Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov. The reign of the king. Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov - biography The years of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov
The son of the first tsar of the Romanov dynasty, Mikhail Fedorovich, from his marriage to Evdokia Streshneva, was born on March 29 (19, according to other sources, 10 according to the old style) March 1629.
He was brought up under the supervision of the "uncle" boyar Boris Morozov. At the age of 11-12, the prince had his own children's library, among its books was a lexicon (a kind of encyclopedic dictionary), grammar, and cosmography. Alexei was distinguished by Orthodox piety: he strictly observed fasts and attended church services.
Alexei Mikhailovich began his reign at the age of 14, after being elected by the Zemsky Sobor.
In 1645, at the age of 16, having first lost his father, and soon his mother, Alexei Mikhailovich ascended the throne.
By nature, Alexey Mikhailovich was calm, reasonable, kind and compliant. In history, he retained the nickname “The Quietest.”
The first years of Alexei Mikhailovich's reign were marked by the convening of the Boyar Duma. The financial policy of the government of Alexei Mikhailovich was focused on increasing taxes and replenishing the treasury at their expense. The establishment of a high duty on salt in 1645 led to popular unrest - a salt riot in Moscow in 1648. The rebellious people demanded the “extradition” of boyar Boris Morozov. Alexei Mikhailovich managed to save his “uncle” and relative (Morozov was married to the queen’s sister) by sending him to the Kirillov Monastery. The duty on salt was abolished. The boyar Nikita Odoevsky was placed at the head of the government, who ordered an increase in the salaries of the troops (streltsy) who suppressed the uprising.
Under the leadership of princes Odoevsky, Fyodor Volkonsky and Semyon Prozorovsky, Alexei Mikhailovich signed the text of the Council Code at the beginning of 1649 - the new foundations of Russian legislation. The document affirmed the principle of a centralized state with the authoritarian power of the king.
The abolition of “lesson years” for searching for runaway peasants, enshrined in the Council Code, strengthened the position of the nobles. The position of the lower classes of the townspeople also changed significantly: all urban settlements were now “turned into taxes,” that is, they had to bear the full tax burden.
The response to these changes in the taxation system was the uprisings of 1650 in Pskov and Novgorod. Their suppression was led by the Novgorod Metropolitan Nikon, who had previously earned the tsar’s trust. Back in 1646, being the abbot of the Kozheezersky monastery, having come to Moscow to collect alms, he amazed Alexei Mikhailovich with his spirituality and extensive knowledge. The young tsar appointed him first as archimandrite of the Novo Spassky Monastery in Moscow, where the Romanov family burial vault was located, and then as metropolitan of Novgorod. In 1652 Nikon was ordained patriarch. In the 1650s x 1660s, church reform was carried out, which at first was led by Patriarch Nikon, which led to a split in the Russian Orthodox Church and the excommunication of the Old Believers. In 1658, as a result of a conflict with the Tsar, Nikon left the patriarchate. In 1666, on the initiative of Alexei Mikhailovich, a church council was convened, at which Nikon was deposed and sent into exile.
By order of Alexei Mikhailovich, state reform was carried out - new central orders (central government bodies) were established: Secret Affairs (1648), Monastyrsky (1648), Little Russian (1649), Reitarsky (1651), Accounting (1657), Lithuanian (1656) and Bread (1663). Under Alexei Mikhailovich, the first reform of the Russian army in the 17th century began - the introduction of hired “regiments of the new system.”
Alexey Mikhailovich paid special attention to the foreign policy of the state. A major achievement of Russian diplomacy during his reign was the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. On January 8, 1654, the Pereyaslav Rada approved.
In 1667, the 13-year war with Poland ended victoriously, and Smolensk, Kyiv and the entire left-bank Ukraine were returned to Russia. At the same time, Alexey Mikhailovich personally participated in many of the military campaigns, led diplomatic negotiations, and supervised the activities of Russian ambassadors.
In the east of the country, through the efforts of Russian pioneers Semyon Dezhnev and Vasily Poyarkov, the lands of Siberia were annexed to Russia. The cities of Nerchinsk (1656), Irkutsk (1659), Selenginsk (1666) were founded. Under Alexei Mikhailovich, the struggle for the security of the southern borders of Russia with the Turks and Tatars was successfully waged.
In economic policy, the government of Alexei Mikhailovich encouraged industrial activity and patronized domestic trade, protecting it from competition from foreign goods. These goals were served by the Customs (1663) and New Trade (1667) charters, which promoted the growth of foreign trade.
Miscalculations in financial policy - the issuance of copper money equal to silver, which devalued the ruble - caused discontent among the population, which grew into the Copper Riot in 1662. The revolt was suppressed by the Streltsy, and copper money was abolished. Soon after the Copper Riot, an uprising of those dissatisfied with church reforms broke out in the Solovetsky Monastery (1666). In the south of Russia, popular unrest arose under the leadership of the Don Cossack Stepan Razin (1670-1671).
Until her death, the tsar was an exemplary family man; they had 13 children, including the future tsars Fyodor and Ivan, as well as the princess ruler Sophia. After the death of Maria Miloslavskaya, Alexey Mikhailovich in 1671 married Natalya Naryshkina, a relative of the nobleman Artamon Matveev, who began to exert great influence on the monarch. The young wife bore the Tsar three children and, in particular, the future Emperor Peter I.
Alexei Mikhailovich died on February 8 (January 29, old style) 1676 at the age of 46 and was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. According to testamentary documents of 1674, his eldest son from his marriage to Maria Miloslavskaya, Fyodor, was appointed heir to the throne.
The material was prepared based on information from open sources V
On March 19, 1629, the second king of the new Russian royal dynasty, Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov, was born. The historical portrait of this ruler paints the image of a fairly intelligent, skillful and tolerant monarch.
The youth of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov
The biography is very interesting. His mother was E.L. Streshneva is the daughter of low-ranking small-scale boyars. Until the age of five, Alexey was under the supervision of numerous mothers and nannies. Boyarin B.I. Morozov became the mentor of the young tsar. By the age of six, the king had mastered reading and writing; the first books he read were: the Book of Hours, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Psalter. Alexey fell in love with reading so much that by the age of 12 he had his own children's library. Among his favorite books is Cosmography, Lexicon and Grammar, published in the Principality of Lithuania. Among his toys were children's armor made by German masters, musical instruments, and printed sheets (pictures). Alexey Mikhailovich also loved outdoor activities; from childhood he was fond of falconry, and in adulthood he even wrote a treatise on falconry. The biography of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov indicates the enormous influence that the guardian had on his ward. By the age of fourteen, young Alexei Mikhailovich was introduced to the people, and at sixteen, after the death of his father and mother, he ascended the throne.
The first years of the reign
The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov began in 1645. The youth and inexperience of the ruler at first was so great that all important and pressing issues of government were concentrated in the hands of B.I. Morozov. But the excellent education and talent of the ruler made themselves felt, and soon Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov himself began to make government decisions. his reign of those years outlines all the complexities and contradictions of the internal and foreign policies of Rus'. The active involvement of foreign advisers in governing the country gave rise to reforms.
At this time, the character of the king emerges. An educated, benevolent and calm person - this is how Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov looked in the eyes of his contemporaries. The tsar received the nickname “The Quietest” quite deservedly. But if necessary, he could show will, determination, and sometimes even cruelty.
Cathedral Code
Romanov laid the foundation for the creation of the Council Code - the first set of laws of the Russian state. Before this, judging in Rus' was guided by various, often self-contradictory decrees, extracts and orders. The king was prompted to accept the code by the new duties on salt. The instigators suggested that the sovereign put in order the rules of salt trade and convene a Zemstvo Assembly. At that moment, the tsar was forced to make concessions, but after the adoption of the Code, the Zemsky Sobor lost its powers and was soon dissolved.
The king's marriage
Soon after ascending the throne, a bride was found for the king. She turned out to be Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya - a girl from an old and noble boyar family. At that time, tsars did not look for brides abroad, but chose wives from successful boyar houses. Several boyar families fought for the opportunity to become related to the royal family. In the Assumption Cathedral, during prayer, the king saw the maiden Maria of the Miloslavsky family. It is unlikely that this meeting was accidental.
Be that as it may, this marriage turned out to be successful and long-lasting. Until her death, the king revered his queen, was an exemplary family man and had thirteen children with her, three of them later became rulers of the country.
Church schism
The influence of the church at the beginning of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich was so great that the title of “great sovereign” was awarded. Thus, the king recognized the equality of power between himself and the ruler of the church. But this caused discontent among the boyars, since Nikon demanded from them complete obedience and absolute non-interference in church affairs. But, as time has shown, such management had its significant drawbacks.
Nikon considered that he had the right to tell the tsar how to carry out state affairs. The influence of the aristocracy and boyars on the tsar decreased. The origins of such influence should be sought in the upbringing that Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov received. A historical portrait and notes from contemporaries show us the image of a very God-fearing, religious person. There was only one way to reduce Nikon's influence. At the beginning of 1658, the archpriest of the Kazan Cathedral addressed the Tsar with a direct question: “How long do you tolerate this to God’s enemy?” And for the tsar there were no more humiliating reproaches than those that infringed on his royal power and doubted the authority of the autocracy. Confrontation was inevitable and eventually led to a split. The formal reason was the insult of Nikon by the boyars, after which he loudly stepped away from the rank of patriarch and went into a monastery. In 1666, he deposed Nikon and officially deprived him of his rank. Since then, the rule of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov has become truly autocratic, and he even extends his power to the Church.
Politics of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov
Foreign relations were of particular interest to the king. The request of the Cossack centurion Khmelnytsky to stop the Polish intervention was heard by the autocrat. The Zemsky Sobor of 1653 accepted the Ukrainian Cossacks as citizenship and promised them military support. In May 1654, Russian troops set out on a campaign and occupied Smolensk. By order of the tsar, in the spring of 1654 military operations were continued, and the cities of Kovno, Brodno and Vilno became Russian.
The Swedish War was started, which ended in defeat. The Troubles in Ukraine, which began shortly after the death of Khmelnytsky, required the resumption of hostilities with Poland. On January 8, 1654, the Pereyaslav Rada finally confirmed the entry of Ukraine into Russia. Much later, in 1667, Poland agreed to new borders, and the treaty on the annexation of Ukraine to Russia began to be recognized internationally. The southern borders of the state were successfully defended, cities such as Nerchinsk, Irkutsk, and Seleginsk were built.
Rebellious Age
Many decisions related to the expansion of the country’s territory were personally made by Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov. A historical portrait of the autocrat of all Rus' would be incomplete without awareness of the severe internal contradictions and tensions that he encountered during his reign. It is no coincidence that the 17th century would later be called “Rebellious” because of the constant uprisings that outraged the state. Particularly worth noting is the rebellion of Stepan Razin, which took a lot of time and effort to suppress.
The tsar's economic policy encouraged the creation of manufactories and the expansion of foreign trade. The Tsar patronized Russian trade, protecting his domestic market from foreign goods. There were also miscalculations in economic policy. The rash decision to equate the value of copper money with silver money caused popular grumbling and led to the devaluation of the ruble.
The last years of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich
After the death of his beloved wife, the king married again. His chosen one was the one who gave him three children, including the future Emperor Peter 1.
The Tsar paid great attention to education and instructed the Ambassadorial Decree to translate foreign literature and various scientific works into Russian. Among those close to the king there were many who read the books of ancient writers, had their own libraries and were fluent in foreign languages. The king's second wife was fond of theater, and her own small theater was specially created for her at the palace. Alexey Mikhailovich died at the age of 47 years.
Results of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov
The results of the reign of this king can be described as follows:
- Autocracy strengthened - the power of the tsar was no longer limited by the Church.
- The peasants were completely enslaved.
- The Council Code arose, which became the beginning of judicial reforms in Russia.
- As a result of the reign of this king, the border of the Russian state expanded - Ukraine was annexed, and the development of Siberia began.
I found this article on the Internet and am sharing it.
Author – Sergey MAKEEV.
International monthly “Top Secret”
The name of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich has been firmly forgotten by us, his reign has faded against the background of the era of Peter the Great. Meanwhile, this tsar was the last tsar of Russia, and much of what Peter did was done thanks to the initiatives of Fyodor Alekseevich Romanov.
On the morning of January 30, 1676, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich died quietly, as if confirming his nickname of the Quietest. Close boyars, duma people came to the mansion of Tsarevich Fyodor and announced: “Alexey Mikhailovich of all Great and Little and White Russia, the autocrat, having left the earthly kingdom, has settled in the eternal abodes.” The prince was ill, his legs were swollen, and there was such a shock. But they grabbed him by the arms, took him to the Faceted Chamber and seated him on the throne. The courtiers immediately began to swear allegiance to the new tsar, and after the Kremlin inhabitants, Moscow nobles and military men appeared.
Two years ago, the prince was “announced” to the church, the court and the people as the heir to the throne, and yet the death of his father and his accession to the throne turned out to be unexpected, and the oath of oath near the cold body of the former king was indecently quick. There were good reasons for this. The late sovereign was married twice. From his first wife, Maria Miloslavskaya, three sons were born - Alexei, Fedor and Ivan, and six more daughters, including Sophia.
After the death of his wife, already in his old age, Alexey Mikhailovich married Natalya Naryshkina, and in this marriage Peter and Natalya were born. Unfortunately, all the boys from their first marriage suffered from a hereditary disease similar to scurvy or vitamin deficiency; all three did not live long, and the youngest, Ivan, was also weak-minded. But the son from his second marriage, Petrusha, a healthy and active boy, as they said, “didn’t walk, but ran.” The noble relatives of the Naryshkins had a formal reason to push aside the rightful heir under the pretext of his illness and try to place ten-year-old Peter on the throne. Such a development of events was unlikely, no one wanted new unrest, and yet the Miloslavsky party decided not to delay the oath.
At the funeral of Father Fyodor Alekseevich they were carried on a stretcher. But this frail body contained an indomitable spirit. Fyodor succumbed to illness only on days of severe attacks; the rest of the time he was extremely active. From childhood, he loved horse riding, hunting with birds of prey, was an excellent archery shooter, and was fond of outdoor games, like modern tennis. He was the first to have a small funny squad with toy weapons made by the best craftsmen of the Armory.
On the other hand, Fyodor Alekseevich was a European-educated and developed young man. He was given his first picture book at the age of two, and since then books have become his constant companions. Fyodor Alekseevich’s personal library consisted of more than two hundred volumes - a rich collection at that time. His teacher was Simeon of Polotsk, an outstanding church figure, philosopher and poet. It is not surprising that his student “put together quite a lot of verses,” appreciated painting and music (he even composed the chant “It is Worthy,” which is often performed today), and knew Polish and Latin.
He was, if you like, a Renaissance man, strange as it may sound. Europe was already on the threshold of the New Time, but in Russia, given its constant lag and in connection with the consequences of the Time of Troubles, which further slowed down its development, the 17th century was only the late Middle Ages. And Fyodor Alekseevich, as we will see, had already absorbed the “spirit of enlightenment.”
Subsequent events showed that the young man, almost a boy, was thinking about the upcoming reign ahead of time. Because already in the solemn ceremony of the crowning of the kingdom, he made significant changes. Previously, Russian tsars based their right to power primarily on the law of kinship and inheritance of the throne. Now it was announced that the tsar was accepting supreme power, firstly, according to church law, secondly, as the only Orthodox sovereign in the world, and only lastly - “according to the custom of the ancient tsars and great princes of Russia.”
The immediate question is: how independent was Fyodor Alekseevich in his actions, was there anyone standing behind him? Of course, he had smart advisers and smart performers, but he led all the work himself, was the initiator of reforms, and an active participant in the development of projects and important documents. By the way, some of the elder brother’s “collaborators” were “inherited” to the reformer Peter.
So, sixteen years old and less than two months old, Tsar Feodor II Alekseevich began to rule Russia. Was this an enviable inheritance? Russia under Alexei Mikhailovich became the most extensive state in Europe, moreover, its borders continuously moved east and south. But it was sparsely populated, poor, undeveloped, few taxes were collected, and the state was constantly in need of money. There was practically no government in the European sense: too many departments (orders) with unclear functions and the willfulness of the Boyar Duma. Weak organization of the army and, as they would now say, the security forces. Frail legal system. The court is by no means quick and just. And wherever you go, there are exactions and arbitrariness everywhere.
The former tsar, Alexei Mikhailovich, was called the Quietest, but his reign was not at all quiet: two wars, Swedish and Russian-Polish, stretching with interruptions for thirteen years, a church schism, the uprising of Stepan Razin and the Copper Riot. And this is not the whole list of shocks of the “quiet” reign. The unification with Ukraine has become a truly “troubled economy” for Moscow, and most importantly, it has complicated already tense relations with Poland, Turkey and Crimea.
Let the Duma think
A change of power is always associated with the elimination of former close associates and the rise of new ones. With the accession of Fyodor Alekseevich, the relatives of his mother, the Miloslavskys and others like them, demanded reprisals against the de facto head of government under the late sovereign - boyar Artamon Matveev - and removal from the court of the widow queen and her children. In relation to Matveev, the young tsar, as they say, caved in. But Fyodor Alekseevich still did not take extreme measures, limiting himself to exile with confiscation (he left one estate for the boyar to eat). And in relation to his stepmother and half-brother and sister, he stubbornly resisted. They continued to live in the Kremlin, in the royal palace.
Maria Miloslavskaya, mother of Fyodor Alekseevich
Petrusha was Fyodor Alekseevich’s favorite, and also his godson. It was the elder brother who introduced the future emperor to war games, taught him to shoot a bow, and gave him a whole playroom with a camp tent, a toy horse, a regimental drum and toy weapons. When later the Miloslavskys again began to demand the removal of Natalya Kirillovna and her children from the palace, Fyodor Alekseevich thought and thought - and built new mansions for himself.
However, change had to start somewhere. We know about the Boyar Duma mainly from historical novels. In them, the boyars are presented as caricatured elders, fighting over who should sit closer to the king, and also desperately resisting everything new and progressive. But the boyars in the Duma were different: some cared about the benefit of the state, others cared about their own. The boyars were the highest assessors, but, in addition to them, “Duma clerks” sat in the Duma - the actual leaders of the orders (formally, the boyars were at the head of the orders). It was these “Duma members” who knew the state of affairs better than others, and there was no personal self-interest in their judgments.
The young tsar found an original solution - he sharply, by a third, increased the number of assessors in the Duma. The new Duma members were not part of the groupings; moreover, the Duma became a permanent body: “The boyars, and okolnichi, and Duma people, come to Verkh at the first hour (at dawn) and sit down for business,” the young tsar ordered. He appointed working hours for both orders and courts. At that time, Russian people usually rested after lunch, so the working day was divided into two parts: five hours “from light” before lunch and the same amount before dark.
The king then set about reorganizing the orders. The tsar increased the number of clerks, clerks, clerks and other employees in order to cope with paperwork. He established deadlines for making decisions on all cases, and in difficult cases ordered that cases be transferred to the Duma or to him personally. He elevated the Execution Chamber above all orders (Execution Chamber not in the sense of reprisal, but in the sense of dealing with important matters). To strengthen the authority of the leaders, Fyodor Alekseevich allowed judges and Duma clerks of humble origin to be called by their full name and patronymic: an unheard-of honor. But the responsibility of the authorities was also increased: the leaders of the orders were forbidden to sign papers together with their comrades (deputies), but only individually; It was forbidden to consider the cases of relatives and friends.
Actually, from now on we can consider that a government has appeared in Russia. But Fyodor Alekseevich extended the same rules to the courts. He limited the period for consideration of cases to 100 days (that would be the case now!). In case of excess, he demanded the case to himself, and a fine was imposed on the judge. Punishments became more humane: the tsar abolished “self-harmful” ones, such as cutting off a hand for theft, and replaced them with exile to Siberia. Moreover, he forbade the exile of children (this happened before). He also ordered the improvement of prison conditions and the release of those who had served their sentences without the previously required bail or guarantees.
The state, as is well known, receives money in the form of taxes, which in the 17th century were called “taxes”. There were many direct and indirect taxes, and the system was confusing. Fyodor Alekseevich conducted a census throughout the country, clearly defining who should bear what tax. Then he introduced, so to speak, a single tax - “streltsy money and bread.”
The money went mainly to military needs, and grain was taken to state granaries. For the grain harvest, standard copper measures with a coat of arms were introduced, which is why they were called “eagles”. All other taxes were abolished, previous arrears were forgiven, but strict penalties were also established for defaulters. In his decrees on taxes, the tsar not only commanded, but also explained why this was beneficial to the population, “so that rich and overweight people would have benefits over the poor, and the poor would not be a burden over the rich.”
Local government was also reformed. According to his decrees, all local power was concentrated in the hands of city governors, and a great many leading “feeder” positions were abolished. Only in one thing were the governors seriously limited: now they had no contact with the state treasury.
Alexey Mikhailovich, father of Fyodor Alekseevich
The Russian army was, if not the most powerful in Europe, then one of the strongest. But there were few permanently combat-ready units. Streltsy, noble cavalry, local army, and now also Ukrainian Cossacks - all these units were formed, lived and served in accordance with the old regulations and ancient way of life. The discrepancy in the numerical strength of the formations and the names of the commanders interfered. This resulted in confusion in ranks.
True, even under the first Romanov, Mikhail Fedorovich, “regiments of a foreign system” appeared in the Russian army, organized according to the European model, under the command of foreign officers. Under Fyodor Alekseevich, such infantry regiments, dragoons and reiters (heavy cavalry in cuirasses and helmets) already formed an impressive part of the army. The glorious colonel also began to serve his father, and then General Patrick Gordon, Peter’s first military teacher, under him the unknown Swiss Franz Lefort, who became the favorite of the future emperor, came to serve in Russia.
The tsar got rid of the units recruited on a temporary basis and returned such servicemen to the plow - it was better to bear the burden. In the border areas, he organized military districts with their own headquarters - command huts. All regular units were now divided into regiments of thousands, all commanders and officers bore combined arms ranks. Finally, Fyodor Alekseevich created a guard - the so-called “elected soldiers” were camped on the outskirts of Moscow in Butyrki.
Of course, nobles served as commanders at various levels. The state paid the nobles for their service with estates, they were also called salaries. “Sitting on a salary” meant just serving on active duty. If the son of a nobleman went to serve after his father, then the family’s right to the estate was confirmed. The noble estates became hereditary property later, but the peasants were already serfs, although still with the right to move to other estates. The state paid servicemen money only during campaigns - it was believed that during this time they could not run the household. Fyodor Alekseevich, like Peter later, wanted all nobles to serve. The Tsar's decree ordered that all nobles be enrolled in the regimental service, and then the Duma “sentenced” that the families of those who evaded would lose their estates.
But to fully attract the noble class into the service, a lot of land was required. Fyodor Alekseevich decided to take these lands beyond the southern border, in the so-called “Wild Field”, from which raids by steppe nomads and Crimeans had long been expected. The Tsar decisively moved the line of border fortifications far to the south, cutting off 30 thousand square kilometers of black soil to Russia. And in order to finally secure the future population of this region, Alexei Mikhailovich positioned the main forces of the renewed army there. The influx of nobility into the army began. Men also flocked to the fertile and well-protected lands.
But the difficulty of Fyodor Alekseevich’s military reforms was that they were carried out during the war, on the move. The pan-European threat at that time was aggressive Türkiye and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate. In October 1672, the Turks took Kamenets-Podolsky and were preparing to march on Kyiv, so Russia declared war on the Sultan. But she had to fight alone: her ally, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, betrayed and concluded a separate peace with the Turks.
The first onslaught of the Turks and Crimeans was terrible. The Turkish Sultan personally commanded the offensive in Right Bank Ukraine, and the Crimean Khan tried to break through the southern defensive lines of the Russians. The fighting took place on a wide front from the Dniester to Azov. Russian troops managed not only to repel the attack, but also to break through to the Sea of Azov. For the first time, a galley fleet built at Voronezh shipyards was launched at sea. Russian galleys with a landing force of Ukrainian Cossacks carried out a raid on Crimea. As a result, the khan was forced to go home to defend his own possessions. The Sultan also retreated. The defeat made a stunning impression on the Turks and Tatars.
Subsequently, the theater of military operations focused on Right Bank Ukraine. Hetman Doroshenko, who ruled there, first served the Poles, then defected to the Turks. He handed over to the Ottomans the headquarters of the right-bank Cossacks - the Chigirin fortress. Since then, the name of this fortress has become the same symbol of the war with Turkey as Ochakov did in the next century. In September 1676, Russian regiments and Ukrainian Cossacks approached Chigirin. After a short siege and as a result of successful negotiations, the garrison of the fortress surrendered.
In the summer of the following year, a 60,000-strong Turkish army under the command of Ibrahim Pasha, nicknamed Shaitan, set out to recapture Chigirin from the Russians. This army included selected spagi cavalry and about 15 thousand Janissaries. Crimea reluctantly sent 40 thousand horsemen. And Chigirin was defended by only 5 thousand Moscow archers and elected soldiers. We held out for three weeks, waiting for the approach of Russian troops and Ukrainian Cossacks. Ours crossed the Dnieper under continuous enemy fire, overthrew the Crimean barrier and went on the offensive. The Russians had not yet completed the crossing, and Shaitan’s army had already fled, abandoning their artillery and baggage train.
The following year, 1678, the Turkish army was even larger, and it was commanded by the vizier Kara-Mustafa, an experienced commander who had recently stood under the walls of Vienna. Chigirin's garrison also increased to 13,600 people, the artillery numbered 82 cannons and 4 mortars. Major General Gordon led the defense. But this time the main Russian forces moved slowly to help and made strange maneuvers. After a month of resistance, having suffered heavy losses, the surviving defenders of the fortress made their way to their own. Those who failed to escape blew up the powder magazines, taking with them 4 thousand enemies. Gordon was furious, but wrote in his diary: “Chigirin was abandoned, but not subdued.” Rumors circulated around Moscow about the betrayal of the governor.
But there was no treason, there was big politics. The king understood this and now sought peace. The truce with Poland was expiring, after which Russia had to return Kyiv to it. And then there’s Chigirin! It turned out that Russia not only annexed Left Bank Ukraine, but also raked in Right Bank Ukraine. So let the Turks get Chigirin (they were taught a lesson anyway), and then it will be possible to come to an agreement with Poland about Kyiv. And Fyodor Alekseevich sent a secret decree to the commander of the main forces, Prince Romodanovsky: not to surrender Chigirin openly, but to make sure that it goes to the Turks. It must be said that Fyodor Alekseevich more than once gave secret decrees to his trusted people, so to speak, classified as “top secret”: “so that you and I know.” The king even mastered the art of encryption and, as a boy, wrote congratulations on the holidays to his father in secret letters.
The Russian-Turkish “unknown” war of 1672–1681 turned out to be a “blank spot” in Russian history. But during this war, for the first time in Europe, a decisive rebuff was given to the Turkish Empire, and brilliant victories were won over the most powerful enemy. By the way, the Prut campaign of Peter I against the Turks ended ingloriously thirty years later: Russian troops were defeated, surrounded, and the emperor himself was almost captured.
Both a music lover and a carpenter
From an early age, the future king was drawn to beauty. As a child, he had a wind-up music box with dancing men and a small organ; he loved his indoor garden, which was decorated with songbirds. Later, he mastered musical notation, collected a unique library of notes, and when he became king, he replaced the ancient hook notation of music with the generally accepted linear one. It became a custom at court to hold vocal concerts, they were called partes singing. True, for some reason his son did not like theatrical performances, which became a custom in the last years of Alexei Mikhailovich’s reign, and the theater in Preobrazhenskoye fell into disrepair.
Court poets appeared in the Kremlin; Simeon Polotsky and Sylvester Medvedev wrote verses “on occasion,” glorifying the most important events in the life of the state. This tradition was picked up in the next century by Trediakovsky, Sumarokov and Lomonosov.
Under Fyodor Alekseevich, many chambers of the Kremlin were decorated with paintings of biblical scenes and intricate ornaments. The painters took a decisive step from icon painting to realistic painting, and a reliable portrait of a “parsun” appeared. During his reign, the Kremlin itself was decorated with new palaces, temples and vertograds (gardens).
Wooden Moscow often burned; townspeople throughout Russia were forbidden to light stoves in the summer; cooking on fire was allowed only away from their houses. The losses from the fires were enormous; the sight of burned-out streets and entire settlements depressed the sovereign - he often went to the fires himself and supervised the extinguishing efforts. Fyodor Alekseevich provided Muscovites with a preferential loan for the construction of stone houses. At the same time, he was the first to introduce building standards for stone blocks, bricks, and the sizes of buildings of various types. Identified reliable suppliers and contractors. He also ordered the streets, which were previously buried in dirt and stench, to be paved. During his reign, the first sewerage system was installed, so far only in the Kremlin. Fyodor Alekseevich ordered the removal of trade tents from the main square, and it became truly Red, that is, beautiful. Moscow gradually acquired metropolitan splendor.
The Tsar understood that many of Russia’s troubles were due to ignorance, and took care of the distribution of books. At the Printing Yard he opened a printing house, independent of church censorship. The first translations of Latin authors, secular books, and the first scientific work on the history of Russia appeared - “Genealogy” by Archimandrite Ignatius Rimsky-Korsakov (ancestor of the great Russian composer). After all, until then, the Russians represented the history of their homeland according to traditions and legends, although entertaining, but unreliable. The Tsar also wanted to create an Academy similar to European universities; he himself drew up a project in which he gave the educational institution liberties and palace privileges unheard of in Russia; it is no coincidence that the project itself was called “Privilege”. Alas, this project remained unfulfilled. But he founded, at his own expense, the Slavic-Latin School, as if the first stage of spiritual and secular education.
Fyodor Alekseevich made mercy a consistent policy of the state: “Poor, crippled and old people who cannot do any work... and do not have shelter for themselves - and we must feed them until death.” He also took care of orphans and street children: he ordered them to be collected in special yards, kept and taught there the sciences and crafts necessary for the state. It was not only a godly deed, but also extremely useful. The streets of the cities swarmed with beggars, among whom there were many pretenders (these were called “bigots”), and this environment was a breeding ground for theft, robbery and drunkenness.
Inner circle
He was an independent ruler and had no obvious favorites. The co-authors and implementers of his transformations were the young and not very noble nobles Ivan Yazykov and Alexey Likhachev. Among the well-born were the princes Vasily Golitsyn (he was the one who led the “Chigirin operation”) and Grigory Romodanovsky, to whom the tsar more than once entrusted the command of the entire army (later Romodanovsky was an associate of Peter and was appointed chief prosecutor - the “sovereign eye”). In matters of education and literature, the tsar relied on the advice and help of Sylvester Medvedev; it was he who headed the first free printing house.
This gentle and kind ruler by nature knew how to be tough. It was on his orders that Archpriest Avvakum was burned at the stake. This decision was probably not easy for the king. But the rebellious fanatic reached extreme embitterment; his inflammatory speeches and letters were worse than the “thieves’ letters” of False Dmitry. It got to the point that Avvakum wished the Turks victory over the “Nikonian” Moscow. Almost at the same time, Fyodor Alekseevich released the aforementioned Nikon from strict confinement in the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery and allowed him to live in his beloved New Jerusalem Monastery near Moscow. But on the way, this famous hierarch of the Russian Church died. At the end of his reign, the sovereign also returned from exile the boyar Artamon Matveev, his father’s favorite.
Even at the end of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich the Quiet, Joachim, an influential and strong-willed church figure, became patriarch. He crowned the young sovereign. However, European learning, especially the Latin language and writings, seemed too dangerous to the patriarch and his Grecophile supporters. They did not approve of the Academy's project, hated the publications of the free printing house and the opened Slavic-Latin School. But they could not prevent the king. But after his death, the printing house was destroyed, the books published by Sylvester Medvedev were cursed, and the publisher himself paid for them with his life.
However, the church and the patriarch supported one of the tsar’s most “strong-willed decisions” - the abolition of localism. The essence of this ancient order was that the nobility of the family was directly related to the official rank or position. And Fyodor Alekseevich wanted ranks to be awarded exclusively “on merit.” He decided to act “from below” - having gathered representatives from different classes and services, he deliberately included elected officers of new regiments in their composition, since they were interested in receiving ranks based on merit, and not by kinship.
As one might expect, the elected officials recommended: “To be without places among ourselves, and to no longer take into account anyone’s rank, and to set aside and eradicate rank cases and places.” Now it was necessary to announce this to the court and the boyar elite. Previously, Fyodor Alekseevich won over the patriarch to his side, proving that God himself teaches: “Do not rise above a small person.”
On January 12, 1682, before the Duma, the court and noble nobles, the tsar announced a petition of elected people. He added on his own behalf that localism is “infused” with the enemy of the human race and only harms the “national good.” The Patriarch, for his part, announced that the church views what the king planned as an “increase in love” between Christians. The boyars expressed their agreement: “So be it!” The tsar ordered to immediately bring local books of rank, which were solemnly burned. At the same time, Fyodor Alekseevich ordered the compilation of a genealogical book containing a detailed inventory of the boyars and nobility, and even created a special Chamber of Genealogical Affairs. These measures served to unite the old and new Russian nobility.
Love and death
The king is also a man. Even an Orthodox Russian sovereign in the 17th century.
In the third year of his reign and the nineteenth year of his life, Fyodor Alekseevich was still single. For the Russian Tsar, this is not a very common case; in the old days, people generally got married early. There was a religious procession in the Kremlin; the Tsar, as usual, followed the Patriarch. Immersed in prayer, he absentmindedly glanced at the crowd surrounding the procession. And suddenly he met the eyes of a pretty young woman. The prayerful mood was blown away by the wind. He immediately called Yazykov over and ordered him to find out about the stranger and who she was.
Yazykov soon reported that this girl was the daughter of the Smolensk nobleman Grushevsky, and her name was Agafya Simeonovna. She lives in the house of her aunt, the wife of the okolnichy Zaborovsky. Now the tsar sent Yazykov to the house of the okolnichy Zaborovsky to find out in more detail and declare, “so that he should keep that niece of his and not marry him off without a decree.”
At first his affection remained a secret, but the Kremlin is like a big village, everything becomes known. Sisters and aunts had long wanted to marry Fyodor Alekseevich, but they did not like his choice. Perhaps it was also confusing that the roots of the Grushevsky and Zaborovsky families were Polish-Lithuanian. And boyar Miloslavsky began to spread rumors about his chosen one and eventually told the sovereign: “Her mother and she are known for some obscenities!”
Fyodor Alekseevich became sad and even stopped eating and drinking. Seeing his grief, Yazykov and Likhachev themselves suggested going to the Zaborovskys and asking directly “about the condition” of the bride. The owners were at a loss from such questions. And then Agafya came out to the messengers and said, “that she herself is not ashamed to tell the truth to these great gentlemen” and “so that they should not have any doubts about her honor and she confirms them in that by losing her belly!”
The Tsar, having learned about this, rejoiced and, in order to test his feelings, immediately jumped on his horse and pranced back and forth in front of the Zaborovsky house. I saw Agafya in the window and was sure: it was her! The wedding took place quickly, on July 18, 1680, very modestly and without the usual shuffles in the court deck, distribution of ranks and awards, which are usual in such cases.
Fyodor Alekseevich was angry with boyar Miloslavsky and wanted to completely excommunicate him from the court. The queen persuaded him to forgive the boyar, seeing in his action only “human weakness.” But Miloslavsky was unlucky again. One day he carried sables and rich materials to the queen, not from himself, but according to his position. And he was caught by the sovereign, and in a rather dark place. The Tsar decided that Miloslavsky was going to the Tsarina with offerings, and became angry: “You used to slander her indecently, but now you want to cover up her deceptions with your gifts!” The boyar almost ended up in exile, but then the “young lions” Yazykov and Likhachev stood up for him.
Alas, the sovereign’s beloved wife died three days after giving birth to her first child, Tsarevich Ilya. Fyodor Alekseevich was in such grief that he could not attend the funeral. But the son did not live long.
Almost two years passed, and Fyodor Alekseevich married a second time, again to a noble daughter of an humble family, Marfa Matveevna Apraksina. The wedding was even more modest, even the doors of the Kremlin were locked, as if to confirm the homeliness of what was happening. Sylvester Medvedev read his verses composed for this occasion to the newlyweds. There were these lines:
Nothing in the world is better than the head
A strong body, always smart, healthy...
Everything about the head is true, but the body... The king was ill and was able to accept congratulations from elected representatives of all classes only a week after the wedding. He was in the prime of his creative, but, alas, not physical powers. The disease was devouring him. The government continued to carry out its functions, but as if with caution: who will be next and how to become pleasing to him? The courtiers stood up as they entered the patient’s chambers. Actually, at the bedside of the dying Fyodor Alekseevich, the knot of the future “streltsy tragedy” was tied. The archers of one of the Moscow regiments complained about Colonel Semyon Griboedov, who was deducting half (!) of their salary. The king ordered it to be sorted out.
The Sovereign of All Russia Fyodor Alekseevich died in the sixth year of his reign, in 1682, as recorded in the discharge book, “on the 27th day of April, sins for the sake of the entire Moscow state.”
But there were many sins, and they all came out at once. Three days before his death, Fyodor Alekseevich, in response to the Streltsy’s petition, ordered: “Send the seeds to Totma, and take away the estates, and remove them from the colonels.” This was the last order of the dying man. Griboedov was indeed taken into custody, but was released a day later. Instead of carrying out the royal decree, they preferred to “inflict cruel punishment on the petitioners, the best people.” In response, the Moscow uprising, and not just the Streltsy uprising, broke out. Only Princess Sofya Alekseevna, the sister of the late Tsar, regent under the young Tsars Peter and Ivan, managed to stop him. Sophia the Wise, as she was sometimes called, was not the organizer of the Streltsy revolt, but its pacifier.
“There was an eternal worker on the throne” - this Pushkin characterization of Peter the Great can easily be attributed to his elder brother. Of course, when you list the main achievements of his reign, a suspiciously benign picture emerges. In reality it was more complex and dramatic. But, undoubtedly, Fyodor Alekseevich’s transformations represent an important experience of non-violent reforms, moreover, predominantly not borrowed, but only including foreign experience where appropriate. Here is the answer to the question why few people know the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich. The younger brother Pyotr Alekseevich, when he came to power, seemed to say: “We will go a different way!” And went. And everyone went. And when everyone marches in formation along the same road, it somehow doesn’t occur to them that there are other paths.
7 Comments
Nina, I’m glad you liked it... And you’re right - humanity has long stopped inventing something new, and is increasingly revolving around old proven methods... But this still doesn’t make it any easier...
Yes, Irin, once again accept my thanks for the article. It took me two hours just to thoughtfully read and organize the “saved files” into folders in my head. I can almost say that I am in a stupor, trying to imagine how much time it took you to create this collection!!! I have always been interested in issues of the administrative, judicial, tax and security systems. Somehow, unbeknownst to myself, with my interest in the history of political events of all times, I remind myself more and more of Maxim Petrov, my classmate. And since this happened, I was, as always, super pleased to receive an impressive dose of material rich in “interesting things”. ZY And as they say in Donetsk, when they want to briefly and succinctly express approval of a person’s actions 🙂 - this particular normal guy, Fyodor Alekseevich.
Slav, I honestly pulled this collection from the Internet, the author’s name is given there at the beginning. But I was incredibly interested in learning about this king - one might say that I only knew his name. But I learned for the first time his human qualities, the qualities of a statesman. The ruler was progressive.
Irin, believe me, I won’t be at all surprised if one day I find out that you have become a deputy there in our opinion or even higher. Even if this article was published by another person. And I received all the information from you, and not from him. And the style of this article is your style: complex things are explained in simple, understandable language, plus there is a twist. And you are also a charismatic girl - in general, your Merkel is good in her post, but I like you more. And don’t rush to immediately deny it and list why it won’t work. Just think about it.
Slav, here’s my honest word – the last thing I’ll do in my life is politics. So let Angel sit in her place, and I’ll sit in mine :)
Such an instructive article, especially about the abolition of localism. after all (my opinion). At present, the distribution of seats is increasingly acquiring a “relative” and “nepotistic” character, which once again confirms the spiral development of events... It was very interesting to draw a parallel with the heroes of the Russian-Turkish war from works of art and realize. that all this happened during the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich. In general, THANK YOU SO MUCH for the information... I thoroughly enjoyed it.
Wonderful article. A good example for modern rulers to follow. In six years, a person who sincerely cares for his state, as for his family, can truly do so much. Yes, my father is right when he says that the reign of the Rurikovichs is an epic, and the Romanovs are a fairy tale. So much kindness and simplicity in actions! This quality is achieved only by cleansing your heart from evil and envy.
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Biography, life story of Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov
Childhood, accession to the throne
Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov (Quiet) was born on March 29 (19), 1629 in Moscow. Father - (Mikhail I), mother - Evdokia Lukyanovna Streshneva. Alexey studied from spiritual and other books from his home library, including the latest scientific ones. The training took place under the guidance of the “guy” - Morozov B.I. The Tsar ascended the throne at the age of 16; he had a bright character, responsive to the grief and joy of others. The Tsar read a lot, was the smartest and most educated man of his age.
Marriage, Morozov's intrigues
The intrigues and abuses of the boyars caused the “Salt Riot” and unrest in the cities. The reason was the intrigues of B.I. Morozov, as a result of which the tsar married Maria Miloslavskaya, and Morozov himself became related to the tsar by marrying her sister Anna. Morozov gained influence and power. The abuses of the Miloslavskys and Morozov caused riots among the population. The tsar pacified the riots and alienated the unwanted boyars and Morozov himself.
Church reform of Patriarch Nikon
Needing an adviser and friend, Alexey Mikhailovich brought Patriarch Nikon closer to him, whom he instructed to carry out church reform. Three-finger baptism was introduced in Rus', icons and church books were corrected according to Greek customs. Nikon received great power and decided to share it with the tsar, meaning the primacy of the church, but the tsar did not agree and alienated Nikon. Nikon retired to the monastery voluntarily and resigned from his duties as patriarch. Nikon began to be judged by the Church Council for leaving the church without the permission of the tsar. He was condemned to eternal imprisonment in a monastery. At the same time, church reform was supported and a split occurred in the church. Opponents of the reform began to be called Old Believers and their persecution began, they were threatened with burning.
Reunification of Ukraine with Russia
In 1648, the Tsar reformed the army, and many European military specialists were hired. In 1653, war was declared on Poland. The failure at Smolensk and the surrender of this city, as well as subsequent events, led to the Vilna Truce with Poland. The unsuccessful war in Livonia ended with the Peace of Kardis. Troubles began in Little Russia and a new war with Poland. Poland refused to recognize the Russian Tsar as heir to the Polish throne. Internal unrest in the lands of Poland and the betrayal of Hetman Doroshenko, who became a citizen of the Turkish Sultan, forced Poland to conclude a peace beneficial to Russia. Alexey Mikhailovich returned Smolensk and acquired the left side of the Dnieper. This peace in the village of Andrusovo was a major achievement; there was a reunification of parts of Ukraine and Russia.
CONTINUED BELOW
Failure of monetary reform
A monetary reform was carried out and new monetary units were introduced. From the thalers available in the treasury, rubles and copper fifty rubles were minted. Taxes began to be collected in silver, and payments were made from the treasury in copper money. As a result of this, a copper riot occurred; peasants and merchants refused to sell goods for copper. Soon copper coins were completely withdrawn from circulation.
After the war with Poland, a Cossack rebellion broke out. robbed a large caravan of the guest and moved to Yaik, began to rob Persian ships. They stopped him in Astrakhan, where he confessed. The rebellion did not end there; it moved again to the Volga and took Tsaritsyn, Saratov, Astrakhan, Samara and many populated areas. They defeated him near Simbirsk, Baryatinsky led the pacification. He was executed in Moscow in 1671.
Internal unrest began on the Solovetsky Islands in the monastery. The monks refused to correct church books. The rebels were hanged after stubborn resistance in the besieged monastery.
War with Turkey
After the uprising there was a war with Turkey. Hetman Bryukhovetsky betrayed Moscow, events began in Little Russia, which led to a war with the Turkish Sultan. It lasted until 1681, after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, and ended in peace for 20 years.
Since the late 40s, the development of Siberia was carried out, then the cities of Nerchinsk, Irkutsk, and Seleginsk were founded. Alexey Mikhailovich encouraged trade and industry. He began the process of bringing cultures closer together - Russian and Western European. The embassy department translated foreign books and scientific works.
Second marriage
After the death of his first wife, the tsar married Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. There were three children from his second marriage, including the future emperor
The second Russian Tsar from the Romanov dynasty (1645-1676).
According to the New Chronicler, he was born on March 17 (27), 1629. Some sources and researchers believe the date of his birth to be other numbers, for example, March 19 or 10, and the entry of the “New Chronicler” is explained as an attempt to combine chronologically the name day and the birthday of the prince, named in honor of the Monk Alexy, a man of God, a miracle worker, whose memory is Orthodox The church actually celebrates on March 17 (Julian calendar). He died on the night of January 29 to 30 (February 8 to 9), 1676 in Moscow.
Personality of the king
Ascended to the throne after the death of his father, the king Mikhail Fedorovich which occurred on the night of July 13 (23), 1645 in Moscow. On the one hand, he received power by right of inheritance, having been declared heir to the throne at the age of 14; on the other hand, he, like his father, was elected to the kingdom by the Zemsky Sobor. At the same time, the young tsar did not undertake any obligations, which, according to contemporary G. Kotoshikhin, “were not asked of him, because they understood him to be much quiet.” He remained in the Russian historical tradition under the nickname “The Quietest”. It reflected some features of his character and behavior, largely due to his religiosity and strict adherence to Orthodox rituals and rules. This was influenced by both the upbringing received in childhood under the care of the royal “mothers”, and early learning to read and write from the age of 5 using an ABC book, compiled by order of his own grandfather - the patriarch himself Filareta, and liturgical books, church singing and prayers. He personally distributed alms in prisons and almshouses and fed the poor. Showing attention to the petitioners, according to legend, he ordered a box for requests addressed to the Tsar to be installed in the village of Kolomenskoye at his country residence.
At the same time, he was active and lively, loved hunting and even wrote a treatise, “The Code of the Falconer’s Path,” personally participated in hostilities and endured the difficulties of camp life, and could flare up and show his anger. His education went beyond the traditional old Russian framework. The Tsar tried his hand at versification, conducted active personal and business correspondence, subscribed to newspapers from abroad and even read out interesting information from them at meetings of the Boyar Duma, for the first time organized postal communication with the countries of Western Europe, at times wore German dress, introduced individual European innovations into everyday life, organized theatrical performances at court, invented new guns, and was interested in astrology and astronomy. He fit well into the general portrait of the Romanovs as champions of the modernization of the country and builders of new imperial orders, not only due to objective circumstances, but also due to personal inclinations, which, however, did not look excessive and provocative for adherents of former traditions.
The role of Alexei Mikhailovich
IN. Klyuchevsky did not speak as warmly about any of the Russian rulers as he did about him: “Tsar Alexei was the kindest man, a glorious Russian soul. I am ready to see in him the best man of ancient Rus'.” However, despite the nickname and character traits characteristic of a generally good-natured person, the time of his reign in the internal life of the country is characterized as a “rebellious age,” and in the field of foreign policy it was a period of continuous military conflicts. Taking into account these most difficult conditions, it is necessary to recognize the role of Alexei Mikhailovich in the formation of the Russian state as no less significant than that of his grandfather, the Patriarch Philareta, father Mikhail Fedorovich or son PetraI. His contribution to the strengthening of the Russian state, to the creation of its power and greatness is great, just as his contribution to the treasury of experience of the emerging imperial management practice of Russia is invaluable.
Governing body
The young tsar's mother, Evdokia Lukyanovna, nee Streshneva, died on August 18, 1645, having outlived her husband by only a month. Left an orphan and lacking public administration skills, Alexey Mikhailovich initially entrusted the burden of power and responsibility to his “uncle” educator B.I. Morozov. However, he failed to manage the country. The authorities were stricken with corruption, arbitrariness and injustice reigned in them. This was the reason for the uprising in Moscow in June 1648, which was echoed by protests against the local administration in provincial cities, especially in the southern border fortresses, in the North and in Siberia: Kozlov, Kursk, Totma, Kaygorodka, Solvychegodsk, Narym, Tomsk and others.
The activity of the population of the outskirts was understandable; it was there that the governors and other administrators were the most uncontrolled and especially oppressed the residents. Referring to the 17th century foreign traveler A. Olearius, in the historical tradition this uprising is often called the “salt riot.” However, in reality, fiscal issues, including increases in taxes and salt prices, did not play a leading role in its course. Saving Morozov, against whom the rebels had directed their anger, the tsar handed over some other officials to be killed. After the end of the rebellion, Morozov, sent to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, was returned to Moscow, but no longer played the previous leading role in the government. The tsar and his new inner circle took into account the lessons of the social explosion not only in the short term, but also in the strategic perspective. The commission consisting of N.I. Odoevsky, F.F. Volkonsky, S.V. Prozorovsky was tasked with developing a new set of laws and judicial rules. The results of their work were discussed, edited and approved at the Zemsky Sobor in 1649 in the form. Over time, its norms were supplemented by such important and voluminous legislative acts as the New Trade Charter of 1657, New Decree Articles on Robbery and Murder Cases of 1669, New Decree Articles on Estates of 1676. They served the purposes of expanding trade and protecting the interests of Russian merchants, strengthening local land ownership and law and order in general.
It was not possible to avoid new internal conflicts by changing legislation. In 1650, urban uprisings broke out in Novgorod and Pskov, in the liquidation of which the Novgorod Metropolitan, together with the secular authorities, actively participated Nikon, who in 1652, at the insistence of the tsar, was installed as Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'. In 1653-1655, he carried out a church reform, which concerned mainly the ritual side of worship. However, disagreement with it became the banner of not only religious opponents or those who did not accept modernization changes, but also political opponents of Alexei Mikhailovich, all dissatisfied with his social policy, especially the final attachment of peasants to landowners and townspeople to their place of residence. Although in 1658 Nikon, due to a conflict with the tsar, actually lost church power, and in 1667 he was officially deposed from the patriarchal rank, his reforms were not canceled. The schism in the church deepened, the Old Believers were persecuted, fled to the outskirts and outside the country. Some of them were ready to accept martyrdom, others - to provide armed resistance. From 1668 to 1676, opponents of church reform defended the Solovetsky Monastery from the tsarist troops who besieged it, but were defeated and executed. Speeches with direct social and political demands did not stop.
The next major uprising in the capital was again caused by miscalculations in financial and fiscal policy and was called the “copper riot.” In 1654, the production of copper money began, which was cheaper than silver money in market value, but had the same denomination. To improve the state of the treasury, taxes were ordered to be collected in silver, and payments from the treasury - in copper. Gradually, this led to the paralysis of monetary circulation, the curtailment of trade and a drop in the living standards of the population. On July 25 (August 4), 1662, a rebellion began in Moscow. A crowd of dissatisfied people moved to the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, where the tsar was located. Taken by surprise, Alexey Mikhailovich retained his restraint and composure. Saving his relatives and associates, he personally entered into negotiations with the leaders of the rebels, even shook hands with them, hoping to remove them from the village and gain time until loyal troops arrived from Moscow. With their arrival, the riot was brutally suppressed. However, copper coins were soon withdrawn from circulation. The Cossack movement on the Volga and Caspian Sea under the leadership of Stepan Razin became even larger and more dangerous. Beginning in 1667 with the usual robberies of merchant caravans, coastal Persian and Russian settlements, it grew into a massive anti-government movement, which in Soviet times historians considered as the Peasants' War of 1670-1671. Significant territories and a number of cities along the Middle Volga with its tributaries and the Lower Yaik fell into the hands of the rebels. It was possible to stop the rebels and inflict a serious defeat on them only near Simbirsk. Razin fled to the Don, where he was captured by Cossacks from among his opponents, handed over to the tsarist governors and executed in Moscow on June 6 (16), 1671.
The suppression of Razin's uprising confirmed the benefit of the decision of the still young Alexei Mikhailovich to found Simbirsk, adopted in 1648. Strengthening the defense of the southeastern borders of the state and the protection of trade routes in the Volga region continued with the construction of Penza and Kungur in 1663. In 1667, a decree was adopted on the construction of naval warships in the European style in the village. Dedinovo on the Oka for sailing in the southern seas and in the Volga basin. The only ship “Eagle” was built, which was captured by the Razins in Astrakhan and burned. During the movement of Russian explorers to the east, they reached the Pacific Ocean and made their first voyage on the Sea of Okhotsk (V.D. Poyarkov in 1645), sailed across the entire Amur River and compiled its “drawing” map (E.P. Khabarov in 1649 -1653), opened the strait between Asia and America, sailing from the mouth of the Kolyma, which flows into the Arctic Ocean, to the mouth of the Anadyr, which flows into the Pacific Ocean (S.I. Dezhnev and F.A. Popov, 1648). The expansion of Russian possessions in Siberia and the Far East was marked by the construction of the fortified cities of Nerchinsk (1658), Irkutsk (1661), and Selenginsk (1666).
The main direction of foreign policy activity was Western. The turning point in the historical dispute with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth over the Smolensk land, seized by neighbors during the Time of Troubles, and for the reunification of Ukraine with Russia was marked in 1648, when a Cossack uprising broke out under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, which grew into a war of liberation of the Ukrainian people. The Cossacks, realizing the impossibility of achieving independence on their own, more than once turned to Moscow with a request to accept citizenship of the same Russian sovereign, but a positive response threatened a difficult war with Poland and other powers, for which Russia was not ready. However, indecision threatened the suppression of the uprising and the loss of the opportunity to change the balance of power between the Polish-Lithuanian and Moscow states. Alexei Mikhailovich rejected the requests of the Cossacks until 1653, when a specially assembled Zemsky Sobor agreed to the reunification of Ukraine and, accordingly, to a war with Poland. As a result of the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667, Kyiv with the adjacent lands along the right bank of the Dnieper, the Seversk land with Chernigov and Starodub, and the Smolensk land with Smolensk went to Russia.
During the war, Alexey Mikhailovich personally visited Vitebsk, Polotsk, Mogilev, Kovno (Kaunas), Grodno, Vilno (Vilnius), where he became acquainted with a new way of life for Russian people, which upon his return to Moscow led to some changes in the court environment and life . The situation in Ukraine remained difficult, since there was a struggle for power among the Cossack elders, the warring parties wavered not only between Moscow and Warsaw, but also resorted to the help of Turkey and Crimea. Sweden constantly intervened in the conflict. During the wars with its western and southern neighbors, moving with them from hostilities to negotiations and concluding alliances with one against the other, Russia managed to maintain its acquisitions in the Smolensk region, Seversk and Left Bank Ukraine. Alexei Mikhailovich himself did not live to see the conclusion of peace with Turkey and Crimea, which recognized the reunification of the Kiev region and the left bank of the Dnieper with Russia in 1681.
Constant wars that lasted for decades forced the tsar to continue the military reforms begun by his father Mikhail Fedorovich to rebuild the Russian army on a Western European model, although he also did not complete them. In anticipation of the approaching wars in 1648-1654, both the troops of the “old system” (local cavalry, archers and gunners) and the regiments of the “new system” were strengthened and replenished: reiters, soldiers, dragoons and hussars. The influx of foreign military specialists was facilitated by the end of the pan-European Thirty Years' War in 1648, which left many professional military men out of work and pushed them to switch to Russian service. Since 1652, military and civilian foreign, and therefore non-religious, specialists have been settled near Moscow in the German Settlement. Conceived as a means of isolation from foreign influence on the Russian people, the settlement became a significant conductor of modernization and Westernization in Russia, including in the fields of industry, healthcare, and education.
Along with the buildup of the armed forces, there was a strengthening of the state apparatus, which also had a dual character. On the one hand, there was a specialization of its mechanisms and institutions in order to adapt to the requirements of the time. On the other hand, all this was done within the framework of a cumbersome and archaic-looking order system, which came from the era of gathering Russian lands under the rule of Moscow. So, as the need arose, new orders arose: Secret Affairs - in fact, the personal office of the tsar (around 1658), Accounting Affairs - was engaged in checking the receipt, expenditure and balances of money (mentioned from 1657), Reitarsky (1651), Little Russian (mentioned from 1649 ), Monastyrsky (1648), etc. The Boyar Duma continued to function actively, for whose meetings the tsar always prepared very carefully. Zemsky councils, after 1653, according to most researchers, were no longer convened, although there were representative meetings that resembled cathedrals in terms of the composition of participants and functions. The Russian autocracy evolved towards not a parliamentary, but an absolute monarchy.
Family life
Alexei Mikhailovich's family life consisted of two marriages, which were part of the courtiers' struggle for influence over him and, in turn, gave rise to future dynastic conflicts. The first of them with Maria Ilyinichna from the Miloslavsky family was concluded on January 16, 1648, when the tsar was 18 years old. It was arranged by the former “uncle” teacher B.I. Morozov, who himself married the queen’s sister. In the tsar's first marriage, 5 sons and 8 daughters were born: Dmitry (1649-1651), Evdokia (1650-1712), Martha (1652-1707), Alexey (1654-1670), Anna (1655-1659), Sophia (1657- 1704), Catherine (1658-1718), Maria (1660-1723), Fedor (1661-1682), Feodosia (1662-1713), Simeon (1665-1669), John (1666-1696), Evdokia, who died in infancy in 1669. Of these, two boys became kings in the future Fedor Alekseevich And JohnVAlekseevich and their sister Tsarevna Sofya Alekseevna was the de facto ruler of Russia in 1682-1689. 2 years after the death of M.I. Miloslavskaya, which followed on March 4, 1669, Alexey Mikhailovich married Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina on January 22, 1671. This relative of his was wooed by the then elevated boyar A.S. Matveev. From his marriage to her, the king had three children: the future king and emperor PetraI(1672-1725), Natalia (1673-1716) and Theodora (1674-1678). With close people, Alexey Mikhailovich was gentle in behavior and actions, rarely gave vent to negative emotions, and in his family life he showed himself to be a loving husband and father. This attitude towards loved ones and children did not prevent future strife between them and confrontation in the struggle for power after the passing of the “Quiet” Tsar in 1676. Like his ancestors, Alexei Mikhailovich was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
