What is systematics. Presentation "What is systematics" in biology - project, report VII. Homework

The beginning of the development of the natural sciences as a whole was laid by the works of the greatest philosopher of antiquity, Aristotle (BC). The title of "father of botany" belongs to his student, friend and follower Theophrastus (BC).

Theophrastus belongs to the first classification of the vegetable kingdom. He divided all plants into four main groups: trees, shrubs, semi-shrubs and herbs. Within them, he singled out subordinate groups: cultivated and wild plants, terrestrial and aquatic, evergreen and deciduous, flowering and non-flowering, etc.

In the era of Aristotle and Theophrastus, ancient Greek philosophy reached its peak. With the loss of state independence by Greece, the conditions for the progress of science deteriorated markedly. The pragmatic culture of Ancient Rome brought little new to the knowledge of the plant world.

An attempt to synthesize all knowledge about the world was made by the remarkable Roman naturalist and writer Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD), who tragically died during the eruption of Vesuvius. His pen belongs to the grandiose 37-volume encyclopedia "Natural History" ("Historia naturalis"), in which he first compared the Greek names of plants with Latin ones.

Medical botany originates from the work "Materia medica" by the ancient Roman physician and scientist Dioscorides (1st century AD). Dioscorides described about 600 medicinal plants and provided them with illustrations, which greatly facilitated the identification. This work for one and a half millennia remained in Europe the main source of information about medicinal plants.

The long period of the Middle Ages was unfavorable for the development of the natural sciences. Some monasteries with their collections of ancient manuscripts remained the keepers of knowledge. 7 books on plants by Albertus Magnus (13th century). He attributed plants to animate beings, but with a primitive soul. For the first time he noted the differences between monocots and dicots.

The countries of the Arab world had a noticeable influence on the development of botanical knowledge in Europe. Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna,) Al-Biruni ()

The progress of descriptive botany at that time was due to three main reasons: 1) the collections of the first botanical gardens arose and were actively replenished; 2) herbarization appeared as an effective method of plant documentation; 3) typography became widespread.

The period of artificial systems Andrea Cesalpino () In his system, based on the deductive approach of Aristotle, 15 groups are accepted.

Fragments of the Cesalpino classification 1. Woody. The heart is at the top of the seed. Seeds are often solitary. Quercus, Tilia, Laurus, Prunus, etc. 3. Herbaceous. With single seeds. The seed in the fruit is one. Valeriana, Urtica, Gramineae, etc. 4. Herbaceous. With single juicy fruits. Numerous seeds in the fruit with a fleshy pericarp. Cucurbitaceae, Solanaceae, Asparagus, Arum, etc. 6. Seeds are paired, connected together under each flower, so that they look like a whole before ripening. Flowers in umbrellas. Umbelliferae* 10. Quadruple seeds, 4 bare seeds arranged together (fruit splitting into 4 one-seeded parts). Boraginaceae, Labiatae 13. Numerous seeds; common flower (apocarpous gynoecium). Ranunculus, Alisma, etc. 1. Woody. The heart is at the top of the seed. Seeds are often solitary. Quercus, Tilia, Laurus, Prunus, etc. 3. Herbaceous. With single seeds. The seed in the fruit is one. Valeriana, Urtica, Gramineae, etc. 4. Herbaceous. With single juicy fruits. Numerous seeds in the fruit with a fleshy pericarp. Cucurbitaceae, Solanaceae, Asparagus, Arum, etc. 6. Seeds are paired, connected together under each flower, so that they look like a whole before ripening. Flowers in umbrellas. Umbelliferae* 10. Quadruple seeds, 4 bare seeds arranged together (fruit splitting into 4 one-seeded parts). Boraginaceae, Labiatae 13. Numerous seeds; common flower (apocarpous gynoecium). Ranunculus, Alisma, etc.

Carl Linnaeus 3. Proposed binary nomenclature. 4. Developed the reproductive system of plants based on the number, proportion and position of stamens and pistils. He showed that the androecium and gynoecium are much more constant in their characters and are of greater systematic importance than the corolla, calyx, inflorescence or vegetative organs.

Classification of plants by C. Linnaeus Taxonomy of higher plants Single stamens Two stamens Three stamens Four stamens Five stamens Six stamens Semi stamens Eight stamens Nine stamens Ten stamens Twelve stamens Twenty stamens Polystamens Biforced Four strong Unifraternal Bifraternal Polyfraternal Polygamous

Transition to natural systems Fragments of the NATURAL METHOD are subject to careful study. This is the first and last thing a botanist strives for. Nature does not make leaps. All plants show affinity to each other, like lands on a geographical map. C. Linnaeus "Philosophy of Botany" (1751)

Late 18th century: development of ideas about affinity as a natural connection between living beings. Michel Adanson (1726–1806). "Families of Plants" (1763): taking into account the maximum possible number of characters. He summarized 65 systems built according to individual features.

Dynasty Jussier Gardener Bernard Jussier (1699-1777) from the botanical garden in Versailles. He suggested weighing the signs. His nephew is Antoine Laurent Jussier. He proposed a system of "ascending" type, connecting classes into a single chain from simple to complex. The main features: the number of cotyledons, the number of petals, the position of the ovary.

SYSTEMS OF THE "DESCENT" TYPE of the first half of the 19th century. From the complex to the simple and from the many to the small, Augustin Piram Decandol (1778–1841). Description of all types of plants (about 60 thousand). "Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis" "Harbinger of the natural system of the vegetable kingdom" (1823–1873)

Phylogenetic systems of the late 19th century. The spread of the Darwinian theory of evolution naturally led to the idea that affinity actually reflects genealogical relationship, common origin, and differences between taxa characterize the degree of their divergence, divergence in the evolutionary process.

Phylogenetic systems of the late 19th century. Engler in "Syllabus des Pflanzenfamilien" substantiated the "principles of natural arrangement" of plant taxa. The main purpose of the phylogenetic system is to reflect the relationship of organisms. It is necessary to distinguish homologous similarities from similar ones. Identified primitive and advanced features.

Phylogenetic systems of the second half of the 19th century. Engler proposed an ascending phylogenetic system. He considered the signs of multicartilage to be primitive, but he began the system with one-integument. He recognized the primary polymorphism of flowering plants. The Engler system has become widespread in Russia.

Casuarinas Coastal casuarina 1 branch with male inflorescences at the ends of assimilation shoots, female inflorescences in the middle part of the branch and empty woody inflorescences of the previous vegetation in the lower part of the branch; 2 fragment of the apical part of a complex male inflorescence with three elementary whorled inflorescences; 3 male flower; 4 female inflorescence with long filiform stigma lobes; 5 female flower; 6 fruit with a transparent wing.

Angiosperm system according to N.I. Kuznetsov (1922) Most systems of flowering plants are monophyletic, i.e. originate from a single ancestor. The polyphyletic system allows descent from two or more ancestors. Single integument Polycarpel Primary gymnosperms Bennetitic Penta-circular Three-dimensional Penta-circular Five-dimensional Five-circular Four-dimensional Proanthophytes Euanthophytes

Lesson 3 FORMATION OF SYSTEMATICS Objectives: to consider the activities of scientists from different periods of human history, explaining the diversity of living organisms; reveal the essence of K. Linnaeus's views on the system of the organic world. Tasks: educational: to consider the main stages in the formation of the theory of evolution; show the essence and significance of the works of K. Linnaeus on the systematization of the organic world; continue the basic biological concepts; develop skills to highlight the main thing, analyze, compare; developing: the formation of educational: patriotic education - to show the role of domestic scientists in the formation of the theory of evolution. Lesson type: combined. Method of conducting: conversation, problem statement. Planned subject results: the student should be able to present: about some works of scientists from different periods: K. Baer, ​​M.V. Lomonosov, J. Cuvier, J.S. Tsira and others; knowledge: the main provisions of the teachings of K. Linnaeus, the concepts of classification, binary nomenclature, evolution, form; be able to: explain, from the point of view of K. Linnaeus, the reasons for the diversity of species of living organisms and their adaptability to environmental conditions. Interdisciplinary connections: history, geography. Intradisciplinary connections: botany, zoology. Educational resources: tables "Classification of plants", "Levels of organization of wildlife"; cards. Scenario of the lesson I. Actualization of knowledge.

Checking the studied material: a frontal survey of students on questions at the end of chapter 1. Question 3 is placed on separate cards in the form of a table "Levels of wildlife organization." Therefore, when characterizing the levels (question 2), we can limit ourselves to listing them. In cards, the second column should be empty. Two students complete this table during the frontal survey. Levels of organization of living nature Level name BIOSPHERIC Components that make up the level The totality of all biogeocenoses; includes all phenomena of life on Earth. At this level, the circulation of substances and the transformation of energy associated with the vital activity of all living organisms take place. an individual of a certain species capable of developing as a living system - from the moment of inception to the termination of existence An individual cell Molecules of substances - organic and inorganic, which are part of both cells and organisms ORGANIZED CELLULAR MOLECULAR Question 4 is considered in writing at the blackboard. At the end of the lesson, 2–3 students hand in notebooks to check the table “Basic properties of living systems”. Checking the formation of biological concepts is carried out according to

cards: Population is ... Biogeocenosis is ... Metabolism is ... Card 1. Give definitions: Cell is ... Tissue is ... Organ is ... Organism is ... Card 2. Give definitions: Heredity is ... Variability is ... Ontogeny is ... Card 3 (for students with a low level of knowledge). What are the definitions? 1. One of the main structural, Phylogeny is ... Self-regulation is ... functional and its living self-reproducing elements of living matter, an elementary system is ... 2. The property of organisms to repeat similar signs and properties in a number of generations is ... 3. Any living creature, an integral system, a real carrier of life, characterized by all its properties, is ... 4. An evolutionarily formed, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system in which living organisms and their abiotic environment are functionally interconnected, characterized by a relatively independent metabolism and a special type of use the flow of energy coming from the Sun is ... 5. The historical development of organisms, the evolution of the organic world, various systematic groups, individual organs and their systems is ... II. Motivation of educational activity. Message topics, goals. Show the need for information about the systematization of biological knowledge. III. Discovery of new knowledge.

1. Formation of the theory of evolution. The theory of evolution is the science of the causes, driving forces, mechanisms and general laws of the evolution of living organisms. Evolution is an irreversible process of historical change of the living. To understand the current state and problems of evolutionary doctrine, knowledge of the main historical stages in the formation of evolutionism is necessary. We will consider two such stages in today's lesson (the teacher writes the diagram on the blackboard): 1. Pre-Darwinian: “ancient”; "metaphysical". 2. Darwin. 2. "Antique period". Evolutionary ideas - ideas about the historical development of the observed diversity of life - arose millennia ago. "Ancient period" (Aristotle, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Democritus, Lucretius) - during this period, the idea of ​​the unity of all nature was developed (Aristotle's ladder of living beings), starting with minerals and ending with man. But the idea of ​​this ladder was far from the idea of ​​development; the higher levels were not perceived as a product of the development of the lower levels. At the heart of reasoning about the unity of nature were ideas about the motion of matter. The reasons were interpreted differently by representatives of different philosophical schools. All this did not allow us to combine the idea of ​​the unity of nature with the idea of ​​the development of nature from simple to complex. To illustrate the next period more vividly, invite the students to solve the problem: - Imagine a huge book depository in which you need to put it in order. How will you classify books? - On what basis will you combine them into groups: a) by the color of the cover; b) by format; c) alphabetically; d) by year of publication? The classification of books by format is convenient for storing them on shelves of different heights, but inconvenient for a reader who is interested in books on a specific topic. Increasingly enriched by the facts that appeared in the course of the progress of natural science, biological knowledge led at the end of the 18th century. to

formation of evolutionary doctrine. 3. "Metaphysical period" (XVII-XVIII centuries). C. Linnaeus is the creator of the binary nomenclature, he owns the idea of ​​taxon hierarchy. (Pay attention to the artificiality of his system.) He allowed the natural occurrence of varieties, but was convinced that "there are as many species as there are different forms created by the eternal essence." He viewed the species as a stable element in nature and believed in the biblical legend of the creation of species. In Russia: M. V. Lomonosov (“On the layers of the earth”) lays the foundations of modern science. He considered changes in inanimate nature as the direct cause of changes in the animal and plant world; he judged the conditions of their existence in the past by the remains of extinct forms. KF Wolf, studying the development of embryos in birds and kidneys in plants, expressed the idea of ​​a gradual development of the heterogeneous from the homogeneous by new formation of structures. IV. Consolidation. Joint formulation of the conclusion. Despite the repeatedly expressed brilliant conjectures about the development, evolution of wildlife, until the end of the 18th century. “the thought of the expediency of the orders established in nature” dominates, about the creation of cats to devour mice, and mice to be devoured by cats, and all of nature to prove the wisdom of the creator. The elements of evolutionism that have been expressed have not yet formed into an evolutionary doctrine. For the first time such a doctrine was created by J. B. Lamarck. V. Reflection. Students evaluate the degree of implementation of the goals set in the lesson, their learning activities and meaningfully substantiate the correctness (falseness) of the result. Homework: p. 12–14; clarify the question at the end of the text. To question 4 find examples.

Additional information In the first edition of the main work of K. Linnaeus "Systems of Nature" there were only 13 pages. If today we tried to describe all known species of plants, animals, microorganisms, devoting ten lines to each species, then these descriptions would take 10,000 books of 2335 pages. The classification was based not on the relationship of organisms, but on the similarity in some of the most easily distinguishable features. By combining plants according to the number of stamens, according to the nature of pollination, Linnaeus in a number of cases received completely artificial groups. So, in the class of plants with five stamens, he combined carrots, flax, quinoa, bluebells, currants and sea otters. Due to differences in the number of stamens, the closest relatives - lingonberries and blueberries - fell into different classes. But in another class (monoecious plants), sedge, birch, oak, duckweed, nettle and spruce were found. But, despite these obvious miscalculations, the Linnaean system played a huge role in the history of biology, as it helped to at least somehow navigate the huge variety of living beings. J. Cuvier is the founder of paleontology. He was a supporter of the description of species (their name and classification). He owns the Theory of Cataclysms, in which he claims that cataclysms occur all the time on Earth. They lead to the (local) disappearance of living organisms, and in these areas God creates something new or the same. He recognized the influence of living conditions on living organisms. He believed that the species did not change. J.S. Hilaire - he owns the idea of ​​the variability of organic nature. Recognized a single plan for the structure of the organic world. He is the author of the theory of homologues. In this theory, he talks about the similarities in the structure of body parts in animals. Similar organs may differ in anatomy, but their location will be the same (shoulder - forearm). Principles: - the principle of the relationship of organs (homologous organs are always located in the same way relative to adjacent parts of the body,

develop from the same rudiments, which indicates a common origin). - the principle of balancing (the organ reaches its full development due to the underdevelopment of another organ or adjacent to it). For example, a giraffe has a long neck and limbs, but a short torso. With this principle, the origin of vestigial organs and atavisms can be explained. He believed that the diversity of the organic world determines the habitat. Living animals come from an unbroken chain of generations of extinct animals.

"Complication of animals in the process of evolution" - Cartilaginous fish. In roundworms, a primary cavity is formed, and in annelids, a secondary body cavity. An important evolutionary change is the complication of the nervous system. The complication of chordates in the process of evolution. Type chordates. Mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, saber-toothed tiger, peat deer, cave bear.

"Biological evolution" - What is biological regression? What is aromorphosis? Idioadaptation. What is degeneration? General degeneration - evolutionary changes that lead to a simplification of the organization. Identification of the main aromorphoses of birds. Where is evolution going? Increases the intensity of vital activity. Identification of the main aromorphoses of amphibians.

"The main directions of evolution" - The main provisions of the teachings of Darwin. Degeneration is an evolutionary change that leads to a simplification of the organization. Idioadaptation is a small evolutionary change that contributes to adaptation to certain environmental conditions (private adaptations). Evolution of the organic world.

"The main factors of evolution" - Animals. To get acquainted with the non-directing factors of evolution. One of the most important factors in evolution. Non-directing factors of evolution. factors of evolution. Mutations. Drift of genes. Insulation. The result of the action of mutations. Constant mutational variability. Studied factors. Hardy-Weinberg law. Struggle for existence.

"Evolution of the Earth" - Provide evidence for evolution. Tasks: to reveal cause-and-effect relationships and patterns of evolution of life on the planet. Archean era: 3.5 billion years. Development of skills to work with various sources of information. Summing up: presentation of the project on the topic "Directions, ways and patterns of evolution."

"Museum of Natural History" - In general, everything to comfortably spend the day. Diplodocus. The museum also has many toilets, a restaurant, cafe and several souvenir shops. Museum of Natural History. The walls are carved with plants and animals. In the green part, immediately to the right of the central part, there are halls telling about birds,

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