I could only learn Russian from books without a teacher, and this is the very reason that I don’t know spelling well.”

The secretaries had to copy out all the empress's drafts. But classes with the secretary were interrupted every now and then by visits from generals, ministers and dignitaries. This continued until lunch, which was usually at one or two.

Having dismissed the secretary, Catherine went to the small restroom, where the old hairdresser Kolov combed her hair. Catherine took off her hood and cap and put on an extremely simple, open and loose dress with double sleeves and wide, low-heeled shoes. On weekdays, the Empress did not wear any jewelry. On formal occasions, Catherine wore an expensive velvet dress, the so-called “Russian style,” and decorated her hair with a crown. She did not follow Parisian fashions and did not encourage this expensive pleasure in her court ladies.

Having finished her toilet, Catherine moved to the official dressing room, where they finished dressing her. It was a time of small output. Grandchildren, a favorite and several close friends like Lev Naryshkin gathered here. The empress was served pieces of ice, and she quite openly rubbed them on her cheeks. Then the hairstyle was covered with a small tulle cap, and that was the end of the toilet. The whole ceremony lasted about 10 minutes. After that, everyone went to the table.

On weekdays, twelve people were invited to lunch. The favorite sat on the right hand. Lunch lasted about an hour and was very simple. Catherine never cared about the sophistication of her table. Her favorite dish was boiled beef with pickles. She drank currant juice as a drink. In the last years of her life, on the advice of doctors, Catherine drank a glass of Madeira or Rhine wine. For dessert, fruit was served, mainly apples and cherries.

Among Catherine’s cooks, one cooked extremely poorly. But she did not notice this, and when, after many years, her attention was finally drawn to it, she did not allow him to be counted, saying that he had served in her house too long. She only inquired when he was on duty, and, sitting down at the table, told the guests:
“We are now on a Diet, we need to be patient, but then we will eat well.”

After dinner, Catherine talked with those invited for several minutes, then everyone dispersed. Catherine sat down at the hoop - she embroidered very skillfully - and Betsky read aloud to her. When Betsky, having grown old, began to lose his sight, she did not want anyone to replace him and began to read herself, putting on glasses.

Analyzing the numerous references to the books she read, scattered in her correspondence, we can safely say that Catherine was aware of all the book innovations of her time, and read everything indiscriminately: from philosophical treatises and historical works to novels. She, of course, could not deeply assimilate all this enormous material, and her erudition largely remained superficial and her knowledge shallow, but in general she could judge many different problems.

The rest lasted about an hour. Then the empress was informed about the secretary's arrival: twice a week she sorted foreign mail with him and made notes in the margins of dispatches. On other designated days, officials came to her with reports or for orders.
During moments of a break in business, Catherine had fun with the children carefree.

In 1776 she wrote to her friend Mrs. Behlke:
“You have to be cheerful. Only this helps us overcome and endure everything. I tell you this from experience, because I have overcome and endured a lot in life. But I still laughed when I could, and I swear to you that even now, when I bear the full weight of my situation, I play with all my heart, when the opportunity presents itself, at blind man’s buff with my son, and very often without him. We come up with an excuse for this, we say: “It’s good for health,” but, between ourselves, we do it just to fool around.”

At four o'clock the empress's working day ended, and it was time for rest and entertainment. Along the long gallery, Catherine walked from the Winter Palace to the Hermitage. This was her favorite place to stay. She was accompanied by her favorite. She looked at new collections and displayed them, played a game of billiards, and sometimes carved ivory. At six o'clock the Empress returned to the reception chambers of the Hermitage, which were already filled with persons admitted to the court.

Count Hord described the Hermitage in his memoirs as follows:
“It occupies an entire wing of the imperial palace and consists of an art gallery, two large rooms for playing cards and another where they dine on two tables “family style”, and next to these rooms there is a winter garden, covered and well lit. There they walk among the trees and numerous pots of flowers. Various birds fly and sing there, mainly canaries. The garden is heated by underground ovens; Despite the harsh climate, there is always a pleasant temperature.

This charming apartment is made even better by the freedom that reigns here. Everyone feels at ease: the empress has banished all etiquette from here. Here they walk, play, sing; everyone does what he likes. The art gallery is replete with first-class masterpieces.".

All sorts of games were a huge success at these meetings. Catherine was the first to participate in them, arousing gaiety in everyone and allowing all sorts of liberties.

At ten o'clock the game ended, and Catherine retired to the inner chambers. Dinner was served only on ceremonial occasions, but even then Catherine sat at the table only for show... Returning to her room, she went to the bedroom, drank a large glass of boiled water and went to bed.
This was Catherine’s private life according to the memoirs of her contemporaries. Her intimate life is less known, although it is also no secret. The Empress was an amorous woman who, until her death, retained the ability to be carried away by young people.

Some of her official lovers numbered more than a dozen. With all this, as already mentioned, she was not a beauty at all.
“To tell the truth,” Catherine herself wrote, “I never considered myself extremely beautiful, but I was liked, and I think that was my strength.”

All the portraits that have reached us confirm this opinion. But there is also no doubt that there was something extremely attractive in this woman, something that had eluded the brushes of all painters and made many sincerely admire her appearance. With age, the empress did not lose her attractiveness, although she became more and more plump.

Catherine was not at all flighty or depraved. Many of her relationships lasted for years, and although the empress was far from indifferent to sensual pleasures, spiritual communication with a close man also remained very important to her. But it is also true that Catherine, after the Orlovs, never raped her heart. If the favorite ceased to interest her, she resigned without any ceremony.

At the next evening reception, the courtiers noticed that the empress was looking intently at some unknown lieutenant, introduced to her only the day before or previously lost in the brilliant crowd. Everyone understood what this meant. During the day, the young man was summoned to the palace with a short order and subjected to repeated testing to ensure compliance in performing the direct intimate duties of the empress’s favorite.

A. M. Turgenev talks about this ritual, which all Catherine’s lovers went through:
“They usually sent someone chosen as Her Majesty’s favorite to Anna Stepanovna Protasova for testing. After examining the concubine destined for the highest rank to the Mother Empress by the life physician Rogerson and on the certificate of being fit for service regarding his health, the recruited one was taken to Anna Stepanovna Protasova for a three-night trial. When the betrothed fully satisfied Protasova’s requirements, she reported to the most gracious empress about the trustworthiness of the person tested, and then the first meeting was scheduled according to the established etiquette of the court or according to the highest regulations for the ordination of the confirmed concubine.

Perekusikhina Marya Savvishna and valet Zakhar Konstantinovich were obliged to dine with the chosen one that same day. At 10 o'clock in the evening, when the empress was already in bed, Perekusikhina led the new recruit into the bedchamber of the most pious, dressed in a Chinese dressing gown, with a book in his hands, and left him to read in the chairs near the bed of the anointed one. The next day, Perekusikhin took the initiate out of the bedchamber and handed him over to Zakhar Konstantinovich, who led the newly appointed concubine to the chambers prepared for him; here Zakhar already slavishly reported to his favorite that the most gracious empress had most deigned to appoint him as her aide-de-camp to the highest person, and presented him with an aide-de-camp uniform with a diamond agraph and 100,000 rubles of pocket money.

Before the empress went out to the Hermitage in the winter, and in the summer, in Tsarskoe Selo, in the garden, to walk with the new aide-de-camp, to whom she gave her hand to guide her, the front hall of the new favorite was filled with the highest state dignitaries, nobles, courtiers to bring him the most diligent Congratulations on receiving the highest favor. The most enlightened shepherd, the Metropolitan, usually came to the favorite the next day to dedicate him and blessed him with holy water.”.

Subsequently, the procedure became more complicated, and after Potemkin, the favorites were checked not only by the maid of honor Protasova, but also by Countess Bruce, Perekusikhina, and Utochkina.

In June 1784, Lanskoy became seriously and dangerously ill - they said that he had undermined his health by abusing stimulant drugs. Catherine did not leave the sufferer for an hour, almost stopped eating, abandoned all her affairs and looked after him like a mother for her only infinitely beloved son. Then she wrote:
“A malignant fever combined with a toad brought him to the grave in five days.”

On the evening of June 25, Lanskoy died. Catherine's grief was boundless.
“When I began this letter, I was in happiness and joy, and my thoughts rushed by so quickly that I did not have time to follow them,” she wrote to Grimm. “Now everything has changed: I suffer terribly, and my happiness is gone; I thought I couldn't bear the irreparable loss I suffered a week ago when my best friend passed away. I hoped that he would be the support of my old age: he also strived for this, tried to instill in himself all my tastes. This was the young man I raised who was grateful, gentle, honest, who shared my sorrows when I had them and rejoiced in my joys.

In a word, I, sobbing, have the misfortune to tell you that General Lansky is gone... and my room, which I loved so much before, has now turned into an empty cave; I can barely move along it like a shadow: on the eve of his death I had a sore throat and a severe fever; however, since yesterday I have been on my feet, but I am weak and so depressed that I cannot see a person’s face, lest I burst into tears at the first word. I can neither sleep nor eat. Reading irritates me, writing exhausts my strength. I don’t know what will happen to me now; I only know one thing, that never in my entire life have I been so unhappy as since my best and dearest friend left me. I opened the box, found this piece of paper I had started, wrote these lines on it, but I can’t do it anymore...”

“I confess to you that all this time I was not able to write to you, because I knew that it would make us both suffer. A week after I wrote you my last letter in July, Fyodor Orlov and Prince Potemkin came to see me. Until that moment, I could not see a human face, but these knew what needed to be done: they roared with me, and then I felt at ease with them; but I still needed a lot of time to recover, and due to sensitivity to my grief, I became insensitive to everything else; My grief increased and was remembered at every step and at every word.

However, do not think that, as a result of this terrible state, I neglected even the slightest thing that requires my attention. In the most painful moments they came to me for orders, and I gave them sensibly and intelligently; this especially amazed General Saltykov. Two months passed without any relief; The first calm hours finally arrived, and then the days. It was already autumn, it was getting damp, and the palace in Tsarskoe Selo had to be heated. All my people went into a frenzy from this and so strong that on September 5, not knowing where to lay my head, I ordered the carriage to be laid and arrived unexpectedly and so that no one suspected it, to the city where I stayed in the Hermitage ... "

All the doors in the Winter Palace were locked. Catherine ordered the door to be knocked down in the Hermitage and went to bed. But waking up at one in the morning, she ordered the cannons to be fired, which usually heralded her arrival, and alarmed the whole city. The entire garrison rose to its feet, all the courtiers were frightened, and even she herself was surprised that she had caused such a commotion. But a few days later, having given an audience to the diplomatic corps, she appeared with her usual face, calm, healthy and fresh, friendly as before the disaster, and smiling as always.

Soon life returned to normal again, and the eternally in love returned to life. But ten months passed before she wrote to Grimm again:
“I’ll tell you in one word, instead of a hundred, that I have a friend who is very capable and worthy of this name.”

This friend was the brilliant young officer Alexander Ermolov, represented by the same irreplaceable Potemkin. He moved into the long-empty chambers of his favorites. The summer of 1785 was one of the most fun in Catherine’s life: one noisy pleasure was followed by another. The aging empress felt a new surge of legislative energy. This year, two famous letters of grant appeared - to the nobility and to the cities. These acts completed the reform of local government begun in 1775.

At the beginning of 1786, Catherine began to grow cold towards Ermolov. The latter’s resignation was accelerated by the fact that he decided to intrigue against Potemkin himself. In June, the Empress asked to tell her lover that she allowed him to go abroad for three years.

Ermolov's successor was 28-year-old guard captain Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov, a distant relative of Potemkin and his adjutant. Having made a mistake with the previous favorite, Potemkin looked closely at Mamonov for a long time before recommending him to Catherine. In August 1786, Mamonov was introduced to the empress and was soon appointed aide-de-camp. Contemporaries noted that he could not be called handsome.

Mamonov was distinguished by his tall stature and physical strength, had a high-cheeked face, slightly slanted eyes that shone with intelligence, and conversations with him gave the Empress considerable pleasure. A month later he became an ensign of the cavalry guards and a major general in the army, and in 1788 he was granted a count. The first honors did not turn the head of the new favorite - he showed restraint, tact and gained a reputation as an intelligent, cautious person. Mamonov spoke German and English well, and knew French perfectly. In addition, he proved himself to be a good poet and playwright, which especially impressed Catherine.

Thanks to all these qualities, as well as the fact that Mamonov constantly studied, read a lot and tried to seriously delve into state affairs, he became an adviser to the empress.

Catherine wrote to Grimm:
“The red caftan (as she called Mamonov) dresses a creature who has a beautiful heart and a very sincere soul. Smart for four, inexhaustible gaiety, a lot of originality in understanding things and conveying them, excellent upbringing, a lot of knowledge that can add shine to the mind. We hide our penchant for poetry as if it were a crime; We love music passionately, we understand everything incredibly easily. What we don’t know by heart! We recite and chat in the tone of the best society; exquisitely polite; We write in Russian and French, like few others, as much in style as in the beauty of the writing. Our appearance is fully consistent with our inner qualities: we have wonderful black eyes with eyebrows that are extremely contoured; below average height, noble appearance, free gait; in a word, we are as reliable in our souls as we are dexterous, strong and brilliant on the outside.”
***

Travel to Crimea

In 1787, Catherine made one of her longest and most famous journeys - she went to Crimea, which was annexed to Russia in 17.83. Before Catherine had time to return to St. Petersburg, the news broke about the severance of relations with Turkey and the arrest of the Russian ambassador in Istanbul: the second Turkish War began. To top off the troubles, the situation of the 60s was repeated when one war led to another.

They had barely gathered forces to fight back in the south when it became known that the Swedish king Gustav III intended to attack defenseless St. Petersburg. The king came to Finland and sent Vice-Chancellor Osterman a demand to return to Sweden all the lands ceded under the Nystadt and Abov peaces, and to return Crimea to the Porte.

In July 1788, the Swedish War began. Potemkin was busy in the south, and all the hardships of the war fell entirely on Catherine’s shoulders. She was personally involved in everything. affairs for the management of the naval department, ordered, for example, to build several new barracks and hospitals, to repair and put in order the Revel port.

A few years later she recalled this era in a letter to Grimm: “There is a reason why it seemed that I was doing everything so well at that time: I was then alone, almost without assistants, and, fearing to miss something through ignorance or forgetfulness, I showed activity that no one considered me capable of; I interfered in incredible details to such an extent that I even turned into an army quartermaster, but, as everyone admits, soldiers have never been better fed in a country where it was impossible to get any provisions ... "

On August 3, 1790, the Treaty of Versailles was concluded; The borders of both states remained the same as they were before the war.

Following these efforts, in 1789 another change of favorites occurred. In June, Ekaterina learned that Mamonov was having an affair with his maid of honor Daria Shcherbatov. The Empress reacted to the betrayal quite calmly. She recently turned 60 years old, and her long experience of love relationships has taught her to be forgiving. She bought Mamontov several villages with more than 2,000 peasants, gave the bride jewelry and got them engaged herself. Over the years of his favor, Mamonov received gifts and money from Catherine worth approximately 900 thousand rubles. He received the last hundred thousand in addition to three thousand peasants when he and his wife left for Moscow. At this time he could already see his successor.

On June 20, Catherine chose 22-year-old Second Captain of the Horse Guards Platon Zubov as her favorite. In July, Toth was promoted to colonel and adjutant. At first, the empress's entourage did not take him seriously.

Bezborodko wrote to Vorontsov:
“This child is well mannered, but not of great intelligence; I don’t think he’ll last long in his position.”

However, Bezborodko was wrong. Zubov was destined to become the last favorite of the great empress - he retained his position until her death.

Catherine confessed to Potemkin in August of the same year:
“I came back to life like a fly after hibernation... I’m cheerful and healthy again.”

She was touched by Zubov’s youth and the fact that he cried when he was not allowed into the Empress’s rooms. Despite his soft appearance, Zubov turned out to be a calculating and dexterous lover. His influence on the Empress became so great over the years that he managed to achieve the almost impossible: he nullified Potemkin’s charm and completely drove him out of Catherine’s heart. Having taken control of all the threads of control, in the last years of Catherine’s life he acquired enormous influence on affairs.
***
The war with Turkey continued. In 1790, Suvorov took Izmail, and Potemkin took Vendors. After this, Porte had no choice but to concede. In December 1791, peace was concluded in Iasi. Russia received the area between the Dniester and Bug rivers, where Odessa was soon built; Crimea was recognized as her possession.

Potemkin did not live long enough to see this joyful day. He died on October 5, 1791 on the road from Iasi to Nikolaev. Catherine's grief was very great. According to the testimony of the French commissioner Genet, “at this news she lost consciousness, blood rushed to her head, and they were forced to open the vein.” “Who can replace such a person? - she repeated to her secretary Khrapovitsky. “I and all of us are now like snails who are afraid to stick their heads out of their shells.”

She wrote to Grimm:

“Yesterday it hit me like a blow to the head... My student, my friend, one might say, an idol, Prince Potemkin of Tauride died... Oh, my God! Now I am truly my own helper. Again I need to train my people!..”
Catherine's last remarkable act was the division of Poland and the annexation of Western Russian lands to Russia. The second and third sections, which followed in 1793 and 1795, were a logical continuation of the first. Many years of anarchy and the events of 1772 brought many nobles to their senses. At the four-year Sejm of 1788-1791, the reform party developed a new constitution, adopted on May 3, 1791. It established hereditary royal power with the Sejm without the right of veto, the admission of deputies from townspeople, complete equality of rights for dissidents, and the abolition of confederations. All this happened in the wake of frenzied anti-Russian protests and in defiance of all previous agreements, according to which Russia guaranteed the Polish constitution. Catherine was forced to endure the insolence for now, but she wrote to the members of the foreign board:

“...I will not agree to anything from this new order of things, during the establishment of which they not only did not pay any attention to Russia, but showered it with insults, bullied her every minute...”

And indeed, as soon as peace was concluded with Turkey, Poland was occupied by Russian troops, and a Russian garrison was brought into Warsaw. This served as a prologue to the section. In November, the Prussian ambassador in St. Petersburg, Count Goltz, presented a map of Poland, which outlined the area desired by Prussia. In December, Catherine, after a detailed study of the map, approved the Russian share of the division. Most of Belarus went to Russia. After the final collapse of the May Constitution, its adherents, both those who went abroad and those who remained in Warsaw, had one way to act in favor of a lost enterprise: to form conspiracies, arouse displeasure and wait for an opportunity to raise an uprising. All this was done.
Warsaw was to become the center of the performance. The well-prepared uprising began early in the morning of April 6 (17), 1794 and was a surprise for the Russian garrison. Most of the soldiers were killed, and only a few units with heavy damage were able to make their way out of the city. Not trusting the king, the patriots proclaimed General Kosciuszko as supreme ruler. In response, an agreement on a third partition was reached in September between Austria, Prussia and Russia. The Krakow and Sendomierz voivodeships were to go to Austria. The Bug and Neman became the borders of Russia. In addition, Courland and Lithuania went to it. The rest of Poland and Warsaw were given to Prussia. On November 4, Suvorov took Warsaw. The revolutionary government was destroyed and power returned to the king. Stanislav-August wrote to Catherine:
“The fate of Poland is in your hands; your power and wisdom will solve it; whatever the fate that you assign to me personally, I cannot forget my duty to my people, pleading for them the generosity of Your Majesty.

Ekaterina answered:
“It was not in my power to prevent the disastrous consequences and to fill up under the feet of the Polish people the abyss dug by their corrupters and into which they were finally carried away...”

On October 13, 1795, the third section was made; Poland disappeared from the map of Europe. This division was soon followed by the death of the Russian empress. The decline of Catherine's moral and physical strength began in 1792. She was broken both by the death of Potemkin and by the extraordinary stress that she had to endure during the last war. The French envoy Genet wrote:

“Catherine is clearly getting old, she sees it herself, and melancholy takes possession of her soul.”

Catherine complained: “The years make us see everything in black.” Dropsy overcame the empress. It was becoming increasingly difficult for her to walk. She stubbornly fought against old age and illness, but in September 1796, after her granddaughter’s engagement to King Gustav IV of Sweden did not take place, Catherine went to bed. She suffered from colic and wounds opened on her legs. Only at the end of October did the empress feel better. On the evening of November 4, Catherine gathered an intimate circle in the Hermitage, was very cheerful the whole evening and laughed at Naryshkin’s jokes. However, she left earlier than usual, saying that she had colic from laughing. The next day, Catherine got up at her usual hour, talked with her favorite, worked with the secretary and, dismissing the latter, ordered him to wait in the hallway. He waited an unusually long time and began to worry. Half an hour later, faithful Zubov decided to look into the bedroom. The Empress was not there; There was no one in the toilet room either. Zubov called people in alarm; they ran to the restroom and there they saw the empress motionless with a reddened face, foaming at the mouth and wheezing with a death rattle. They carried Catherine into the bedroom and laid her on the floor. She resisted death for about another day and a half, but never came to her senses and died on the morning of November 6.
She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg. Thus ended the reign of Catherine II the Great, one of the most famous Russian female politicians.

Catherine composed the following epitaph for her future tombstone:

Catherine the Second rests here. She arrived in Russia in 1744 to marry Peter III. At the age of fourteen, she made a threefold decision: to please her husband, Elizabeth and the people. She left no stone unturned to achieve success in this regard. Eighteen years of boredom and loneliness prompted her to read many books. Having ascended the Russian throne, she made every effort to give her subjects happiness, freedom and material well-being. She easily forgave and did not hate anyone. She was forgiving, loved life, had a cheerful disposition, was a true Republican in her convictions and had a kind heart. She had friends. The work was easy for her. She liked secular entertainment and the arts.

On May 2 (April 21, O.S.), 1729, Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, who became famous as Catherine II the Great, Russian Empress, was born in the Prussian city of Stettin (now Poland). The period of her reign, which brought Russia onto the world stage as a world power, is called the “golden age of Catherine.”

The future empress's father, the Duke of Zerbst, served the Prussian king, but her mother, Johanna Elisabeth, had a very rich pedigree; she was the future Peter III's cousin. Despite the nobility, the family did not live very richly; Sophia grew up as an ordinary girl who received her education at home, enjoyed playing with her peers, was active, lively, brave, and loved to play mischief.

A new milestone in her biography was opened in 1744 - when the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna invited her and her mother to Russia. There Sofia was to marry Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, heir to the throne, who was her second cousin. Upon arrival in a foreign country, which was to become her second home, she began to actively learn the language, history, and customs. Young Sophia converted to Orthodoxy on July 9 (June 28, O.S.), 1744, and at baptism received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. The next day she was betrothed to Pyotr Fedorovich, and on September 1 (August 21, O.S.), 1745 they were married.

Seventeen-year-old Peter had little interest in his young wife; each of them lived his own life. Catherine not only had fun with horse riding, hunting, and masquerades, but also read a lot and was actively engaged in self-education. In 1754, her son Pavel (the future Emperor Paul I) was born, whom Elizaveta Petrovna immediately took from her mother. Catherine's husband was extremely dissatisfied when in 1758 she gave birth to a daughter, Anna, being unsure of her paternity.

Catherine had been thinking about how to prevent her husband from sitting on the throne of the emperor since 1756, counting on the support of the guard, Chancellor Bestuzhev and the commander-in-chief of the army Apraksin. Only the timely destruction of Bestuzhev’s correspondence with Ekaterina saved the latter from being exposed by Elizaveta Petrovna. On January 5, 1762 (December 25, 1761, O.S.), the Russian Empress died, and her place was taken by her son, who became Peter III. This event made the gap between the spouses even deeper. The emperor began to live openly with his mistress. In turn, his wife, evicted to the other end of the Winter Palace, became pregnant and secretly gave birth to a son from Count Orlov.

Taking advantage of the fact that her husband-emperor was taking unpopular measures, in particular, he was moving towards rapprochement with Prussia, did not have the best reputation, and had turned the officers against himself, Catherine carried out a coup with the support of the latter: July 9 (June 28, O.S.) 1762 In St. Petersburg, guards units gave her an oath of allegiance. The next day, Peter III, who saw no point in resistance, abdicated the throne, and then died under circumstances that remained unclear. On October 3 (September 22, O.S.), 1762, the coronation of Catherine II took place in Moscow.

The period of her reign was marked by a large number of reforms, in particular in the system of government and the structure of the empire. Under her tutelage, a whole galaxy of famous “Catherine’s eagles” emerged - Suvorov, Potemkin, Ushakov, Orlov, Kutuzov, etc. The increased power of the army and navy made it possible to successfully pursue the imperial foreign policy of annexing new lands, in particular, the Crimea, the Black Sea region, the Kuban region, and part of the Rech Pospolita, etc. A new era began in the cultural and scientific life of the country. The implementation of the principles of the enlightened monarchy contributed to the opening of a large number of libraries, printing houses, and various educational institutions. Catherine II corresponded with Voltaire and encyclopedists, collected artistic canvases, and left behind a rich literary heritage, including on the topics of history, philosophy, economics, and pedagogy.

On the other hand, its internal policy was characterized by an increased privileged position of the noble class, an even greater restriction of the freedom and rights of the peasantry, and a harsh suppression of dissent, especially after the Pugachev uprising (1773-1775).

Catherine was in the Winter Palace when she had a stroke. The next day, November 17 (November 6, O.S.), 1796, the Great Empress passed away. Her last refuge was the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.

Coronation:
Predecessor:
Successor:
Religion:	Orthodoxy
Birth:
Buried:	Peter and Paul Cathedral, St. Petersburg
Dynasty:	Askania (by birth) / Romanov (by marriage)
	Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst
	Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
	Pavel I Petrovich
Autograph:

Origin

Domestic policy

Imperial Council and transformation of the Senate

Stacked commission

Provincial reform

Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich

Economic policy

Social politics

National politics

Legislation on estates

Religious politics

Domestic political problems

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Relations with Sweden

Relations with other countries

Development of culture and art

Features of personal life

Catherine in art

In literature

In fine arts

Monuments

Catherine on coins and banknotes

Interesting Facts

(Ekaterina Alekseevna; at birth Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg) - April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia (1762-1796). The period of her reign is often considered the golden age of the Russian Empire.

Origin

Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully , ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elisabeth, from the Holstein-Gottorp family, was a cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was King of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in 1743). The ancestry of Catherine II's mother goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The Duke of Zerbst's family was not rich; Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. She was brought up in strictness. She grew up a playful, inquisitive, playful and even troublesome girl, she loved to play pranks and flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the streets of Stetin. Her parents did not burden her with her upbringing and did not stand on ceremony when expressing their displeasure. Her mother called her Ficken as a child. Figchen- comes from the name Frederica, that is, “little Frederica”).

In 1744, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna and her mother were invited to Russia for subsequent marriage with the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III and her second cousin. Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, and Russian traditions, as she sought to become more fully acquainted with Russia, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher). Soon she fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so serious that her mother suggested bringing a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon of Todor. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. On June 28 (July 9), 1744, Sofia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth’s mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was engaged to the future emperor.

Marriage to the heir to the Russian throne

On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. During the first years of their marriage, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them. Catherine will later write about this:

I saw very well that the Grand Duke did not love me at all; two weeks after the wedding, he told me that he was in love with the maiden Carr, the maid of honor of the empress. He told Count Divier, his chamberlain, that there was no comparison between this girl and me. Divier argued the opposite, and he became angry with him; this scene took place almost in my presence, and I saw this quarrel. To tell the truth, I told myself that with this man I would certainly be very unhappy if I succumbed to the feeling of love for him, for which they paid so poorly, and that there would be no reason to die of jealousy without any benefit for anyone. So, out of pride, I tried to force myself not to be jealous of a person who does not love me, but in order not to be jealous of him, there was no choice but not to love him. If he wanted to be loved, it would not be difficult for me: I was naturally inclined and accustomed to fulfilling my duties, but for this I would need to have a husband with common sense, and mine did not have this.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, works by Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of children of the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her by the will of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, they call him Pavel (the future Emperor Paul I) and are deprived of the opportunity to raise him, allowing him to be seen only occasionally. A number of sources claim that Paul’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the “Notes” of Catherine II, but they are also often interpreted this way). Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter called his wife “spare madam” and openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period developed a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland, which arose thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Hanbury Williams. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I’m not at all sure if this child is from me and whether I should take it personally.” At this time, Elizaveta Petrovna’s condition worsened. All this made the prospect of Catherine’s expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine’s secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by an accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Coup of June 28, 1762

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him from the officer corps. Thus, he concluded an unfavorable agreement for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War and returned the lands captured by the Russians to it. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia’s ally), in order to return Schleswig, which it had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership, and shared with those around him plans for the reform of church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, and complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, subjected to persecution by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband completely deteriorated, and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, Potemkin and Khitrovo, began campaigning in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the discovery and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.

Early in the morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died in early July under unclear circumstances.

After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, publishing a manifesto in which the grounds for the removal of Peter were indicated as an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to “the desire of all Our loyal subjects, obvious and unfeigned.” On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow.

The reign of Catherine II: general information

In her memoirs, Catherine characterized the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign as follows:

The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:

1. The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive development, without sharp fluctuations. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms - judicial, administrative, provincial, etc. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million ( in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the European population). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities. As Klyuchevsky wrote:

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Catherine II established a loan bank and introduced paper money into circulation.

Domestic policy

Catherine’s commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. Their main idea was a critique of the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and oppressive forms of government.

Soon after the coup, statesman N.I. Panin proposed creating an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 senior dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as was the case in 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another Panin project, the Senate was transformed - December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and the prosecutor general became its head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced; in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Stacked commission

An attempt was made to convene the Statutory Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs to carry out comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As a guiding document for the 1767 Commission, the Empress prepared the “Nakaz” - a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Provincial reform

7 Nov In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, district, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, district (which was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population). From the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which was home to 300-400 thousand people. The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Governor-General (viceroy) - kept order in local centers and 2-3 provinces united under his authority were subordinate to him. He had extensive administrative, financial and judicial powers; all military units and commands located in the provinces were subordinate to him.

Governor - stood at the head of the province. They reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governors. Finances in the province were handled by the Treasury Chamber, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was in charge of land management. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters (social functions), as well as class judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between townspeople, and the Upper Justice for the trial of state peasants. The criminal and civil chambers judged all classes and were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

Captain police officer - stood at the head of the district, leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was the executive body of the provincial government. In counties, as in provinces, there are class institutions: for nobles (district court), for townspeople (city magistrate) and for state peasants (lower reprisal). There was a county treasurer and a county surveyor. Representatives of the estates sat in the courts.

A conscientious court is called upon to stop strife and reconcile those who argue and quarrel. This trial was classless. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

Since there were clearly not enough cities and district centers. Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements as cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants.

The city was made a separate administrative unit. Instead of the governor, a mayor was placed at its head, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarterly overseer.

Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich

Carrying out provincial reform in Left Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to the administrative division common to the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack elders with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea. In the west, the weakened Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was on the verge of partition.

Thus, there was no further need to maintain the presence of Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gave them Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

Beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of general administrative reforms of the 70s aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine abolished the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby beginning the process of annexing the Kalmyk state, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state, to Russia. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be supervised by a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress’s consistent policy of limiting the khan’s power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 60s, crisis phenomena intensified in the Khanate associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture lands, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the intervention of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsyn Line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​​​the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn this aggravated internal relations in the Khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church in Christianizing nomads, as well as with the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to earn money. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy matured with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses, which were roaming along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, an army was gathered on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many Noyons and Zaisangs, realizing the disastrous nature of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnic group lost about 100,000 people along the way, killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, and lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people.

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in Sergei Yesenin’s poem “Pugachev”.

Regional reform in Estland and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

The reform was carried out by the government without taking into account the ethnic composition of the population: the territory of Mordovia was divided between 4 provinces: Penza, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhny Novgorod.

Economic policy

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from their superiors. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (acceptance of deposits for safekeeping was introduced in 1770). A state bank was established and the issue of paper money - banknotes - was established for the first time.

Of great importance was the state regulation of prices for salt introduced by the empress, which was one of the most vital goods in the country. The Senate legislatively set the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in regions where fish are mass-salted. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine hoped for increased competition and, ultimately, an improvement in the quality of the product.

Russia's role in the global economy has increased - Russian sailing fabric began to be exported to England in large quantities, and the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced inside Russia was completely prohibited. Duties of 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the value of exported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine experienced a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the size of which by the end of the Empress’s reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on a class-lesson system. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.

In the provinces there were orders for public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg there are educational homes for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Peter the Great Military Academy), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

National politics

After the annexation of lands that had previously been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews ended up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - “On the permission of all foreigners entering Russia to settle in whichever provinces they wish and the rights granted to them” - called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second defined a list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for settlers. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. The creation of colonies on the Volga was increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

By 1786, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Right Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

The population of Russia in 1747 was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36 million people.

In 1726 there were 336 cities in the country, by the beginning. XIX century - 634 cities. In the end In the 18th century, about 10% of the population lived in cities. In rural areas, 54% are privately owned and 40% are state-owned

Legislation on estates

21 Apr In 1785, two charters were issued: “Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility” and “Charter granted to cities.”

Both charters regulated legislation on the rights and duties of estates.

Letter of grant to the nobility:

• Already existing rights were confirmed.
• the nobility were exempt from the poll tax
• from the quartering of military units and commands
• from corporal punishment
• from compulsory service
• the right to unlimited disposal of the estate was confirmed
• the right to own houses in cities
• the right to establish enterprises on estates and engage in trade
• ownership of the subsoil of the earth
• the right to have their own class institutions
• The name of the 1st estate changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”.
• it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; the estates were to be transferred to the legal heirs.
• nobles have the exclusive right of ownership of land, but the Charter does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs.
• Ukrainian elders were given equal rights with Russian nobles.
• a nobleman who did not have an officer rank was deprived of the right to vote.
• Only nobles whose income from estates exceeded 100 rubles could hold elected positions.

Certificate of rights and benefits to cities of the Russian Empire:

• the right of the elite merchant class not to pay the poll tax was confirmed.
• replacement of conscription with a cash contribution.

Division of the urban population into 6 categories:

1. nobles, officials and clergy (“real city dwellers”) - can have houses and land in cities without engaging in trade.
2. merchants of all three guilds (the lowest amount of capital for merchants of the 3rd guild is 1000 rubles)
3. artisans registered in workshops.
4. foreign and out-of-town merchants.
5. eminent citizens - merchants with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles, rich bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), as well as the city intelligentsia: architects, painters, composers, scientists.
6. townspeople, who “support themselves by fishing, handicrafts and work” (who do not have real estate in the city).

Representatives of the 3rd and 6th categories were called “philistines” (the word came from the Polish language through Ukraine and Belarus, originally meaning “city dweller” or “citizen”, from the word “place” - city and “shtetl” - town).

Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens were exempt from corporal punishment. Representatives of the 3rd generation of eminent citizens were allowed to file a petition for conferment of nobility.

Serf peasantry:

• The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of military commands sent to suppress peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
• According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; The landowners also had the right to return those exiled from hard labor at any time.
• A decree of 1767 prohibited peasants from complaining about their master; those who disobeyed were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court),
• The peasants could not take an oath, take farm-outs or contracts.
• Trade by peasants reached wide proportions: they were sold in markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given as gifts, and forced into marriage.
• The decree of May 3, 1783 prohibited the peasants of Left-Bank Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine from passing from one owner to another.

The widespread idea of ​​Catherine distributing state peasants to landowners, as has now been proven, is a myth (peasants from lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants, were used for distribution). The zone of serfdom under Catherine extended to Ukraine. At the same time, the situation of the monastic peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary rent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants ceased.

Clergy lost its autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed them.

Religious politics

In general, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued in Russia under Catherine II. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure or oppression. Thus, in 1773, a law on tolerance of all faiths was issued, prohibiting the Orthodox clergy from interfering in the affairs of other faiths; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of churches of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands from the church. But already in February. In 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The state came under the jurisdiction of the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic properties was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution stopped Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of Old Believers, an economically active population, from abroad. They were specially allocated a place in Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

Behind Jewish religion retained the right to publicly practice faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate class and could be elected to local government bodies, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II in 1787, in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, a complete Arabic text was printed Islamic the holy book of the Koran for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. The publication differed significantly from European ones, primarily in that it was Muslim in nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. In St. Petersburg, from 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published. In 1788, a manifesto was issued in which the Empress commanded “to establish in Ufa a spiritual assembly of the Mohammedan law, which has under its authority all the spiritual officials of that law, ... excluding the Tauride region.” Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the system of government of the empire. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.

Buddhism also received government support in the regions where he traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Hambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Catherine as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and her humane rule.

Domestic political problems

At the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne, the former Russian Emperor Ivan VI continued to remain alive and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg Fortress. In 1764, Second Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding there, and began to destroy quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.

Peasant War of 1773-1775

In 1773-1774 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaik army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga region. During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

Main stages:

• Sep. 1773 - March 1774
• March 1774 - July 1774
• July 1774-1775

17 Sep. 1773 The uprising begins. Near the Yaitsky town, government detachments went over to the side of 200 Cossacks, going to suppress the rebellion. Without taking the town, the rebels go to Orenburg.

March - July 1774 - the rebels seize factories in the Urals and Bashkiria. The rebels are defeated near the Trinity Fortress. On July 12, Kazan was captured. On July 17, they were defeated again and retreated to the right bank of the Volga.

12 Sep. 1774 Pugachev was captured.

Freemasonry, Novikov Case, Radishchev Case

1762-1778 - characterized by the organizational design of Russian Freemasonry and the dominance of the English system (Elagin Freemasonry).

That is why the order of free masons became so popular, because it offered its adherents brotherly love and sacred wisdom based on the undistorted true values ​​of early Christianity.

And, secondly, in addition to internal self-improvement, many were attracted by the opportunity to master secret mystical knowledge.

And finally, the magnificent rituals, attire, hierarchy, romantic atmosphere of the meetings of Masonic lodges could not fail to attract the attention of Russian nobles as people, especially military people, accustomed to military uniforms and paraphernalia, veneration of rank, etc.

In the 1760s. A large number of representatives of the highest noble aristocracy and the emerging noble intelligentsia, who, as a rule, were in opposition to the political regime of Catherine II, entered Freemasonry. It is enough to mention Vice-Chancellor N.I. Panin, his brother General P.I. Panin, their great-nephew A.B. Kurakin (1752–1818), Kurakin’s friend Prince. G. P. Gagarin (1745–1803), Prince N. V. Repnin, future Field Marshal M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, secretary N. I. Panin and the famous playwright D. I. Fonvizin and many others.

As for the organizational structure of Russian Freemasonry of this period, its development proceeded in two directions. Most Russian lodges were part of the system of English or St. John's Freemasonry, which consisted of only 3 traditional degrees with elected leadership. The main goal was declared to be the moral self-improvement of man, mutual assistance and charity. The head of this direction of Russian Freemasonry was Ivan Perfilyevich Elagin, appointed in 1772 by the Grand Lodge of London (Old Masons) as the Grand Provincial Master of Russia. After his name, the entire system is partly called Elagin Freemasonry.

A minority of lodges operated under various systems of Strict Observation, which recognized higher degrees and emphasized the achievement of higher mystical knowledge (German branch of Freemasonry).

The exact number of lodges in Russia of that period has not yet been established. Of those that are known, the majority entered (albeit on different conditions) into an alliance led by Elagin. However, this union turned out to be extremely short-lived. Elagin himself, despite the fact that he denied the highest degrees, nevertheless reacted with sympathy to the aspirations of many Masons to find the highest Masonic wisdom. It was at his suggestion that Prince A.B. Kurakin, a childhood friend of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich, under the pretext of announcing to the Swedish royal house about the new wedding of the heir, went to Stockholm in 1776 with a secret mission to establish contacts with Swedish masons, who were rumored to have this higher knowledge.

However, Kurakin’s mission gave rise to another split in Russian Freemasonry.

MATERIALS ABOUT THE PERSECUTION OF NOVIKOV, HIS ARREST AND CONSEQUENCES

Novikov's investigative file includes a huge number of documents - letters and decrees of Catherine, correspondence between Prozorovsky and Sheshkovsky during the investigation - with each other and with Catherine, numerous interrogations of Novikov and his detailed explanations, letters, etc. The main part of the case fell into its own time in the archive and is now stored in the funds of the Central State Archive of Ancient Acts in Moscow (TSGADA, category VIII, case 218). At the same time, a significant number of the most important papers were not included in Novikov’s file, since they remained in the hands of those who led the investigation - Prozorovsky, Sheshkovsky and others. These originals subsequently passed into private ownership and remained forever lost to us. Fortunately, some of them turned out to be published in the middle of the 19th century, and therefore we know them only from these printed sources.

The publication of materials from the investigation of the Russian educator began in the second half of the 19th century. The first large group of documents was published by the historian Ilovaisky in the Chronicles of Russian Literature, published by Tikhonravov. These documents were taken from a genuine investigative case conducted by Prince Prozorovsky. In those same years, new materials appeared in a number of publications. In 1867, M. Longinov, in his study “Novikov and the Moscow Martinists,” published a number of new documents taken from the “Novikov Case” and reprinted all previously published papers from the investigation case. Thus, Longin’s book contained the first and most complete set of documents, which until today, as a rule, was used by all scientists when studying Novikov’s activities. But this Longinian arch is far from complete. Many of the most important materials were unknown to Longinov and therefore were not included in the book. A year after the publication of his research - in 1868 - in volume II of the "Collection of the Russian Historical Society" Popov published a number of the most important papers given to him by P. A. Vyazemsky. Apparently, these papers came to Vyazemsky from the archives of the chief executioner of Radishchev and Novikov - Sheshkovsky. From Popov’s publication, for the first time, the questions asked by Sheshkovsky to Novikov became known (Longinov knew only the answers), and objections, apparently written by Sheshkovsky himself. These objections are important for us in that they undoubtedly arose as a result of the comments made by Ekaterina to the answers of Novikov, whose case she was personally involved in. Among the questions asked to Novikov was question No. 21 - about his relationship with the heir Pavel (in the text of the question Pavel’s name was not indicated, and it was about a “person”). Longinov did not know this question and the answer to it, since it was not on the list that Longinov used. Popov was the first to publish both this question and the answer to it.

A year later - in 1869 - Academician Pekarsky published the book “Addition to the history of Freemasons in Russia in the 18th century.” The book contained materials on the history of Freemasonry; among many papers there were also documents related to Novikov’s investigative case. Pekarskaya’s publication is of particular value to us, since it characterizes in detail Novikov’s educational publishing activities. In particular, the papers characterizing the history of Novikov’s relationship with Pokhodyashin deserve special attention; from them we learn about Novikov’s most important activity - organizing assistance to starving peasants. The significance of Novikov's investigative case is extremely great. First of all, it contains abundant biographical material, which, given the general paucity of information about Novikov, is sometimes the only source for studying the life and work of the Russian educator. But the main value of these documents lies elsewhere - a careful study of them clearly convinces us that Novikov was persecuted for a long time and systematically, that he was arrested, having previously destroyed the entire book publishing business, and then secretly and cowardly, without trial, he was imprisoned in a dungeon in the Shlisselburg fortress - not for Freemasonry, but for enormous educational activities independent of the government, which became a major phenomenon in public life in the 80s.

The answers to questions 12 and 21, which speak of "repentance" and place hopes in "royal mercy", must be understood historically correctly by the modern reader, with a clear understanding not only of the era, but also of the circumstances under which these confessions were made. We must also not forget that Novikov was in the hands of the cruel official Sheshkovsky, whom contemporaries called the “domestic executioner” of Catherine II. Questions 12 and 21 concerned matters that Novikov could not deny - he published books, he knew about relations with the “special one” - Pavel. Therefore, he testified that he committed these “crimes” “out of thoughtlessness about the importance of this act,” and pleaded “guilty.” It is worth recalling that in similar conditions Radishchev did exactly the same thing when, forced to admit that he really called on the serfs to revolt or “threatened the kings with the scaffold,” he showed: “I wrote this without consideration” or: “I admit my error,” etc. d.

Appeals to Catherine II were of an officially binding nature. So in Radishchev’s answers to Sheshkovsky we will find appeals to Catherine II, which quite obviously do not express the revolutionary’s actual attitude towards the Russian Empress. The same necessity forced Novikov to “throw himself at the feet of Her Imperial Majesty.” A serious illness, a depressed state of mind from the consciousness that not only his entire life’s work had been destroyed, but also his name had been tarnished by slander - all this, of course, also determined the nature of emotional appeals to the empress.

At the same time, it must be remembered that, despite the courage shown by Novikov during the investigation, his behavior differs from the behavior of the first Russian revolutionary. Radishchev drew the firmness so necessary in such circumstances from the proud consciousness of his historical correctness, based his behavior on the morality of the revolutionary forged by him, which called for openly going towards danger, and if necessary, then death, in the name of the triumph of the great cause of liberation of the people. Radishchev fought, and, sitting in the fortress, he defended himself; Novikov made excuses.

Novikov's investigative case has not yet been subjected to systematic and scientific study. Until now, people have resorted to him only for information. Systematic study was undoubtedly hampered by the following two circumstances: a) the extreme dispersion of documents from publications that have long become a bibliographic rarity, and b) the established tradition of printing documents from Novikov’s investigative case surrounded by abundant materials on the history of Freemasonry. In this sea of ​​Masonic papers, the Novikov case itself was lost, the main thing in it was lost - the increase in Catherine’s persecution of Novikov, and him alone (and not Freemasonry), for book publishing, for educational activities, for writings - persecution that ended not only with the arrest and imprisonment in the fortress of a leading public figure hated by the empress, but also the destruction of the entire educational cause (a decree prohibiting the rental of a university printing house to Novikov, the closure of a bookstore, the confiscation of books, etc.).

Russian foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II

The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “you need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”

Expansion of the Russian Empire

The new territorial growth of Russia begins with the accession of Catherine II. After the first Turkish war, Russia acquired in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. The Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions give Western Rus' to Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper reaches of Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia (the act of abdication of Duke Biron).

Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The federal Polish-Lithuanian state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine put strong pressure on the gentry to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to carry out a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia sent in their troops.

In 1772 took place 1st section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 there took place 2nd section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine.

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the goals of which were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov.

In 1795 took place 3rd partition of Poland. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

Russian-Turkish wars. Annexation of Crimea

An important area of ​​Catherine II’s foreign policy also included the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774), using as a pretext the fact that one of the Russian troops, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of Ryabaya Mogila, the Battle of Kagul, the Battle of Larga, the Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto became dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan, Turkey's protege Devlet IV Giray, tried to resist at the beginning of 1777, but it was suppressed by A.V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented and thus an attempt to start a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by Russian troops introduced into the peninsula, and in 1783, with the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the Empress, together with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal tour of the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, etc., and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Kerch naval battle (1790), Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, ​​which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Treaty of Georgievsk

Under the king of Kartli and Kakheti, Irakli II (1762-1798), the united Kartli-Kakheti state was significantly strengthened, and its influence in Transcaucasia was growing. The Turks are expelled from the country. Georgian culture is being revived, book printing is emerging. Enlightenment is becoming one of the leading trends in social thought. Heraclius turned to Russia for protection from Persia and Turkey. Catherine II, who fought with Turkey, on the one hand, was interested in an ally, on the other hand, did not want to send significant military forces to Georgia. In 1769-1772, a small Russian detachment under the command of General Totleben fought against Turkey on the side of Georgia. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russian military protection. In 1795, the Persian Shah Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar invaded Georgia and, after the Battle of Krtsanisi, ravaged Tbilisi.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered into a war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, started a war with it for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered Russian territory were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm, it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - an alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

In the third quarter of the 18th century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the USA. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality”, supported by the majority of European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by the fleet of a warring country).

In European affairs, Russia's role increased during the Austro-Prussian War of 1778-1779, when it acted as a mediator between the warring parties at the Congress of Teschen, where Catherine essentially dictated her terms of reconciliation, restoring balance in Europe. After this, Russia often acted as an arbiter in disputes between German states, which turned directly to Catherine for mediation.

One of Catherine’s grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel the Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine’s grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as its emperor. According to the plans, a buffer state of Dacia is created in place of Bessarabia, Moldova and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and Russia’s independent conquest of significant Turkish territories.

In October 1782, a Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.

On February 14, 1787, she received the Venezuelan politician Francisco Miranda at the Mariinsky Palace in Kyiv.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular opinion, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a “great power”. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795 Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West Coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

The long reign of Catherine II 1762-1796 was filled with significant and highly controversial events and processes. The “Golden Age of the Russian Nobility” was at the same time the age of Pugachevism, the “Nakaz” and the Statutory Commission coexisted with persecution. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own ultimate task. This was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in Russian history. The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the empress was well acquainted. In this sense, her reign is often called the era of enlightened absolutism. Historians argue about what enlightened absolutism was - the utopian teaching of the enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot, etc.) about the ideal union of kings and philosophers or a political phenomenon that found its real embodiment in Prussia (Frederick II the Great), Austria (Joseph II), Russia (Catherine II), etc. These disputes are not unfounded. They reflect the key contradiction in the theory and practice of enlightened absolutism: between the need to radically change the existing order of things (class system, despotism, lawlessness, etc.) and the inadmissibility of shocks, the need for stability, the inability to infringe on the social force on which this order rests - the nobility . Catherine II, like perhaps no one else, understood the tragic insurmountability of this contradiction: “You,” she blamed the French philosopher D. Diderot, “write on paper that will endure everything, but I, poor empress, write on human skin, so sensitive and painful." Her position on the issue of the serf peasantry is very indicative. There is no doubt about the empress's negative attitude towards serfdom. She thought more than once about ways to cancel it. But things did not go further than cautious reflection. Catherine II clearly realized that the abolition of serfdom would be received with indignation by the nobles. Feudal legislation was expanded: landowners were allowed to exile peasants to hard labor for any period of time, and peasants were forbidden to file complaints against landowners. The most significant transformations in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were:

• convening and activities of the Legislative Commission 1767-1768. The goal was to develop a new set of laws, which was intended to replace the Council Code of 1649. Representatives of the nobility, officials, townspeople, and state peasants worked in the Code Commission. For the opening of the commission, Catherine II wrote the famous “Instruction”, in which she used the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and other educators. It talked about the presumption of innocence, the eradication of despotism, the spread of education, and public welfare. The commission's activities did not bring the desired result. A new set of laws was not developed, the deputies were unable to rise above the narrow interests of the classes and did not show much zeal in developing reforms. In December 1768, the Empress dissolved the Statutory Commission and did not create any more similar institutions;
• reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand male souls), each of which consisted of 10-12 districts (20-30 thousand male souls). A uniform system of provincial government was established: a governor appointed by the emperor, a provincial government that exercised executive power, the Treasury Chamber (collection of taxes, their expenditure), the Order of Public Charity (schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.). Courts were created, built on a strictly class principle - for nobles, townspeople, and state peasants. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were thus clearly separated. The provincial division introduced by Catherine II remained until 1917;
• the adoption in 1785 of the Charter of the Nobility, which secured all the class rights and privileges of the nobles (exemption from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own peasants, pass them on by inheritance, sell, buy villages, etc.);
• adoption of the Charter to the cities, formalizing the rights and privileges of the “third estate” - the townspeople. The city estate was divided into six categories, received limited rights of self-government, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma;
• the adoption in 1775 of a manifesto on freedom of enterprise, according to which permission from government bodies was not required to open an enterprise;
• reforms 1782-1786 in the field of school education.

Of course, these transformations were limited. The autocratic principle of governance, serfdom, and the class system remained unshakable. Pugachev's Peasant War (1773-1775), the capture of the Bastille (1789) and the execution of King Louis XVI (1793) did not contribute to the deepening of reforms. They went intermittently in the 90s. and stopped altogether. The persecution of A. N. Radishchev (1790) and the arrest of N. I. Novikov (1792) were not random episodes. They testify to the deep contradictions of enlightened absolutism, the impossibility of unambiguous assessments of the “golden age of Catherine II.”

And yet, it was during this era that the Free Economic Society appeared (1765), free printing houses operated, heated journal debates took place, in which the Empress personally participated, the Hermitage (1764) and the Public Library in St. Petersburg (1795), and the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens were founded (1764) and pedagogical schools in both capitals. Historians also say that the efforts of Catherine II, aimed at encouraging the social activity of the classes, especially the nobility, laid the foundations of civil society in Russia.

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who communicated so intensely and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she admitted: “I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink.”

She had an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedies “Oh, time!”, “Mrs. Vorchalkina’s Name Day,” “The Hall of a Noble Boyar,” “Mrs. Vestnikova with her Family,” “The Invisible Bride” (1771-1772), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine “All sorts of things,” published since 1769. The Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses. Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: “Satire in a smiling spirit.”

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a “philosopher on the throne” and had a favorable attitude toward the Age of Enlightenment, and corresponded with Voltaire, Diderot, and d’Alembert.

During her reign, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries, initiated by Catherine. The goal was the modernization of Russian science and culture.

Features of personal life

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and a commitment to “free love.”

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P. I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G. G. Orlov (later count), horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, G. A . Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to Potemkin (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine’s “debauchery” was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of the general debauchery of morals in the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to make “their own man” become lovers of the empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich (1754) (it is suspected that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly daughter) who died in infancy the future king of Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (1775 - daughter of Potemkin).

Famous figures of Catherine's era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military men, statesmen, cultural and artistic figures. In 1873, in St. Petersburg, in the park in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figure monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshin, sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Schröter and D.I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are outstanding personalities of Catherine’s era and associates of the Empress:

• Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin-Tavrichesky
• Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov
• Petr Aleksandrovich Rumyantsev
• Alexander Andreevich Bezborodko
• Alexander Alekseevich Vyazemsky
• Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy
• Vasily Yakovlevich Chichagov
• Alexey Grigorievich Orlov
• Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin
• Ekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkova

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial of the Catherine era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for the construction in the park next to the monument to Catherine II of bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

The following should have been depicted full-length: Count N.I. Panin, Admiral G.A. Spiridov, writer D.I. Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N.V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Code Commission. The busts include publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, traveler P. S. Pallas, playwright A. P. Sumarokov, historians I. N. Boltin and Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, artists D. G. Levitsky and V. L. Borovikovsky, architect A.F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G.G. Orlov, admirals F.F. Ushakov, S.K. Greig, A.I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z.G. M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count I. E. Ferzen, Count V. A. Zubov; Moscow Governor General Prince M. N. Volkonsky, Novgorod Governor Count Y. E. Sivers, diplomat Ya. I. Bulgakov, pacifier of the “plague riot” of 1771 in Moscow P. D. Eropkin, who suppressed the Pugachev riot Count P. I. Panin and I. I. Mikhelson, the hero of the capture of the Ochakov fortress I. I. Meller-Zakomelsky.

In addition to those listed, such famous figures of the era are noted as:

• Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
• Leonard Euler
• Giacomo Quarenghi
• Vasily Bazhenov
• Jean Baptiste Vallin-Delamott
• N. A. Lvov
• Ivan Kulibin
• Matvey Kazakov

Catherine in art

To the cinema

• “The Best Film 2”, 2009. In the role of Catherine - Mikhail Galustyan
• "Catherine's Musketeers", 2007. In the role of Catherine - Alla Oding
• “The Secret of the Maestro”, 2007. In the role of Catherine - Olesya Zhurakovskaya
• “The Favorite (TV series)”, 2005. In the role of Ekaterina - Natalya Surkova
• “Catherine the Great”, 2005. In the role of Catherine - Emily Brun
• “Emelyan Pugachev (film)”, 1977; “Golden Age”, 2003. In the role of Catherine - Via Artmane
• “Russian Ark”, 2002. In the role of Catherine - Maria Kuznetsova, Natalya Nikulenko
• “Russian Revolt”, 2000. In the role of Catherine - Olga Antonova
• “Countess Sheremeteva”, 1988; “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, 2005. In the role of Catherine - Lydia Fedoseeva-Shukshina
• “Catherine the Great”, 1995. Catherine Zeta-Jones plays Catherine
• “Young Catherine” (“Young Catherine”), 1991. In the role of Catherine - Julia Ormond
• “Anecdotiada”, 1993. In the role of Catherine - Irina Muravyova
• “Vivat, midshipmen!”, 1991; “Midshipmen 3 (film)”, 1992. In the role of Catherine - Kristina Orbakaite
• “The Tsar’s Hunt”, 1990. In the role of Catherine - Svetlana Kryuchkova.
• "Dreams about Russia." In the role of Catherine - Marina Vladi
• "Captain's daughter". In the role of Ekaterina - Natalya Gundareva
• “Katharina und ihre wilden hengste”, 1983. Sandra Nova plays the role of Katharina.

black and white movie stars:

• “Great Catherine”, 1968. In the role of Catherine - Jeanne Moreau
• “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, 1961. Zoya Vasilkova plays the role of Catherine.
• “John Paul Jones”, 1959. Bette Davis as Catherine
• “Admiral Ushakov”, 1953. In the role of Catherine - Olga Zhizneva.
• “A Royal Scandal”, 1945. Tallulah Bankhead plays Catherine.
• "The Scarlet Empress", 1934. Ch. role - Marlene Dietrich
• “Forbidden Paradise”, 1924. Pola Negri as Catherine

In the theatre

• “Catherine the Great. Musical Chronicles of the Times of the Empire", 2008. In the role of Catherine - People's Artist of Russia Nina Shamber

In literature

• B. Shaw. "Great Catherine"
• V. N. Ivanov. "Empress Fike"
• V. S. Pikul. "Favorite"
• V. S. Pikul. "Pen and Sword"
• Boris Akunin. "Extracurricular reading"
• Vasily Aksyonov. "Voltairians and Voltairians"
• A. S. Pushkin. "Captain's daughter"
• Henri Troyat. "Catherine the Great"

In fine arts

Memory

In 1778, Catherine composed the following humorous epitaph for herself (translated from French):
Buried here
Catherine the Second, born in Stettin
April 21, 1729.
She spent 1744 in Russia, and left
There she married Peter III.
Fourteen years old
She made a triple project - like it
To my spouse, Elizabeth I and the people.
She used everything to achieve success in this.
Eighteen years of boredom and solitude forced her to read many books.
Having ascended the Russian throne, she strove for good,
She wanted to bring happiness, freedom and property to her subjects.
She easily forgave and did not hate anyone.
Indulgent, loved ease in life, cheerful by nature, with the soul of a republican
And with a kind heart - she had friends.
The work was easy for her,
In society and verbal sciences she
I found pleasure.

Monuments

• In 1873, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled on Alexandrinskaya Square in St. Petersburg (see section Famous figures of the Catherine era).
• In 1907, a monument to Catherine II was opened in Yekaterinodar (it stood until 1920, and was restored on September 8, 2006).
• In 2002, in Novorzhevo, founded by Catherine II, a monument was unveiled in her honor.
• On October 27, 2007, monuments to Catherine II were unveiled in Odessa and Tiraspol.
• On May 15, 2008, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled in Sevastopol.
• On September 14, 2008, a monument to Catherine II the Great was unveiled in Podolsk. The monument depicts the Empress at the moment of signing the Decree of October 5, 1781, which reads: “... we most graciously command that the economic village of Podol be renamed a city...”.
• In Veliky Novgorod, on the Monument “1000th Anniversary of Russia”, among the 129 figures of the most outstanding personalities in Russian history (as of 1862), there is the figure of Catherine II.
• Catherine made four mistakes in a three-letter word. Instead of “yet” she wrote “ischo”.

The period of the reign of Catherine 2 in Russia (1762 - 1796) was a time of great changes and significant events in the life of the people.

The future Russian empress, born Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, first came to Russia in 1745 at the invitation of Elizabeth. In the same year, she married Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (Peter 3). Her husband’s dislike and Elizabeth’s illness led to a situation where there was a threat of her deportation from Russia. Relying on the guards regiments, in 1762 she carried out a bloodless coup and became empress. In such conditions, the reign of Catherine 2 began.

The Empress carried out active reform activities, trying to strengthen her personal power. In 1767, he convened a Commission to write a new code. The meeting of legislators, however, turned out to be objectionable and was dissolved

In 1763, to improve the management system, she carried out senatorial reform. The Senate became six departments and lost the right to manage the state apparatus, becoming the highest judicial and administrative body. The Berg College, the Chief Magistrate and the Manufactory College were restored. The centralization of the country and the bureaucratization of power proceeded at a steady pace in parallel. To resolve financial difficulties in 1763-1764, Catherine carried out (transferring them into secular property), which made it possible to replenish the treasury and neutralize the clergy as a powerful political force.

The reign of Catherine 2 was not soft. During her reign, the Peasant War of 1773-1775 showed that this layer of society did not support her. And Catherine decides to strengthen the absolutist state, relying only on the nobility.

“Charter grants” to the nobility and cities (1785) streamlined the structure of society, strictly designating the closed classes: nobility, clergy, merchants, philistines and serfs. The dependence of the latter constantly increased, creating conditions for the onset of the “noble golden age.”

During the reign of Catherine 2, the feudal system reached its apogee in Russia. The Empress did not seek to change the foundations of public life. An empire based on the labor of serfs, the support of the throne on the loyal nobility and a wise empress ruling everyone - this is how the life of the country looked like during this period. Domestic and foreign policies were carried out exclusively in the interests of the Imperial approach to the provinces (Little Russia, Livonia and Finland), and expansion also extended to the Crimea, the Kingdom of Poland, and the North Caucasus, where national problems had already begun to worsen. In 1764, the hetmanate in Ukraine was abolished, and a governor general and president of the Little Russian Collegium was appointed to rule it.

In 1775, management reform began. Instead of 23 provinces, 50 new ones were created. The Treasury Chamber controlled industry, the Prikaz controlled public institutions (hospitals and schools), and the courts were separated from the administration. The system of governing the country became uniform, subordinate to governors, central boards, governors and, finally, the empress.

It is known that the reign of Catherine 2 was also the height of favoritism. But if under Elizabeth this phenomenon did not bring tangible harm to the state, now the widespread distribution of state lands to noblemen eligible for the empress began to cause discontent.

Catherine is the time of putting into practice the ideas of socio-political theories of the 18th century, according to which the development of society should follow an evolutionary path under the leadership of an enlightened monarch loved by the people, whose assistants are philosophers.

The results of the reign of Catherine 2 are very significant for Russian history. The territory of the state has grown significantly, treasury revenues have quadrupled, and the population has grown by 75%. However, enlightened absolutism could not solve all the pressing problems.

Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). My father came from the Zerbst-Dornburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, ran for the Duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully, and ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. The mother was from the Holstein-Gottorp family and was a cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was the king of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in the city). Catherine II's mother's ancestry goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1st Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The Duke of Zerbst's family was not rich; Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. She was brought up in strictness. She grew up inquisitive, prone to active games, and persistent.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, works by Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of children of the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, whom she was immediately taken away from, named Paul (the future Emperor Paul I) and deprived of the opportunity to raise, and only allowed to see occasionally. A number of sources claim that Pavel’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov. Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period developed a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows where my wife gets pregnant; I don’t know for sure whether this child is mine and whether I should recognize him as mine.” At this time, Elizaveta Petrovna’s condition worsened. All this made the prospect of Catherine’s expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery realistic. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine’s secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov, Dashkova and others.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by an accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how the first Count Bobrinsky in Rus', the founder of a famous family, was born.

Coup of June 28, 1762

1. The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive development, without sharp fluctuations. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms (judicial, administrative, etc.). The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the European population). As Klyuchevsky wrote, “The army with 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 battleships and 40 frigates, the amount of state revenue from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, it more than quadrupled, the success of foreign trade: Baltic; in the increase in import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of internal circulation was indicated by the issue of coins worth 148 million rubles in the 34 years of his reign, while in the previous 62 years only 97 million were issued.”

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Domestic policy

Catherine’s commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified.

Stacked commission

An attempt was made to convene the Statutory Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs to carry out comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As a guiding document for the 1767 Commission, the Empress prepared the “Nakaz” - a theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Soon after the coup, statesman N.I. Panin proposed creating an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 senior dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as was the case in 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another Panin project, the Senate was transformed - December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and the prosecutor general became its head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced; in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Provincial reform

7 Nov In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, district, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, district (which was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population). From the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which was home to 300-400 thousand people. The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Thus, there was no further need to maintain the presence of Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was bloodlessly disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gave them Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Yekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

Beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of general administrative reforms of the 70s aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine abolished the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby beginning the process of annexing the Kalmyk state, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state, to Russia. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be supervised by a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress’s consistent policy of limiting the khan’s power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 60s, crisis phenomena intensified in the Khanate associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture lands, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the intervention of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsyn Line, thousands of families of Don Cossacks began to settle in the area of ​​​​the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn this aggravated internal relations in the Khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church in Christianizing nomads, as well as with the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to earn money. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy matured with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses, which were roaming along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, an army was gathered on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many Noyons and Zaisangs, realizing the disastrous nature of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnic group lost about 100,000 people along the way, killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, and lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people.

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in Sergei Yesenin’s poem “Pugachev”.

. . .

Regional reform in Estland and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced inside Russia was completely prohibited. Duties of 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the cost of imported goods.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine experienced a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the size of which by the end of the Empress’s reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

Social politics

Moscow Orphanage

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Charter of Border and Port Quarantines” was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

National politics

After the annexation of lands that had previously been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews ended up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands from the church. But already in February. In 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The state came under the jurisdiction of the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic properties was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution stopped Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of Old Believers, an economically active population, from abroad. They were specially allocated a place in Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

Expansion of the Russian Empire

Partitions of Poland

The federal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine put strong pressure on the gentry to elect her protégé Stanisław August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising, raised in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia sent in their troops.

In 1772 it took place 1st section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: it lost 3,800 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 it took place 2nd section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Treaty of Georgievsk

Treaty of Georgievsk 1783

Catherine II and the Georgian king Irakli II concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783, according to which Russia established a protectorate over the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom. The treaty was concluded in order to protect Orthodox Georgians, since Muslim Iran and Türkiye threatened the national existence of Georgia. The Russian government took Eastern Georgia under its protection, guaranteed its autonomy and protection in the event of war, and during peace negotiations it pledged to insist on the return to the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom of possessions that had long belonged to it and were illegally seized by Turkey.

The result of the Georgian policy of Catherine II was a sharp weakening of the positions of Iran and Turkey, which formally destroyed their claims to Eastern Georgia.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered into a war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, started a war with it for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered Russian territory were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a “great power”. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795 Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West Coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who communicated so intensively and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she admitted: “I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink.”

She had an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedies “Oh, time!”, “Mrs. Vorchalkina’s Name Day,” “The Hall of a Noble Boyar,” “Mrs. Vestnikova with her Family,” “The Invisible Bride” (-), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine “All sorts of things”, published since the Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses . Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: “Satire in a smiling spirit.”

Ekaterina - philanthropist and collector

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a “philosopher on the throne” and had a favorable attitude toward the European Enlightenment, and corresponded with Voltaire, Diderot, and d’Alembert.

Under her, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries, initiated by Catherine. The goal was to “infect” Russian science and culture with European ones.

Courtyard from the time of Catherine II

Features of personal life

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and a commitment to “free love.”

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P. I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G. G. Orlov (later count), horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, G. A Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to Potemkin (). Afterwards, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine’s “debauchery” was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of the general debauchery of morals in the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to make “their own man” become lovers of the empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich () (they suspect that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexey Bobrinsky (son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly the daughter of the future king), who died in infancy Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (daughter of Potemkin).

Famous figures of Catherine's era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military men, statesmen, cultural and artistic figures. In 1873, in St. Petersburg, in the park in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figure monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshin, sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Schröter and D.I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are outstanding personalities of Catherine’s era and associates of the Empress:

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial of the Catherine era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for the construction in the park next to the monument to Catherine II of bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

The following should have been depicted full-length: Count N.I. Panin, Admiral G.A. Spiridov, writer D.I. Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N.V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Code Commission. The busts include publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, traveler P. S. Pallas, playwright A. P. Sumarokov, historians I. N. Boltin and Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, artists D. G. Levitsky and V. L Borovikovsky, architect A.F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G.G. Orlov, admirals F.F. Ushakov, S.K. Greig, A.I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z.G. Chernyshev, Prince V. M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count I. E. Ferzen, Count V. A. Zubov; Moscow Governor General Prince M. N. Volkonsky, Novgorod Governor Count Y. E. Sivers, diplomat Ya. I. Bulgakov, pacifier of the “plague riot” of 1771 in Moscow P. D. Eropkin, who suppressed the Pugachev rebellion Count P. I. Panin and I. I. Mikhelson, the hero of the capture of the Ochakov fortress I. I. Meller-Zakomelsky.

In addition to those listed, such famous figures of the era are noted as:

Catherine in art

To the cinema

• “Catherine the Great”, 2005. In the role of Catherine - Emily Brun
• “Golden Age”, 2003. In the role of Catherine - Via Artmane
• “Russian Ark”, 2002. In the role of Catherine - Maria Kuznetsova, Natalya Nikulenko
• “Russian Revolt”, 2000. In the role of Catherine -