Cultural historical psychology claims that. Vygotsky's cultural-historical psychology. Where do these sign means come from?

Cultural-historical approach and its specificity at the present stage

1.L.S. Vygotsky and his cultural-historical approach in psychology.

2. The cultural and historical concept of A.R. Luria and neuropsychology.

3. New development of the idea of \u200b\u200bhistoricism.

4. Cultural psychology of M. Cole.

5. Cultural-historical approach to family therapy.

6. Empirical ethnosociology.

7. The concept of A.N. Leontief and non-classical psychology.

8. Conclusion

Speaking about the cultural-historical approach in the methodology of psychology, a few words should be said about its founder - the Russian psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934). In the work "History of the development of higher mental functions" L.S. Vygotsky developed a cultural-historical theory of the development of the psyche in the process of mastering the values \u200b\u200bof human civilization by an individual. Mental functions given by nature ("natural") are transformed into functions of the highest level of development ("cultural"), for example, mechanical memory becomes logical, impulsive action - arbitrary, associative representations - purposeful thinking, creative imagination. This process is a consequence of the process of interiorization, i.e. the formation of the internal structure of the human psyche through the assimilation of the structures of external social activity. This is the formation of a truly human form of the psyche due to the individual's assimilation of human values.

The essence of the cultural-historical concept can be expressed as follows: the behavior of a modern cultured person is not only the result of development from childhood, but also a product of historical development. In the process of historical development, not only the external relations of people, the relationship between man and nature, changed and developed, man himself changed and developed, his own nature changed. At the same time, the fundamental, genetically initial basis for the change and development of a person was his labor activity, carried out with the help of tools. L.S. Vygotsky clearly differentiates the processes of using tools in humans and apes. He agrees with A.R. Leroy on the inadmissibility of comparing the technical activity of the first people ("primitives") with the dexterity of a billiard player, which in many respects resembles the actions of a monkey and other animals. Dexterity to a large extent belongs to the realm of instinct and is transmitted biogenetically. The technical activity of the "primitives" was of a supra-instinctive, supra-biological nature, which excluded the possibility of their biological study. Making a bow or an ax does not come down to an instinctive operation: you need to choose a material, find out its properties, dry it, soften it, cut it, etc. In all this, dexterity can give accuracy to movement, but can neither comprehend nor combine.

Thus, Vygotsky could with good reason declare that cultural-historical theory sees the main factors in the psychological development of primitives in the development of technology. Close to this idea is the position of A.N. Leontyev. Starting from his historical-genetic approach to the study of the psyche, he considers it as a product and derivative of material life, external material activity, which is transformed in the course of social historical development into internal activity, into the activity of consciousness. To the extent that man created technology, to the same extent she created it: social man and technology conditioned each other's existence. Technique, technical activity led to the existence of culture.

According to L.S. Vygotsky, man in the process of his historical development has risen to the creation of new driving forces of his behavior. Only in the process of man's social life did his new needs arise, formed and developed, and the very natural needs of man in the process of his historical development have undergone profound changes. Every form of cultural development, cultural behavior, he believed, in a sense is already a product of the historical development of mankind. The transformation of natural material into a historical form is always a process of a complex change in the type of development itself, and by no means a simple organic maturation.

Within the framework of child psychology, L.S. Vygotsky formulated the law of the development of higher mental functions, which arise initially as a form of collective behavior, a form of cooperation with other people, and only later do they become the internal individual functions of the child himself. Higher mental functions are formed during their lifetime, are formed as a result of mastering special tools, means developed in the course of the historical development of society. The development of higher mental functions is associated with learning in the broadest sense of the word; it cannot take place otherwise than in the form of mastering given patterns, therefore this development goes through a number of stages. The specificity of child development is that it is subject not to the action of biological laws, as in animals, but to the action of socio-historical laws. The biological type of development occurs in the process of adaptation to nature by inheriting the properties of the species and by individual experience. A person does not have innate forms of behavior in the environment. Its development occurs through the appropriation of historically developed forms and methods of activity.

One of the first to understand and accept the concept of L.S. Vygotsky's disciple and follower A.R. Luria (1902-1977), in whose works the foundations of the cultural-historical approach are formed, in which culture is recognized and studied as the leading line of human spiritual development, as a form of personality. The problem of the relationship between personality and culture was one of the leading in his work, accepting various modifications during his life, rich in research and scientific discoveries. Already in his early works, the genetic approach was combined with the historical, moreover, with the cultural-historical approach to the study of language and thinking.

For example, A.R. Luria believed that art can help in the formation of a new self-awareness, since, while enjoying a cultural work, a person realizes himself as a cultural being. Thus, the evoked "social experiences" help a person's socialization, regulating the process of his entry into that culture, into the society that surrounds him. Therefore, creativity is based on the process of appropriation (and at a certain stage in the development of the human personality and creation) of cultural values \u200b\u200band is associated with the ability of a person to give his thoughts a sign form. It is precisely this understanding of the role of culture in the formation of the psyche that was adopted by A.R. Luria and was developed by him in his subsequent works.

At the same time, he also considered psychoanalysis as a theory that would help to find the cultural roots of a person, to reveal the role of culture in his life and work. It is not without reason that the approach of K.G. Jung, and not the classical psychoanalysis of Z. Freud, since he made it possible to reveal the ethnic and cultural possibilities of the content of individual images and ideas of people. However, from the point of view of A.R. Luria, these ideas are not inherited, but are transmitted from adults to children in the process of communication. Materials of psychoanalytic studies of neuroses were already cited by A.R. Luria to the idea that the environment is not a condition, but a source of human mental development. It is the environment and culture that form the content of both the conscious and unconscious layers of the psyche.

The ideas formed in the first decades of scientific activity have largely remained unchanged, defining the foundations of the cultural-historical approach of A.R. Luria, in which culture appears as the leading line of human socialization, as a factor that determines the relationship between a person and society, forming consciousness and self-consciousness, his personal activity.

Later A.R. Luria built his approach on the combination of psychology with medicine, forming a new concept in neuropsychology. This approach focuses on the search for the causes of mental disorders and ways to compensate them in the history of culture and social relations. A.R. Luria is based on the theory of cultural and historical origin, structure and development of higher mental functions, developed by him together with L.S. Vygotsky. With the help of these theoretical concepts, A.R. Luria carried out a deep functional analysis of various brain systems and described in detail the frontal, parietal, temporal and other syndromes of disorders of higher mental functions. In his first neuropsychological works, together with L.S. Vygotsky in the 30s. A.R. Luria became interested in Parkinson's disease, caused by damage to the subcortical nuclei of the brain. A.R. Luria and L.S. Vygotsky demonstrated the advantages of using mediation (creating external visual supports - cultural and historical tools) to restore walking in these patients.

In developing questions about psychological tools and mechanisms of mediation, L.S. Vygotsky and A.R. Luria talked about stimuli-means, initially “turned outward” to the partner, and then “turned on themselves”, i.e. becoming a means of controlling their own mental processes. Further, internalization occurs - the rotation of the stimulus-means inward, i.e. the mental function begins to be mediated from within and thus there is no need for an external (in relation to a given person) stimulus-means.

The idea of \u200b\u200binteriorization reflects the dialectical pattern of the formation of the human psyche, the essence of the development of not only individual mental functions, but also the entire human personality as a whole.

The application of Luriev's cultural-historical approach and the theory of three functional brain blocks turned out to be very productive for the development of neurogerontopsychology, which analyzes the rearrangements (both negative and positive) of mental functioning in old age, as well as the specific features of normal and various forms of abnormal aging.

The cultural-historical approach in neuropsychology, developed by A.R. Luria, turned out to be very fruitful for the study of the most difficult areas for psychological analysis: consciousness, personality, emotional sphere and communication of patients with rare types of pathology.

A.R. Luria believed that when analyzing communication, it is necessary to overcome linguocentrism, go beyond the description into the analysis of a different, non-verbal, semantic organization of the world, which is extremely important for the modern understanding of the problem of communication and the development of the individual as a whole. Using the ideas of M.M. Bakhtin that to be means to communicate dialogically, it is possible to show the consequences of various fallouts of the Other for the development of the Self and try to rebuild the life path of the individual.

According to A.G. Asmolov, “when we talk about the works of Alexander Romanovich, we must first of all remember that no matter what he was doing, his key orientation was an orientation toward development. ... His initial setting was an attitude toward development, toward the search in the history of culture for the causes of very many mental phenomena and in the same place - ways to compensate for the defect. "

The ideas of L.S. Vygotsky, M.M. Bakhtin and A.N. Leontiev coexist within the framework of modern neuropsychological research and, according to Zh.M. Glozman, “acquire the qualities of gestalt precisely thanks to such a network of coordinates as the cultural-historical theory of neuropsychological analysis of the development and decay of higher forms of human behavior by A.R. Luria. It is the pledge and guarantee of further intensive and extensive development of Russian neuropsychology. "

Development psychology is based on the cultural-historical approach. V.T. Kudryavtsev offers new ways to study the idea of \u200b\u200bhistoricism in psychology. Thus, he proposes a new way of systemic interpretation of social life, highlighting two equal and equivalent social "subsystems": the world of children and the world of adults. Interacting and interpenetrating each other, they generate a vector of the integral movement of culture. Previous psychologists did not consider collective activity, confining themselves to the analysis of the individual. V.T. Kudryavtsev takes the next logically necessary step, realizing the dynamic research paradigm in relation to collaborative distributed activity. Here adults and children assist each other in generating new contents of consciousness, they endow each other with consciousness. The contact of two "worlds" actually leads to the fact that adults expand the boundaries of their own consciousness and self-consciousness, for example, feeling themselves to be carriers of a special mission in relation to children (to protect, prevent, direct, liberate, etc.).

Within the framework of the polemics of two Russian theoretical schools - Rubinstein and Leontiev - the idea of \u200b\u200bthe irreducibility of personality development to the assimilation of given norms and values \u200b\u200bfrom the outside was expressed. Psychologists of the older generation equally limitedly interpreted the events of history in relation to the genesis of culture - as something that had become and happened. Today there is a new interpretation of the process of culture-genesis of personality. The idea of \u200b\u200bhistoricism is presented here as the realization of the historical necessity of the development of psychological thought, developmental psychology.

At the moment, the main provisions of the psychological theory of activity and the cultural-historical concept of Vygotsky are increasingly assimilated into the Western tradition. For example, M. Cole has done an enormous amount of work trying to analyze the facts obtained both in socio- and ethnocultural research and in the field of experimental psychology and developmental psychology. He tries to "describe and substantiate one of the ways of creating a psychology that does not ignore culture in theory and practice," proposing to build a new cultural psychology on the basis of the cultural-historical psychology of L.S. Vygotsky and his closest colleagues - A.R. Luria and A.N. Leontyev. According to M. Cole, cultural psychology should be based “on the ideas of the Russian school of cultural-historical psychology, American pragmatism of the early XX century. and a hybrid of ideas borrowed from a number of other disciplines. "

M. Cole speaks of "the need to base theoretical constructions and empirical conclusions on a real subject of psychological analysis, corresponding to the experienced events of everyday life." In Soviet psychology, the task of studying the psyche in the context of activity was officially declared one of the basic principles of psychological research - "the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity." S.L. Rubinstein put forward this principle in 1934. However, in Soviet psychology, as M. Cole correctly noted, the emphasis was never placed on the analysis of everyday activities; it was usually about formally (institutionally) organized types of activity: play, study and work.

The cultural-historical approach is more and more relevant in various branches of psychological knowledge. In particular, he is of great interest in the field of family therapy, where much attention is paid to cross-cultural comparisons, as well as the study of the specifics of psychological work with families in a particular culture. Often, cultural and historical references within the framework of family therapy are very superficial from the point of view of the theory of psychology and do not take into account the full psychological depth of the influence of culture on the development of personality in a family environment. But there are also serious cultural and historical developments in Western family psychology that use the so-called “narrative” methods of working with families and show a very great interest in Russian cultural and historical psychology.

According to A.Z. Shapiro, due to the lack of elaboration of general biological foundations, the cultural and historical context in Vygotsky's theory is divorced from the concrete historical, primarily from the family. Cultural-historical theory really does not take into account the family dimension of human life, the fact that the development of a person (including his psyche and personality), as a rule, takes place in a biological family. "Perhaps it is here that it is necessary to see the zone of proximal development of cultural and historical psychology, since the family is one of the most essential and fundamental characteristics of the social environment, reflecting the biosocial nature of man." In order for the cultural-historical theory to be applicable as a theoretical and psychological basis in psychological assistance to the family and family therapy, it must be correlated with the “subjective” approach, a holistic view of a person.

In the XX century. empirical ethnosociology developed on the methodological basis of cultural-historical psychology. It breaks the boundaries between psychology, sociology, ethnography, history and pedagogy, creating a common problem space for the sociogenesis of education, the core of which is L.S. Vygotsky and M.M. Bakhtin. Cultural-historical psychological ethnosociology not only studies, but also gives birth to new realities, highlighting the historical-evolutionary and hermeneutic aspects of the world of childhood, the formation of social and ethnic identity, the generation of the image of self.Cultural-historical psychological ethnosociology allows us to say with confidence that cultural - the historical methodology of psychology is experiencing its rebirth as a concrete tangible holistic science that helps the education of Russia to follow the path of socialization from a culture of utility to a culture of dignity.

Based on the cultural and historical concept, A.N. Leontyev puts forward several theses about the future of psychology as a science. The first thesis is that psychology then and only then will become the leading science of man, when it invades the world and begins to understand what is happening in this world. The second thesis is that the development of psychology, the birth of a new system of psychological knowledge will go in the future, not in individual areas, but in problems. The third thesis asserts that it is with the psychology of the personality, married to ethics and historical psychology, that A.I. Leontiev connects the transformation of psychology into the leading science of man. The fourth thesis briefly reveals the understanding of personality psychology inherent in the activity approach as a systemic and axiological psychology. The fifth thesis of Leontief's testament is connected with school life, its organization: to create a school, a growing personality, and not a school as a factory for making heads.

These five theses of A.N. Leont'ev can now be perceived as a program for creating a psychology of the XXI century. They brought A.G. Asmolov to the development of a non-classical psychology "based on a historical-evolutionary approach, love for psychohistory and an attempt to change, by referring to the organization of school life, psychosocial scenarios for the development of society in the era of vital action."

It is the historical-evolutionary approach that makes it possible to predict and structure the field of problems and directions with which the future development of non-classical relativistic psychology is connected: the growth of interdisciplinary research based on the universal laws of systems development; the transition in the formulation of problems of the analysis of personality development from an anthropocentric phenomenographic orientation to a historical-evolutionary one; the emergence of disciplines that consider psychology as a constructive design science that is a factor in the evolution of society. For non-classical psychology, based on cultural-genetic methodology (M. Cole), the question of psychology as a science is at the forefront.

In this regard, new guidelines for variable education appear, which open up the possibility of building education as a mechanism of sociogenesis aimed at developing the individuality of the individual. The embodiment of these guidelines in the field of education as a social practice makes it possible to take a step towards changing the social status of psychology in society and reveal the evolutionary meaning of practical psychology as a constructive science, "which has its own unique voice in the polyphony of the sciences that create human history."

CONCLUSION

Thus, the use of the cultural-historical approach in psychology currently opens up new horizons not only in various branches of psychology, but also in the fields of education, medicine, ethnosociology, family therapy, etc. According to A.G. Asmolova, “today there is no one cultural-historical psychology of the school of L.S. Vygotsky, and there are many cultural and historical psychologies. " There are three factors, without which there is no modern cultural-historical psychology: the activity style of thinking, a unique activity methodology; a special type of experiment that has proven its worth in the study of memory, perception, other higher mental functions and, finally, the action itself; the idea of \u200b\u200bdevelopment, history, new non-Darwinian evolutionism.

At the present stage of development of psychology, systemic and interdisciplinary approaches (neuropsychology, ethnosociology) acquire great importance. According to R.M. Frumkina, the main thing in Vygotsky's concept was not just an awareness of the role of culture and history in the development of the psyche, but giving an exclusive place and a special role to the development of operations with signs. “... the world of signs is the material used by thinking. In realizing the importance of the world of signs, Vygotsky stands next to ... Bakhtin. "

In his notes A.I. Leontiev traces the embryo of 21st century psychology. This psychology is a value ethical dramatic psychology. This psychology is a cultural-historical psychology through and through. And finally, this is psychology as the social construction of worlds. Non-classical psychology, growing out of the cultural-historical activity program of the school of L.S. Vygotsky, A.I. Leontiev and A.R. Luria, has a unique chance to become the leading science of man in the XXI century.

LITERATURE

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2. Asmolov A.G. Cultural-historical psychology and ethnosociology of education: rebirth. // Question psychology. - M., 1999. - No. 4. - S. 106-107.

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5. Vygotsky L.S. The history of the development of mental functions. // Vygotsky L.S. Psychology [Collection]. - M., 2002 .-- S. 512-755.

6. Glozman Zh.M. Cultural-Historical Approach as the Basis of 21st Century Neuropsychology. // Question psychology. - M., 2002. - No. 4. - S. 62-68.

7. Cole M. Cultural-Historical Psychology. Science of the future. - M., 1997.

8. Kudryavtsev V.T. Psychology of human development. Foundations of the cultural and historical approach. - Riga, 1999 .-- Part 1.

9. Martsinkovskaya T.D. A.R. Luria to cultural-historical psychology. // Question psychology. - M., 2002. - No. 4. - S. 44-49.

10. Meshcheryakov B.G., Zinchenko V.P. L.S. Vygotsky and contemporary cultural-historical psychology: (Critical analysis of M. Cole's book). // Question psychology. - M., 2000. - No. 2. - S. 102-117.

11. Petrovsky V.A. The idea of \u200b\u200bhistoricism in developmental psychology. // Question psychology. - M., 2001. - No. 6. - S. 126-129.

12. Rubinstein S.L. Problems of general psychology. - M., 1973.

13. Frumkina R.M. Vygotsky-Luria's cultural-historical psychology. // Man. - M., 1999. - Issue. 3. - S. 35-46.

14. Shapiro A.Z. Psychology, culture, biology. // Psychol. magazine. - M., 1999. - T. 20. - S. 123-126.

Historical psychology is a separate scientific direction that studies motivation, values, emotions, feelings, phobias of a person using the methods of psychology in a historical retrospective.

"Historical psychology can be defined as the study of the psychological makeup of individual historical eras, as well as changes in the psyche and personality of a person in a special cultural macro-time called history ... Historical psychology in the broadest sense of the word is an approach that places the psyche and personality in the connection of times ... psychology belongs to both the historical and psychological sciences. In the first case, it is a section of the history of society and culture, namely the social and cultural history of man, his psyche and personality. In the second, it refers to the psychology of development. Psychology of development deals with facts not only of cultural and historical Psychological phenomena differ in the duration of existence.The time of the shortest is calculated in hours, minutes, seconds.The sequence of their development is called microgenesis, a longer development within the life of an individual organism, from its birth to death. genesis of the psyche. In years, centuries and millennia, the life of large human communities lasts: civilizations, peoples, estates, classes. This is the historiogenesis of the psyche. The largest scale, hundreds of thousands and millions of years, is in phylogeny - the origin of the human race from fossil primates. As part of developmental psychology, historical psychology studies historiogenesis. Her conclusions extend to genetic sequences of a different scale to the extent that the rhythms of historical time penetrate into the individual being of man and into the evolution of the higher primates. "

Historical psychology emerged as a separate area at the beginning of the 20th century, although the term “historical psychology” was proposed rather late (by the French psychologist Iñas Meyerson in his book “Psychological Functions and Creations” in 1948) - It is believed that research can be attributed to this area German psychologist Wundt of the psychology of peoples (in 1900-1920 he published on this topic a grandiose ten-volume work "Psychology of peoples. Investigation of the law of development of language, myths and customs"). Levy-Bruhl published a series of works on the psychology of primitive man: "Mental functions in lower societies" (1910), "Primitive thinking" (1922). "Primitive Soul" (1927). Soviet psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) in the 1920s. substantiated the theory, which was later called cultural-historical psychology. According to this theory, the psychological development of an individual is impossible without the development of culture and the assimilation of the results of this development by the individual. The assimilation and development takes place through transmission from generation to generation of sign systems (language, mnemonics, everyday and religious symbols, etc.). In the USA in the 1960s. the so-called psychohistory developed (Lloyd de Mose, Joel Covel, John Platt, and others). Its methodological basis was neo-Freudianism - a continuation of Freud's doctrine of psychoanalysis.

All these versions of historical psychology agree on one thing: they consider all human activity in history as a manifestation of his psychological activity. Historical analysis is necessary for psychology, because with its help the genesis of certain psychological phenomena is established. For the psychological explanation of history, scientists used mainly behaviorist concepts, that is, the consideration of social processes according to the "stimulus-response" scheme (as in biology).

There are three directions in historical psychology today: 1) hermeneutic-phenomenological (interpretationism), based on the reading, interpretation, interpretation with the help of psychology of the sources of individual history (diaries, letters, etc.); 2) psychological and genetic (deduction of the reasons for human behavior from related social and cultural phenomena); 3) neo-Freudian (identification of the unconscious and conscious in human history).

Historical psychology is distinguished from historical anthropology, the history of mentalities, the history of private life and other areas of historical science, which study approximately the same phenomena and processes interdisciplinarity - appeal to the methods of psychology, biology, medicine. This is its undoubted advantage. The use of methods of medical and biological sciences about a person makes it possible to more effectively interpret information from sources.

Psychology aims to obtain scientific knowledge about the human personality as a whole, and in this complexity - the difference between historical psychology and the history of mentalities, the history of private life, because the latter consider some separate, special aspect of human existence in a historical context, and psychology tries to cover it entirely.

Explaining past events and trends in historical development using historical psychology makes it possible to identify cultural traditions, historical and psychological types, national types, social types, etc. The results of such studies are not only useful for reconstructing historical meanings, but also for making recommendations to modern politicians, political strategists, social services, etc.

The disadvantages of this direction include the complexity of using the sources. Still, any, even the most detailed, source is not a "case history": psychological and especially psychiatric studies are created according to different templates than chronicles and even memoirs and diaries. Psychology deals with surveys, observations, descriptions, tests, etc. The information in historical sources is structured on different principles, much more subjective. Historical psychology cannot operate with traditional psychological methods of collecting information - direct observation, testing, questioning, etc. Alas, one cannot test Ivan the Terrible or Aristotle.

“In historical psychology, we must [lose] the direct subject and go out into the vastness of history, where it is impossible to test the generations lying in the earth, in order to compensate for our loss in the future by deepening knowledge about man, in order to transform the science of psychology of one of the eras into the psychology of all eras. , of course, not in the name, but in how to interpret the human psyche: roofing felts as something that can be [removed] by measurements hicetnunc, or as part of a wider circulation of direct and indirect. In the latter case, a person, as a complex artificially natural being, is taken out of the present and perceived, but then the question arises about the range of permissible exits directly into artifacts (cultural products) and the ability of psychology to trace these movements. The main problem of all anthropologies is reduced by historical psychology to the research-methodological level. "

Hence the weakness of the method of historical psychology itself, its inconclusiveness both for historians and psychologists. There is a very large element of hypotheticalness in historical psychological research. The scientist needs to interpret the information of historical sources by the methods of psychology. The materials, as a rule, are not representative, they are not enough. Hence the weak degree of verifiability of works on historical psychology. They are often bright and interesting for the reader, contain beautiful hypotheses, but the evidence base often looks weak.

In the XIX-XX centuries. in historical psychology, the genre gained popularity pathography, or revealing the causes and origins of the work of prominent historical and cultural figures through their psychological experiences of an anomalous nature: deviations, manifestations of illness, sexual perversion, sexual problems, etc. The first such book is considered to be the study of the life of the ancient philosopher Socrates by the French physician Louis François Lelu (1804-1877), published in 1836. The author of the term "pathography" (description of pathologies) Paul Julius Möbius (1853-1907) argued that "... it is impossible to understand anyone without a medical assessment. It is unbearable to see how linguists and other armchair scientists judge people and their actions. not the slightest idea that this requires more than mere moralizing and average human knowledge. " Critics of pathography note that all diagnoses are made behind the eyes (after all, the authors are deprived of the opportunity to personally investigate the mental state of Socrates or Dostoevsky) and, therefore, are hypothetical. And the tendency of the authors to speculate on the needs of not the highest instincts of the mass reader allows doubting the scientific nature of many constructions.

A special genre is psychobiography, that is, a biography of a historical figure, written with the help of psychological analysis. It is distinguished from pathography by taking into account all factors of the psychological development of the personality, and not by focusing primarily on painful pathologies. But the pursuit of objectivity does not mean its achievement, and psychobiography is not free from subjective interpretations.

One of the experimental methods of historical psychology that is rapidly developing today is historical reconstruction. On the one hand, it solves the problem of recreating the material and spiritual culture of the historical era (costume, armor, craft technologies, etc.). But, on the other hand, the movement of reenactors is a role-playing game that can be viewed as a kind of scientific experiment. For example, a scientist is trying to thoroughly reproduce the material life and life cycle of a medieval peasant (he settles in the same hut, finds food for himself like a medieval man, walks in the same clothes, etc.). Participants in such experiments claimed that they were beginning to better understand the psychology of medieval people, the peculiarities of their thinking and worldview. The direction was named living history and is embodied both in numerous experiments and in the creation of open-air museums that imitate objects of historical reality with varying degrees of reliability.

• Shkuratov V.L. Historical psychology. Rostov on / D: City N. 1994.S. 15-16.
• Shkuratov V.L. Historical psychology. P. 21
• Cit. by: Sirotkina I.E. Pathography as a genre: a critical study // Medical psychology in Russia. 2011. No. 2 (7). URL: medpsy.ru/mprj/archiv_global / 2011_2_7 / nomer / nomerl0.php (date accessed: 01.06.2015).

Cultural and historical experience is formed only in humans, not in animals.

Consciousness is a special form of reflection and being. It has the highest mental functions. They are mediated, arbitrary, social in origin, conscious, systemic, interconnected. HMFs form gradually towards adolescence. In training. Education is running ahead into the zone of proximal development. All HMFs arise twice: as interpsychic (between people) and as intropsychic. Mediated from the outside, and, internalizing, mediated internally.

Vygotsky suggested the existence two lines of mental development: natural and culturally mediated. In accordance with these two lines of development, "lower" and "higher" mental functions are distinguished. Examples of inferiornatural mental functions: involuntary memory or involuntary attention of the child. The lower mental functions are a kind of rudiments from which higher mental functions grow in the process of education (in this example, voluntary attention and voluntary memory). The transformation of lower mental functions into higher ones occurs through the mastery of special tools of the psyche - signs and is of a cultural nature. “Cultural development consists in the assimilation of such methods of behavior, which are based on the use of signs as means for the implementation of a particular psychological operation, in the mastery of such auxiliary means of behavior that mankind has created in the process of its historical development and what are the language, writing, number system etc." - writes Vygotsky.

How does a child master sign systems?The role of the adult. The adult shows him something and the child, at the will of the adult, draws attention to this or that object. Then the child begins to regulate his mental functions by himself using the means that the adult used to apply to him. Then there is internalization - the transformation of an external means into an internal one. As a result, from direct, natural, involuntary mental functions become mediated sign systems, social and arbitrary.

Cultural and historical concept of the human psyche.It is historical, because available in the mind of a psycho. processes must be considered in the history of their formation and qualitative development (the appearance of neoplasms). Cultural, child consciousness special. features of its HMF is formed in communication with an adult, in which the child assimilates systems of cultural signs.

VPF scheme

There is a certain stimulus A (content that must be remembered) and it is required to give an answer to it B (reproduction of this content after a while). We encode the content of A by some means, such as a memory knot (X). X is an additional stimulus that is associated with the content of stimulus A, is its sign. Thus, we mediate our response with the help of the X sign. X acts as a means of memorizing and reproducing, or as a psychol. a tool with which I master the processes of my own memory.

Where do these means-signs come from?

Labor created man, communication in the process of labor produced speech. The first words ensured organized joint activity - these were the words-orders. Then the words-orders began to address the person himself. Thus, the ability to give orders to oneself was born in the process of a person's cultural development from external relations of command and submission. At first, the functions of the ordering and executor were separated, and the whole process was interpsychological. Then the same relationship turned into a relationship with oneself - an intrapsychological relationship. The transformation of interpsychological relations into intrapsychological ones is internalization. In the course of this process, the transformation of external means-signs (notches, nodules) into internal ones (an image, an element of internal speech) occurs. The sign was originally a means of social. communication, a means of influencing others, then becomes a means of influencing oneself. The same thing happens in ontogeny. 3 stages. Interpsychological (an adult acts with a word, prompting a child to do something), extrapsychological (a child adopts a way of addressing from an adult and begins to influence an adult with a word), intrapsychological (a child begins to act with a word on himself).

HPF properties:

1) The higher mental functions are social in essence (by nature) - this is not new.

2) Higher mental functions mediated by character.

3) Higher mental functions are arbitrary in formation.

4) Higher mental functions are systemic in structure.

All higher mental functions are internalized relations of a social order, the basis of the social structure of the individual.

Interiorization is called a transition, as a result of which processes external in their form with external, material objects are transformed into processes occurring in the mental plane, in the plane of consciousness; at the same time, they undergo a specific transformation - they are generalized, verbalized, reduced and, most importantly, become capable of further development, which goes beyond the limits of the possibilities of external activity (an example with teaching counting with the help of fungi).

Higher specific human psychological processes can be born only in the interaction of a person with a person, that is, as intrapsychological, and only then begin to be performed by the individual independently; at the same time, some of them further lose their original external form, turning into interpsychological processes.

The process of interiorization does not consist in the fact that the external activity moves into a preexisting internal "plane of consciousness"; it is the process by which this inner plan is formed.

General provisions of L. S. Vygotsky

1. In human behavior, there is a number of artificial adaptations aimed at mastering their own mental processes, which can be conventionally called psychological tools or instruments.

2. Psychological tools - artificial formations; they are social adaptations by their nature, not organic or individual adaptations.

3. Examples of psychological tools and their complex systems are language, various forms of numbering and calculus, mnemonic devices.

4. Artificial acts are the same natural ones, they can be completely, to the very end, decomposed and reduced to these latter. Artificial is the combination and orientation, replacement and use of these natural processes.

5. The inclusion of a tool in the process of behavior, first, gives rise to a number of new functions associated with the use of this tool and with its control; secondly, it cancels and makes unnecessary a number of natural processes, the work of which is performed by the tool; thirdly, it modifies the course and individual moments (intensity, duration, sequence, etc.) of all mental processes that make up the instrumental act.

6. Natural acts and processes of behavior are common in humans and higher animals; artificial ones constitute the late acquisition of mankind, a product of historical development and a specifically human form of behavior.

7. Upbringing is an artificial mastery of the natural processes of development, it not only affects certain developmental processes, but restructures in the most essential way all the functions of behavior.

8. The difference in children's types of development (giftedness, defectiveness) is to a large extent associated with the type and nature of instrumental development. The inability to use their natural functions and the mastery of psychological tools essentially determine the entire type of child development.

The law of development of higher mental functions.Higher mental functions arise initially as a form of collective behavior, as a form of cooperation with other people, and only later they become internal individual functions of the child himself. Distinctive features of higher mental functions: mediation, awareness, arbitrariness, consistency. They are formed during their lifetime and are formed as a result of mastering special tools, means developed in the course of historical development.

L.S.Vygotskysubstantiates the basic law of the development of higher mental functions of a person: “We can formulate the general genetic law of cultural development in the following form: every function in the cultural development of a child appears on the stage twice, in two planes, first socially, then psychological, first between people, as an interpsychic category, then within the child, as an intrapsychic category. This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, to the formation of concepts, to the development of will. "

A. Leontiev: Parallelogram of development.The study of the development of higher forms of memorization was carried out using the technique of double stimulation. Two rows of incentives. Memorizing one row is a direct task (stimuli-objects), the second row is stimuli-means, with the help of which memorization should be realized. The children were offered a list of 15 words and a set of flashcards to remember. In the control series of the experiment, cards were not provided.

The dependence of the efficiency of reproduction on the method of memorization.

Starting from preschool age, the rate of development of memorization with the help of external means (cards) significantly exceeds the rate of direct memorization (the graph has a steep shape). Starting from school age, the increase in the indicators of externally direct memorization is faster than the increase in externally mediated. According to Leontiev, behind the external neglect of cards against the background of the increasing efficiency of memorization, there is a latent process of "rotation" of the external means, its transformation into an internal, psychological means. The development of the highest symbolic forms of memory proceeds along the line of transformation of externally mediated memorization into internally mediated memorization.

The main provisions of the general psychological theory of activity. Levels of the structure of activity as levels of its analysis. Definition of action. Operations and their types. General characteristics of the operational and technical layer of activity.

Needs and motives in human activity. Specificity of human needs. Types and functions of motives in activity.

Activity theory is a system of methodological and theoretical principles for the study of mental phenomena. The main subject of the research is the activity that mediates all mental processes. This approach began to take shape in Russian psychology in the 1920s. XX century In the 1930s. two interpretations of the activity approach in psychology were proposed - S.L. Rubinstein (1889-1960), who formulated the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, and A.N. Leontyev (1903-1979), who, together with other representatives of the Kharkov psychological school, developed the problem of the generality of the structure of external and internal activity.

In the theory of S.L. Rubinstein, which began with his article "The principle of creative initiative", written in 1922 and finally formed in the 1930s, the psyche is considered as the subject of analysis through the disclosure of its essential objective connections and mediations, in particular through activity ... When deciding the question of the relationship between external practical activity and consciousness, the position is taken that it is impossible to consider “internal” mental activity as being formed as a result of the curtailment of “external” practical. In his formulation of the principle of mental determinism, external causes act through internal conditions. With this interpretation, activity and consciousness are considered not as two forms of manifestation of something single, differing in the means of empirical analysis, but as two instances that form an indissoluble unity.

In the theory of A.N. Leont'ev, activity is considered here as the subject of analysis. Since the psyche itself cannot be separated from the moments of activity that generate and mediate it, the psyche itself is a form of objective activity. When deciding on the relationship between external practical activity and consciousness, it is assumed that the internal plan of consciousness is formed in the process of curtailing initially practical actions. With such an interpretation, consciousness and activity are distinguished as an image and the process of its formation, the image in this case is an “accumulated movement”, curtailed actions. This postulate has been implemented in many studies.

A. N. Leontievexpanded the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, putting forward the principle of the unity of the psyche and activity.

Activity consists of three structural units: activities - actions - operations.Activity is determined motive, action - aim, and the operations are specific conditionsits course. For example, a student's learning activity can be guided by the motive of preparation for professional work or the motive of communicating with peers, or the motive of self-improvement, etc. goalis an image of the required future, for the achievement of which it is required to carry out an action that includes a series of operations. An exam preparation activity can be reading a textbook, drinking coffee to stay awake, etc. The way in which they are performed operation is determined by the conditions- is there a book you need, what time of day, etc.

Structural units of activitymobile. What was action yesterday can develop into an independent activity today. For example, you are reading a textbook in order to answer the teacher, later you got carried away, read all the available psychological literature (it is interesting in itself, without any connection with educational activities). Is happening shift of motive to target.

Activities are distinguished by focus:to an object of the external world, to another person and to oneself. Activities are distinguished by subject, for example: play activities, educational activities, work activities, etc. Elkonin introduced the concept of "leading activity", i.e. activities that correspond to the most significant motive in a particular age period or in a particular personally significant situation.

Three-dimensional structure of consciousness:sensual fabric, meaning, personal meaning. Sensual fabricconsciousness contains sensory impressions, sensory images. The main function of the sensory fabric of consciousness is to create a "sense of reality" of the external world: thanks to it, the world appears for the subject as existing not in consciousness, but outside it. Value- in the universal meanings with which consciousness operates, in a reduced form, the entire experience of culture, important for all people ("social") properties of objects is presented. The differences are rooted in a mismatch in cultural experience. Personal meaning- fixes what an event means for a person personally, how it relates to his system of motives. Personal meaning gives partiality to consciousness and makes it "mine", since personal meanings reflect the experience of individual activity.

The main provisions of the theory of activity

1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must be brought into the activity of the subject ("opening" the circle of consciousness)

2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from the human consciousness. When considering behavior, consciousness should not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior)

3. Activity is an active, purposeful, process (principle of activity)

4. Human actions are objective; they realize social - industrial and cultural - goals (the principle of objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditioning)

Psychology is the science of the laws of the generation and functioning of mental reflection by an individual of objective reality in the process of human activity and animal behavior

The subject of psychology is mentally controlled activity. A narrower point of view consists in singling out orientational activity as a subject of psychology, i.e., a system of mental control of activity

Activity approach (according to Leontiev).Activity is a painting, non-additive unit of life of a corporeal material subject, mediated by psychic reflection, the real function of which is that it orients the subject in an objective form. Life is activity.

Psychology subject (according to Leontiev)- activity mediated by mental reflection.

Activities- internal (mental) and external (physical) activity, generated by needs and aimed at transforming oneself and the surrounding reality. It differs from impulsive activity in purposefulness and awareness.

Activitiescan be defined as a specific type of human activity aimed at cognition and creative transformation of the surrounding world, including himself and the conditions of his existence. In activities, a person creates objects of material and spiritual culture, transforms his abilities, preserves and improves nature, builds society, creates something that did not exist in nature without his activity. As a result of the productive, creative nature of his activities, man has created sign systems, tools for influencing himself and nature. Using these tools, he built a modern society, cities, machines, with their help he produced new consumer goods, material and spiritual culture, and ultimately transformed himself. The historical progress that has taken place over the past several tens of thousands of years owes its origin to activity. To satisfy their needs, animals use only what nature has provided them. In other words, human activity manifests itself and continues in creations, it is productive, and not just consumer in nature.

Drivers of human action- needs, motives.

Need is always a subjective state of need. The very state of need is not a need. Need arises when the state of need begins to associate with some object.

Need is a subjectively experienced state of need for a specific object that can satisfy the need.

The goal is to change, transform. The goal of an activity is its product. It can be a real physical object created by a person, certain knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the course of activity, a creative result (thought, idea, theory, work of art).

The task is to take action.

Motive is an object of need, depends on goals and objectives, satisfies various needs, stimulates and directs the activity of the subject. Types of motive: motives according to the degree of adequacy of their awareness. These are the motives of the goal. If they are realized inadequately, they are called motivational. Functions of motives:1) incentive. Present in any activity. 2) meaningful. There are motives that simultaneously motivate and give meaning to human activity.

Evaluation - affects follow-up.

Activities:Play (aimed at a process that indirectly represents the characteristics of a person's life), learning (aimed at acquiring knowledge about reality and interacting with it), labor (aimed at creating material and spiritual values)

Structure:orientation, planning, execution, control (goals, motives, actions).

The subject of activityis called what it directly deals with. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is all kinds of information, the subject of educational activity is knowledge, skills, and the subject of labor activity is the created material product.

Every activity has a certain structure. It usually identifies actions and operations as the main components of activities.

Act- processes subordinate to a consciously set goal, where the goal is a conscious idea of \u200b\u200bthe result to be achieved.

Operations are ways of performing actions that correspond to conditions.

The tools that he uses when performing certain actions and operations act as means of carrying out activities for a person.

Every human activity has external and internal components. Internal ones include anatomical and physiological structures and processes involved in the management of activity by the central nervous system, as well as psychological processes and conditions involved in the regulation of activity. The external components include a variety of movements associated with the practical implementation of activities.

In the process of development of activity, its internal transformations take place.First, the activity is enriched with new subject content. Secondly, the activity has new means of implementation, which accelerate its course and improve the results. Thirdly, in the process of development of activity, the automation of individual operations and other components of activity takes place, they turn into skills and abilities. Finally, fourthly, as a result of the development of activity, new types of activity can emerge from it, separate and further develop independently.

Teaching follows the game and precedes work. In learning, as in work, you need to complete tasks - prepare lessons, observe discipline; educational work is built on responsibilities. The general attitude of the personality in teaching is no longer playful, but labor. Includes: perception of material, mastery, comprehension, consolidation.

The main purpose of the study is to prepare for future independent work activities; the main means is the development of the generalized results of what was created by the previous labor of mankind.

Levels of structure of activity: social, physiological.

Motivational-need layer

The motive is an object of need. The motive is what the activity is for. An activity motive has several functions:

 Guide

 Incentive, or stimulating.

Any activity is motivated. There are several motives involved in the normal course of activities. The motives are in self-submission.

The hierarchy of motives.

1) Semantic motives, main motives

2) Underlying motives, motives-incentives

Motives-incentivesdo not perform a directing function, performing only an incentive function. They participate in the regulation of activity, feeding and stimulating it. If the motive moves to another level, then the activity changes. The hierarchy of motives is the key to understanding personality. The first parameter of determining personality according to Leontiev: the breadth of the motivational sphere. In the process of socialization, the child gets acquainted with various types of activities. Second parameter: the degree of hierarchization of motives in the sphere of personality. The third parameter: a person's motivational sphere is in constant motion. It is dynamic, which is associated with the development of the personality. The motives may or may not be realized, but in any case they send, realize their functions, directing and prompting the activity.

Activity is a sequence of actions, each of which can be split into actions of a lower order. Experience regarding the composition of the sequence of actions is usually transferred during training in the form of rules, advice, instructions, programs.

Operational and technical layer

Operations characterize the technical side of performing actions. The nature of the operations used depends on the conditions in which the action is performed. Conditions are both external circumstances and internal means. A goal given under certain conditions is a task.

Operations are little or not recognized at all. These are automatic actions and skills. Sometimes operations turn into action (when the usual conditions for the operation are violated). For example, the pen began to write poorly - mind control.

Any operation is an automated action. Simultaneous performance of actions should be based on the fact that one of these actions should be based on automation. That is, there is some apparent simultaneity, while one of the actions is at a different level. Any actions can be automated, except for the action of planning a future action. The planning action always requires conscious control. The action of planning is to understand the specific conditions for setting a goal. Technological and social conditions are taken into account.

There are two types of operations: primary and secondary in origin. Secondary operations are automated actions. Primary operations are psychophysiological functions, the meaning of which is the means and methods of performing actions. These are natural mental functions. They can form at the very first stages of ontogenesis. Usually they are not realized. But, in principle, one can realize psychophysiological functions. One technique is biofeedback. With the help of instruments, process indicators can be displayed. That is, you can focus on the work of any internal organ.

Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of the process of activity.

"

Cultural historical psychology (English cultural-historical psychology) - a virtual (non-institutionalized) branch of knowledge and research, which can formally be considered a section of an equally virtual cultural psychology - a discipline that studies the role of culture in mental life (M. Cole). Concerning virtuality, cultural-historical psychology has a trace in scientific folklore. joke (Chaiklin S., 2001):

Over 75 but still a baby?
- Cultural and historical psychology.

It is logical to assume that Cultural-Historical Psychology is focused on the global problem of the role of culture in mental development both in phylogeny (anthropogenesis and subsequent history) and in ontogenesis. At the same time, Cole prefers to use the term "Cultural-Historical Psychology" to refer to one of the variants of cultural psychology, to which he reckons himself and a number of grew up. psychologists (Mr. L. S. Vygotsky and his school). It is fundamentally wrong to identify K.-i. n. with historical psychology, which studies social history from a psychological tzr. and developing the problem of the psychological (including personal) factor in history.

Cole, who dedicated his book Cultural-Historical Psychology, called it the science of the future, but, as follows from the history of culture, incl. and from the history of psychology, K.-i. n. is also a science of the past. Moreover, practical psychology began with it, which solved the problems of controlling the behavior and activities of people and arose long before scientific psychology. Such a statement only seems paradoxical. An example is mnemonics, well known and practiced at least since antiquity. Its tasks may well be formulated in terms of K.-i. n. in Vygotsky's version, as the development and mastery of symbolic means that transform memory from a natural mental function into a cultural one, incl. higher mental function. At the same time, it was not about a notch, a tag or a "memory knot", but about the internal, ideal means of memorization, which were developed in the course of memory exercises. In Phaedrus, Platonic Socrates tells about the meeting of the ancient deity Theuta with the king of Egypt Tamus. Teutus showed the king many of his inventions, incl. writing that will make the Egyptians wise and memorable, as found a means for memory and wisdom. To which the king said: “You, father of letters, out of love for them, gave them directly against. value. They will instill forgetfulness in the souls of those who have learned them. memory will be deprived of exercise: they will begin to recall from the outside, trusting the letter, by extraneous signs, and not from within, by themselves. Therefore, you have found a means not for memory, but for remembering. You give your disciples imaginary, not true, wisdom. They will know a lot from you by hearsay, without training, and will seem to know a lot, remaining mostly ignorant, difficult people to communicate; they will become imaginary wise instead of the wise. "

As we can see, this story is quite modern. For 2.5 thousand years people (and psychologists!) Have not decided which is better? Rich memory or a means of remembering? This question was not answered by contemporary K.-i. n. for which the concept of mediation has become central. But it was so for dialectics (Hegel). Without the mediating role of the symbol, it is impossible to transform a thing into an idea and ideas into a thing (P.A.Florensky). Non-mediated mutually, isolated or "pure" mental functions (if they occur in life, and not in the laboratory) are mechanical and have no development prospects. They, according to Hegel, remain a compound, a mixture, a heap. It must be said that this fully applies to mutually non-mediated knowledge, which is a functional organ of the individual. Hegel unambiguously writes about this: "The mechanical mode of representation, mechanical memory, habit, mechanical mode of action mean that what the spirit perceives or does lacks its inherent penetration and presence." The dead mechanism is the process of interaction of objects, "which directly manifested themselves as independent, but for this very reason they are actually dependent and have their center outside themselves" (Hegel).

A peculiar reaction to the insufficient explanatory power of the schemes of interaction of mental functions proposed by classical psychology can be considered the appearance of calls for an organic worldview, the addition of the epithet living to mental functions, states, phenomena: "living image", "living movement", "living word-concept" , "Living knowledge" (see. Living knowledge), even "living feeling", "living memory".

What is the merit of Cultural-Historical Psychology, if the inclusion of memory in the cultural context and its means have been pondered from time immemorial? Cultural-historical psychology has made a fruitful attempt to return to the cultural and life context the mental functions torn out of it by classical experimental psychology. It can be considered a new and natural stage in the development of psychology: if classical psychology had not accumulated material, had not studied isolated functions, had not built an ontology of the psyche, there would have been nothing to cultivate and spiritualize, return to life and culture. It is important that this return does not occur speculatively, but practically and experimentally. Hence the conceptual framework of K.-i. n. psychology, operating in terms of psychological tools, instruments, means, mediators, artifacts. The main psychological tools in Vygotsky's teachings are signs (especially the word), which manifest themselves in sign-symbolic activity, the various forms of which were the subject of his attention. A complete list of mediators includes a sign (in a narrower sense), a word, a symbol (see. Cassirer E. , Florensky P.), meaning, myth. A huge role in development is played by personified mediators, to which m. B. attributed Gods, parents, teachers, generally significant other. This "instrumental set" of mediators clearly demonstrates the fundamentally interdisciplinary nature of the conceptual and methodological apparatus of K.-I. etc., with which, in fact, as a rule, chronic difficulties are associated on the way of institutionalizing this science.

The main reason for the difficulties in the development of cultural-historical psychology is not the absence of a heuristic theoretical platform (such, in the opinion of, for example, Cole, Vygotsky's concept may well serve), but the unpreparedness of psychologists for interdisciplinary cooperation, which, in turn, is associated with a deep fragmentation of scientific human knowledge. As Cole writes, it is difficult for psychologists to keep culture in the spotlight because when psychology was institutionalized as a social and behavioral science, the processes that play a decisive role in shaping the psyche were divided among several disciplines: culture moved to anthropology, social life to sociology , language - to linguistics, the past - to history, etc. " (Cole M., 1997). At the same time, Cole does not question Vygotsky's interdisciplinary approach. Other authors also pointed to the merits and fruitfulness of the latter (for example, Asmolov A.G., 1996; Verch D., 1996). Vygotsky, indeed, showed a lot of impressive examples of the use of historical, cultural, ethnographic, linguistic, defectological, pedagogical, neurological and psychiatric sources for the interpretation and reconstruction of psychological facts. The ability of Vygotsky's concept to serve as a theoretical and methodological basis for an interdisciplinary K.-I. n. Nevertheless, for the development of K. - and. it was not enough. The working structure of human knowledge itself must be radically rebuilt, because, according to Cole, the structure that emerged in the 19th century. the division of sciences into social and humanitarian, whatever its achievements, has exhausted itself. This structure and the corresponding division of labor impede the organization of cooperation between different branches of the human “tree of knowledge”. This position is also supported by D. Verch (1996): the existing “division of labor leads to the creation of a too complex puzzle with a huge number of details, which cannot be put together: the parameters of the phenomenon are defined in such a way that the principles and units of analysis of each parameter prevent their recombination into a more general picture ".

However, despite all the difficulties in the formation of K. - and. etc., the attitude towards it should be proleptic (see Prolepsis), by analogy with the normal human attitude towards infants: their future state should be hypostatized in the present and past, i.e. they must be treated as if they were already what they should be. Cultural-historical psychology is the return of psychology to cultural origins. In Hegelian terminology, Cultural-historical psychology is a search for a path from the abstract to the concrete, the reproduction of the concrete through thinking. Inside K.- and. n. the activity approach in psychology arose, in which many ideas of K.-i. were developed. n. In the future, contacts are outlined between K.-i. and cognitive psychology, continuing the analytical work begun in classical psychology and looking for its own paths to a holistic understanding of a person and his psyche. (V.P. Zinchenko