Social sanction is the reaction of a society or a social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation. Social reaction to the behavior of a person or group Methods of social control

In the broad sense of the word, social control is defined as the totality of all types of control that exist in society (moral, state, production, legal control). In a narrow sense, social control is an assessment of people's activities from the side of public opinion.
The forms of social control changed with the development of society.
In a traditional society, social control existed in the form of customs, traditions, unwritten rules of behavior. In modern society, individual mechanisms of social control are formalized, their basis is the norms fixed in writing: decrees, laws, instructions.
Examples of social control in modern society: exam grades at school, taxation system, product control authorities.

In sociology, there are different types and forms of social control.

Internal and external control.
A person who has mastered social norms is able to independently regulate his actions, harmonizing them with the generally accepted system of values \u200b\u200band approved patterns of behavior. This is internal control (self-control), which is based on the moral principles of a person.
External control is a set of social institutions that regulate people's behavior and ensure compliance with generally accepted norms and laws.

Informal and formal control.
Informal (intragroup) control is carried out by participants in a social process and is based on the approval or condemnation of the individual's actions from the inner circle (colleagues, acquaintances, friends, family members), public opinion.
Formal (institutional) control is carried out by special public institutions, control bodies, state organizations and institutions (army, court, municipal institutions, media, political parties, etc.).

The mechanism of social control is formed by certain elements:
1) social norms - prescriptions indicating how one should behave in society;
2) positive and negative social sanctions - means of encouragement (reward) or censure (punishment), regulating people's behavior, encouraging them to comply with social norms and act for the good of society;
3) methods of social control (isolation, isolation, rehabilitation);
4) specific measures (certain forms of physical, economic, emotional impact on the individual).

Social sanctions are different types of reaction on the part of society to the behavior of a person or a group and certain forms of influence on him.
Depending on the method of influencing the individual, formal and informal sanctions are distinguished.
Social sanctions can be negative (condemning) and positive (rewarding).
Formal negative sanctions are punishments and preventive measures for deviant behavior coming from official organizations (for example, a fine, reprimand, demotion, dismissal, deprivation of civil rights, imprisonment, confiscation of property).
Formal positive sanctions are various ways of encouraging an individual's activities that come from official bodies and institutions (for example, announcing gratitude, conferring an honorary title, government award, election to a high position).
Informal negative sanctions - an expression of dissatisfaction, condemnation of a person coming from unofficial persons and social groups (for example, ridicule, negative feedback, remark, complaint, demonstrative ignorance).
Informal positive sanctions - approval of a person's actions from informal persons and social groups (for example, praise, gratitude, compliment, approving smile).

Self-control, or internal control, is the application by a person of positive and negative sanctions in relation to himself.

Assessing their actions, a person compares them with the system of norms, customs, moral rules, values, standards of proper behavior that he accepts.
Self-control is an important mechanism for maintaining social stability, based on a conscious volitional effort, restraining involuntary impulsive urges. The higher the level of self-control development among members of society, the less society has to resort to external control and negative sanctions.
Conscience is a manifestation of internal control, the ability of a person to independently formulate his own moral obligations. Conscience is an indicator of a person's developed self-awareness, a sense of duty, responsibility.

The efforts of society aimed at preventing deviant behavior, punishing and correcting deviants are defined by the concept of "social control".

Social control is a mechanism for regulating the relationship between the individual and society in order to strengthen order and stability in society.

In the broad sense of the word, social control can be defined as the totality of all types of control existing in society *, moral, state control, etc. behavior of people.

Social control includes two main elements: social norms and sanctions.

Sanctions are any reaction from others to the behavior of a person or group.

There is the following classification of sanctions.

Types of sanctions

Formal:

- negative - punishment for a crime of law or violation of administrative order: fines, imprisonment, etc.

- positive - encouragement of a person's activity or deed by official organizations: awards, certificates of professional, academic success, etc.

Informal:

- negative - condemnation of a person for an act from the side of society: an offensive tone, swearing or reprimand, demonstrative disregard of the person, etc.

- positive - gratitude and approval of unofficial persons - friends, acquaintances, colleagues: praise, approving smile, etc., etc.

Sociologists identify two main forms of social control.

Social control

Internal (self-control)

A form of social control in which an individual independently regulates his behavior, harmonizing it with generally accepted norms

A set of institutions and mechanisms that guarantee compliance with generally accepted norms of behavior and laws

Informal (intragroup) - based on the approval or condemnation of a group of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, as well as on the part of public opinion, which is expressed through traditions and customs or through the media

Formal (institutional) - based on the support of existing social institutions (army, court, education, etc.)

In the process of socialization, the norms are assimilated so firmly that people, violating them, experience a feeling of awkwardness or guilt, a pang of conscience. Conscience is a manifestation of inner control.

The generally accepted norms, being rational prescriptions, remain in the sphere of consciousness, below which is the sphere of the subconscious, or the unconscious, consisting of elemental impulses. Self-control means restraining the elements of nature, it is based on volitional effort.

In traditional society, social control was based on unwritten rules; in modern society, it is based on written norms: instructions, decrees, decrees, laws. Social control has acquired institutional support. Formal control is exercised by such institutions of modern society as the court, education, army, industry, mass media, political parties, government. The school is controlled by examinations, the government - thanks to the system of taxation and social assistance to the population, the state - thanks to the police, the secret service, state radio, television, and the press.

In the Russian Federation, special bodies have been created to exercise social control. These include the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, the Federal Security Service, various financial control bodies, etc.

Social behavior

Deputies of different levels are also endowed with control functions. In addition to state control bodies, various public organizations are playing an increasing role in Russia, for example, in the field of consumer protection, in control of labor relations, the state of the environment, etc.

Detailed (petty) control, in which the leader intervenes in every action, corrects, restrains, etc., is called supervision. Supervision is carried out not only at the micro, but also at the macro level of society. The state becomes its subject, and it turns into a specialized social institution.

The more self-control is developed among members of a society, the less this society has to resort to external control. And vice versa, the less self-control role is developed in people, the more often the institutions of social control come into action, in particular the army, court, state. The weaker the self-control, the tougher the external control should be. However, strict external control, petty guardianship of citizens inhibit the development of self-awareness and expression of will, damp internal volitional efforts.

Social control methods

Insulation

The establishment of impassable partitions between the deviant and the rest of society without any attempts to correct or re-educate him

Segregation

Restriction of contacts of the deviant with other people, but not complete isolation from society; such an approach allows the correction of deviants and their return to society when they are ready to again fulfill the generally accepted norms

Rehabilitation

The process by which deviants can prepare for a return to normal life and the correct fulfillment of their social roles in society

SIBERIAN ACADEMY OF PUBLIC SERVICE

INSTITUTE FOR RETRAINING SPECIALISTS

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL GOVERNANCE

Course work

in sociology

Topic: social control (on the example of Russia)

Completed by: Vlasova T.N.

gr. 08611 GMU

Checked by: Shukshina Z.A.

Novosibirsk 2010

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 3

Chapter I. The essence of social control ……………………………………… .5

1.1. The concept of social control, its functions ……………………… .. …… .5

1.2. Social norms as a regulator of behavior ……………………………… 7

1.3. Sanctions as an element of social control……………………….………9

1.4. Self-control……………………………………………………………………………………..12

Chapter II. Social control in modern Russia ……………………… .14

2.1. Organized crime in modern Russia ………… .. ……… .14

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… .19

List of used literature ……………………………………………… 21

Introduction

Society is a self-regulating complex social system. The most important role in the social regulation of public life is played by social culture, social values, norms, social institutions and organizations. At the same time, in the social structure of society there is and plays an important role a special structural formation - the institution of social control. It acts as a part of the general system of social regulation and is designed to ensure the normal orderly functioning and development of society by various means, as well as to prevent and correct such social deviations that can disorganize social life and social order.

This topic is relevant, because society is a dynamic system, and as this system develops, various traditions, norms, values \u200b\u200bare formed and developed. In addition, a person is interested in a calm and prosperous life, in a social order, in the successful development and functioning of society. All this is provided by the institution of social control, and the more it develops and improves, the more organized and prosperous society will be. Therefore, the system of social control must be studied more deeply, find various ways to resolve social conflicts and improve the social culture that exists now.

The purpose of the course work is to determine the role of social control in society, to reveal the dependence of the orientation and content of social control on the economic, political, ideological and other characteristics of a given social system, historically determined by the level of its development.

The set goal determined the following tasks:

Consider the essence of social control.

Become familiar with the various functions of social control.

Explore forms of social control.

Object this course work is directly the institution of social control, public relations, and subject - its close relationship with society, the forms in which it is carried out, as well as the effectiveness of the influence of social control on society.

ChapterI... Essence of social control

1.1 The concept of social control, its functions

Term "Social control" was introduced into the scientific vocabulary by the famous French sociologist, one of the founders of social psychology, G. Tarde, who proposed to consider it as one of the most important factors of socialization. Later, in the works of a number of scientists, such as E. Ross, R. Park, A. Lapierre, the theory of social control was developed.

So, social control -it is a way of self-regulation of the social system (society as a whole, social group, etc.), which, through normative regulation, ensures the targeted impact of people and other structural elements of this system, their orderly interaction in the interests of strengthening order and stability 1.

The main purpose of social control is to maintain order and stability in society, as well as to ensure social reproduction (continuity) in the direction corresponding to the development strategy chosen by a particular society. Thanks to the mechanisms of socialization, prescription, reward, selection and control, the social system maintains equilibrium.

The following distinguishing features of social control can be pointed out:

1) orderliness, categoricality and formalization: social norms are often applied to an individual without taking into account his personal characteristics; in other words, a person must accept the norm only because he is a member of a given society;

2) connection with sanctions - punishments for violation of norms and rewards for their observance;

3) collective implementation of social control: social action is often a reaction to a particular human behavior, and therefore, can be both negative and positive incentives when choosing goals and means of achieving them 2.

The mechanism of social control plays a critical role in strengthening the institutions of society. Figuratively speaking, this mechanism is the "central nervous system" of a social institution. Social institution and social control consist of the same elements, i.e.

that is, identical rules and norms of behavior that reinforce and standardize the behavior of people, making it predictable.

Social control in relation to society has two main functions:

Protective function. This function sometimes prevents social control from being a supporter of progress, but the list of its functions just does not include the renewal of society - this is the task of other public institutions. So, social control protects morality, law, values, requires respect for traditions, opposes the new that is not properly tested.

Stabilizing function. Social control acts as the foundation of stability in society. Its absence or weakening leads to confusion, confusion and social discord.

Conclusion: social control is an integral part of a more general and diverse system of social regulation of people's behavior and social life. Its specificity lies in the fact that such regulation has an orderly, normative and rather categorical nature here and is provided by social sanctions or the threat of their application.

1.2. Social norms as a regulator of behavior

Each person understands that no one could successfully build their relationships with other people and social organizations without mutual correlation of actions with the rules approved by society.

An element of social control reaction to the behavior of a person or group

These rules, which are the benchmark in relation to our actions, are called social norms.

Social norms - these are prescriptions, instructions and wishes of varying degrees of severity, forcing individuals to act as it is customary to do in a given society, in a specific situation 3. Social norms act as regulators of people's behavior. They establish boundaries, conditions, forms of action, define the nature of relations, stipulate acceptable goals and ways to achieve them. The assimilation of social norms of society, the development of an individual attitude towards them occur in the process of socialization.

The norms impose obligations and mutual responsibility on participants in social interaction. They concern both individuals and society. On their basis, the entire system of social relations is formed. At the same time, norms are also expectations: from an individual performing a certain role, society expects predictable behavior. The individual also assumes that the society will justify his trust and fulfill its obligations.

Social norms perform an important function - they support and preserve social values, what is recognized in society as the most important, significant, indisputable, deserving of attention: human life and personal dignity, attitude towards the elderly and children, collective symbols (coat of arms, anthem, flag) and the laws of the state, human qualities (loyalty, honesty, discipline, hard work), religion. Values \u200b\u200bare the foundation of norms.

Social norms in a generalized form reflect the will of society. In contrast to the values \u200b\u200bthat are recommended for choice (which predetermines differences in the value orientations of many individuals), the norms are of a more stringent, mandatory nature 4.

There are several types of social norms:

1) customs and traditions, which are habitual patterns of behavior;

2) moral norms based on collective authority and usually having a rational basis;

3) legal norms enshrined in laws and regulations issued by the state. They more clearly than all other varieties of social norms, regulate the rights and obligations of members of society and prescribe punishment for violations. Compliance with legal norms is ensured by the strength of the state;

4) political norms that relate to the relationship between personality and power. Between social groups and between states are reflected in international legal acts, conventions, etc .;

5) religious norms, which are supported primarily by the faith of adherents of religion in punishment for sins. Religious norms are distinguished on the basis of their sphere of functioning; in reality, these norms combine elements characteristic of legal and moral norms, as well as traditions and customs;

6) aesthetic norms that reinforce ideas about the beautiful and the ugly 5.

Social norms are determined by the diversity of social life, any direction of human activity is regulated by them. Various types of social norms can be classified according to the following criteria:

by the scale of distribution - universal, national, social-group, organizational;

by function - orienting, regulating, controlling, encouraging, prohibiting and punishing;

according to the degree of increasing severity - habits, customs, manners, traditions, laws, taboos. Violation of custom or tradition in modern society is not considered a crime and is not severely condemned. A person bears strict responsibility for violation of laws 6.

Conclusion: thus, social norms fulfill very important functions:

Regulate the general course of socialization;

They integrate individuals into groups, and groups into society;

Control deviant behavior;

Serve as models, standards of behavior.

Deviation from the norms is punished with sanctions.

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Social control - a mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society in order to strengthen order and stability in society.

Social control includes two main elements: social norms and sanctions.

Sanction (from lat. sanctio - inviolable ruling) - any reaction to the behavior of a person or group from others.

Types of sanctions
Formal	Informal
Negative
Punishment for a crime of law or violation of an administrative order; fines, imprisonment, correctional labor, etc.	Condemnation of a person for an act by society: an offensive tone, abuse or reprimand, demonstrative disregard of the person, etc.
Positive
Encouragement of the activity or deed of a person from official organizations: awards, certificates of professional, academic success, etc.	Gratitude and approval of unofficial persons (friends, acquaintances, colleagues): praise, approving smile, etc.

Forms of social control

In the process of socialization, norms are assimilated so firmly that people, violating them, experience a feeling of awkwardness → the emergence of a sense of guilt → pangs of conscience. Conscience -manifestation of internal control.

In traditional society, social control was based on unwritten rules, in modern society it is based on written norms: instructions, decrees, decrees, laws. Social control has acquired institutional support in the form of a court, education, army, industry, mass media, political parties, government.

In the Russian Federation, special bodies have been created to exercise social control: The Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, the Federal Security Service, various financial control bodies and others. Control functions are endowed and deputies of various levels... In addition to state control bodies, various public organizations, for example, in the field of consumer protection, in the control of labor relations, the state of the environment, etc.

Detailed (petty) control, in which the leader intervenes in every action, corrects, pulls, etc., is called oversight.

The more self-control is developed among members of a society, the less this society has to resort to external control. Conversely, the less self-control people have, the more often the institutions of social control come into play. The weaker the self-control, the stricter the external control should be.

Social control methods

1) Insulation - the establishment of impassable partitions between the deviant (that is, a person who violates social norms) and the rest of society without any attempts to correct or re-educate him.

2) Isolation - limiting the contacts of the deviant with other people, but not completely isolating him from society; this approach allows deviants to be corrected and returned to society when they are ready not to violate generally accepted norms.

3) Rehabilitation - a process during which deviants can prepare for a return to normal life and the correct performance of their social roles in society.

Expand

QUESTIONS:

1. Establish a correspondence between positive sanctions and their illustrative examples: for each item given in the first column, match the corresponding item in the second column.

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The concept of "behavior" came to sociology from psychology. The meaning of the term "behavior" is different, different from the meaning of such traditional philosophical concepts as action and activity. If action is understood as a rationally grounded action with a clear goal, strategy, carried out with the involvement of specific conscious methods and means, then behavior is just a reaction of a living being to external and internal changes. Such a reaction can be both conscious and unconscious. So, purely emotional reactions - laughter, crying - are also behavior.

Social behavior - it is a set of human behavioral processes associated with the satisfaction of physical and social needs and arising as a reaction to the surrounding social environment. The subject of social behavior can be an individual or a group.

If we abstract from purely psychological factors and reason at the social level, then the behavior of the individual is determined primarily by socialization. The minimum of innate instincts that a person possesses as a biological being is the same for all people. Behavioral differences depend on the qualities acquired in the process of socialization and, to some extent, on the innate and acquired psychological individual characteristics.

In addition, the social behavior of individuals is regulated by the social structure, in particular by the role structure of society.

Social norm of behavior - this is the kind of behavior that fully corresponds to the status expectations. Due to the existence of status expectations, society can predict the actions of the individual in advance with sufficient probability, and the individual himself can coordinate his behavior with the ideal model or model adopted by society. Social behavior corresponding to status expectations is defined by the American sociologist R. Linton as social role. This interpretation of social behavior is closest to functionalism, since it explains behavior as a phenomenon determined by social structure. R. Merton introduced the category of the “role complex” - a system of role expectations determined by a given status, as well as the concept of role conflict that occurs when the role expectations of the status occupied by the subject are incompatible and cannot be realized in some single socially acceptable behavior.

The functionalist understanding of social behavior was subjected to fierce criticism from primarily representatives of social behaviorism, who believed that it was necessary to build the study of behavioral processes on the basis of the achievements of modern psychology. How much psychological moments were really overlooked by the role interpretation of the command follows from the fact that N. Cameron tried to substantiate the idea of \u200b\u200bthe role determination of mental disorders, believing that mental illness is the incorrect performance of his social roles and the result of the patient's inability to perform them as it is. society needs. Behaviorists argued that at the time of E. Durkheim, the successes of psychology were insignificant and therefore the functionality of the expiring paradigm met the requirements of the time, but in the XX century, when psychology reached a high level of development, one cannot ignore its data, considering human behavior.

Forms of human social behavior

People behave differently in this or that social situation, in this or that social environment. For example, some participants in the demonstration peacefully march along the declared route, others seek to organize riots, and still others provoke mass clashes. These various actions of actors of social interaction can be defined as social behavior. Consequently, social behavior is the form and method of manifestation by social actors of their preferences and attitudes, capabilities and abilities in social action or interaction. Therefore, social behavior can be viewed as a qualitative characteristic of social action and interaction.

In sociology, social behavior is interpreted as: about behavior, which is expressed in the totality of the actions and actions of an individual or a group in society and depends on socio-economic factors and prevailing norms; o external manifestation of activity, the form of transformation of activity into real actions in relation to socially significant objects; about the adaptation of a person to the social conditions of his existence.

To achieve life goals and in the implementation of individual tasks, a person can use two types of social behavior - natural and ritual, the differences between which are of a fundamental nature.

"Natural" behavior, individually significant and egocentric, is always aimed at achieving individual goals and is adequate to these goals. Therefore, the individual is not faced with the question of the correspondence of the goals and means of social behavior: the goal can and must be achieved by any means. The "natural" behavior of an individual is not socially regulated, therefore it is usually immoral or "unceremonious". This social behavior is "natural", natural in nature, since it is addressed to the provision of organic needs. In society, "natural" egocentric behavior is "prohibited", therefore it is always based on social conventions and mutual concessions on the part of all individuals.

Ritual behavior ("Ceremonial") - individually unnatural behavior; it is precisely this behavior that makes society exist and reproduce. Ritual in all its variety of forms - from etiquette to ceremony - so deeply penetrates the entire social life that people do not notice that they are living in the field of ritual interactions. Ritual social behavior is a means of ensuring the stability of the social system, and an individual who implements various forms of such behavior participates in ensuring the social stability of social structures and interactions. Thanks to ritual behavior, a person achieves social well-being, constantly convinced of the inviolability of his social status and the preservation of the usual set of social roles.

Society is interested in the social behavior of individuals to be ritualistic, but society cannot abolish the "natural" egocentric social behavior, which, being adequate in goals and indiscriminate in means, always turns out to be more beneficial for the individual than "ritual" behavior. Therefore, society seeks to transform the forms of "natural" social behavior into various forms of ritual social behavior, including through socialization mechanisms using social support, control and punishment.

The following forms of social behavior are aimed at preserving and maintaining social relations and, ultimately, at the survival of a person as homo sapiens (Homo sapiens):

• cooperative behavior, which includes all forms of altruistic behavior - helping each other during natural disasters and technological disasters, helping young children and the elderly, helping future generations through the transfer of knowledge and experience;
• parental behavior - the behavior of parents towards their offspring.

Aggressive behavior is presented in all its manifestations, both group and individual - from verbal abuse of another person to mass killings during wars.

Human Behavior Concepts

Human behavior is studied in many areas of psychology - in behaviorism, psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology, etc. The term "behavior" is one of the key terms in existential philosophy and is used in the study of a person's relationship to the world. The methodological possibilities of this concept are due to the fact that it makes it possible to identify unconscious stable structures of personality or human existence in the world. Among the psychological concepts of human behavior that have had a great influence on sociology and social psychology, it is necessary to name, first of all, the psychoanalytic directions developed by Z. Freud, C. G. Jung, A. Adler.

Freud's views are based on the fact that the behavior of an individual is formed as a result of a complex interaction of levels of his personality. Freud identifies three such levels: the lower level is formed by unconscious impulses and impulses determined by innate biological needs and complexes formed under the influence of the individual history of the subject. This level Freud calls It (Id) to show its separation from the conscious I of the individual, which forms the second level of his psyche. The Conscious Self includes rational goal-setting and responsibility for one's actions. The highest level is the superego - what we would call the result of socialization. This is a set of social norms and values \u200b\u200binternalized by an individual, exerting internal pressure on him in order to displace from consciousness undesirable (forbidden) impulses and drives from society and prevent them from being realized. According to Freud, the personality of any person is an incessant struggle between the Id and the Super-I, shaking the psyche and leading to neuroses. Individual behavior is entirely due to this struggle and is fully explained by it, since it is only a symbolic reflection of it. Such symbols can be images of dreams, slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, obsessions and fears.

C.G. Jung's concept expands and modifies Freud's doctrine, including in the sphere of the unconscious not only individual complexes and drives, but also the collective unconscious - the level of key images common to all people and peoples - archetypes. The archetypes contain archaic fears and value ideas, the interaction of which determines the behavior and attitude of the individual. Archetypal images appear in basic narratives - folk tales and legends, mythology, epics - in historically specific societies. The socially regulatory role of such narratives in traditional societies is very great. They contain ideal behaviors that shape role expectations. For example, a male warrior should behave like Achilles or Hector, a wife like Penelope, etc. Regular recitations (ritual replays) of archetic narratives constantly remind members of society of these ideal behaviors.

Adler's psychoanalytic concept is based on an unconscious will to power, which, in his opinion, is an innate personality structure and determines behavior. It is especially strong in those who, for one reason or another, suffer from an inferiority complex. In an effort to compensate for their inferiority, they are able to achieve great success.

The further splitting of the psychoanalytic direction led to the emergence of many schools, in disciplinary terms, occupying a borderline position between psychology, social philosophy, and sociology. Let us dwell in detail on the work of E. Fromm.

Fromm's positions are the representative of neo-Freudianism in and - more precisely, it can be defined as Freylomarxism, since along with the influence of Freud, he was equally strongly influenced by the social philosophy of Marx. The peculiarity of neo-Freudianism in comparison with orthodox Freudianism is due to the fact that, strictly speaking, neo-Freudianism is more of a sociology, while Freud is undoubtedly a pure psychologist. If Freud explains the behavior of the individual by complexes and impulses hidden in the individual unconscious, in short, by internal biopsychic factors, then for Fromm and Freilomarxism as a whole, the behavior of the individual is determined by the surrounding social environment. In this lies his similarity with Marx, who explained the social behavior of individuals in the final analysis by their class origin. Nevertheless, Fromm seeks to find a place for the psychological in social processes. According to the Freudian tradition, referring to the unconscious, he introduces the term "social unconscious", implying that psychic experience is common to all members of a given society, but for most of them it does not fall on the level of consciousness, because it is supplanted by a special social mechanism by its nature. belonging not to an individual, but to society. Thanks to this mechanism of repression, society maintains a stable existence. The mechanism of social repression includes language, the logic of everyday thinking, a system of social prohibitions and taboos. The structures of language and thinking are formed under the influence of society and act as an instrument of social pressure on the psyche of the individual. For example, coarse, anti-aesthetic, ridiculous abbreviations and abbreviations of "Newspeak" from Orwell's dystopia actively disfigure the minds of people who use them. To one degree or another, the monstrous logic of formulas like: "The dictatorship of the proletariat is the most democratic form of power" has become the property of everyone in Soviet society.

The main component of the mechanism of social repression is social taboos that act like Freud's censorship. That in the social experience of individuals that threatens the preservation of the existing society, if realized, is not allowed into consciousness with the help of a "social filter". Society manipulates the minds of its members, introducing ideological clichés that, due to their frequent use, become inaccessible to critical analysis, withhold certain information, exert direct pressure and cause fear of social isolation. Therefore, everything that contradicts the socially approved ideological cliché is excluded from consciousness.

This kind of taboos, ideologemes, logical and linguistic experiments form, according to Fromm, the "social character" of a person. People belonging to the same society, against their will, are, as it were, marked with the seal of a "common incubator." For example, measure, we unmistakably recognize foreigners on the street, even if we do not hear their speech, - by their behavior, appearance, attitude towards each other; these are people from another society, and when they find themselves in a mass environment alien to them, they stand out sharply from it due to their similarity. Social character - it is a style of behavior brought up by society and unrecognized by the individual - from social to everyday life. For example, Soviet and former Soviet people are distinguished by collectivism and responsiveness, social passivity and undemandingness, obedience to the power personified in the person of the “leader”, a developed fear of being different from everyone else, and credulity.

Fromm directed his criticism against modern capitalist society, although he paid much attention to describing the social character generated by totalitarian societies. Like Freud, he developed a program for restoring the undistorted social behavior of individuals through the awareness of what was repressed. “By transforming the unconscious into consciousness, we thereby transform the simple concept of the universality of man into the vital reality of such universality. This is nothing more than the practical realization of humanism. " The process of derepression - the release of a socially oppressed consciousness consists in eliminating the fear of realizing the forbidden, developing the ability for critical thinking, and humanizing social life in general.

Behaviorism offers a different interpretation (B. Skinner, J. Homans), which considers behavior as a system of reactions to various stimuli.

Skinner's concept in fact, it is biologic, since it completely removes the differences between human and animal behavior. Skinner identifies three types of behavior: unconditional reflex, conditioned reflex, and operant. The first two types of reactions are caused by the action of the corresponding stimuli, and operant reactions are a form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. They are active and arbitrary. The body, as it were, by trial and error, searches for the most acceptable way of adaptation, and if successful, the find is fixed in the form of a stable reaction. Thus, the main factor in the formation of behavior is reinforcement, and learning turns into "guidance to the desired response."

In Skinner's concept, a person appears as a creature, whose entire inner life is reduced to reactions to external circumstances. Reinforcement changes mechanically induce behavioral changes. Thinking, the higher mental functions of a person, the whole culture, morality, and art turn into a complex system of reinforcements designed to evoke certain behavioral reactions. Hence follows the conclusion about the possibility of manipulating people's behavior by means of a carefully developed "technology of behavior". With this term Skinner denotes the purposeful manipulative control of some groups of people over others, associated with the establishment of an optimal reinforcement regime for certain social goals.

The ideas of behaviorism in sociology were developed by J. and J. Baldwin, J. Homans.

J.iJ. Baldwin is based on the concept of reinforcement borrowed from psychological behaviorism. Reinforcement in a social sense is a reward whose value is determined by subjective needs. For example, for a hungry person, food acts as reinforcement, but if a person is full, it is not reinforcement.

The effectiveness of reward depends on the degree of deprivation in a given individual. Subdeprivation is understood as the deprivation of something that the individual has a constant need for. As far as the subject is deprived in any respect, his behavior depends on this reinforcement. The so-called generalized reinforcers (for example, money), acting on all individuals without exception, do not depend on deprivation due to the fact that they concentrate in themselves access to many types of reinforcements at once.

Reinforcers are categorized as positive and negative. Positive reinforcers are anything that is perceived by the subject as a reward. For example, if certain contact with the environment has been rewarding, there is a high likelihood that the subject will seek to repeat the experience. Negative reinforcers are factors that determine behavior through giving up an experience. For example, if the subject denies himself some kind of pleasure and saves money on it, and subsequently benefits from this savings, then this experience can serve as a negative reinforcement and the subject will behave as always.

The effect of punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. Punishment is an experience that makes you want to no longer repeat it. Punishment can also be positive or negative, but here, compared to reinforcement, everything is reversed. Positive punishment is punishment with a repressive stimulus, such as a blow. Negative punishment affects behavior through deprivation of something of value. For example, depriving a child of sweets at dinner is a typical negative punishment.

The formation of operant reactions has a probabilistic character. Unambiguity is characteristic of reactions of the simplest level, for example, a child cries, demanding the attention of his parents, because the parents always approach him in such cases. The reactions of adults are much more complex. For example, a person selling newspapers in train carriages does not find a buyer in every carriage, but he knows from experience that a buyer will eventually be found, and this makes him persistently walk from car to car. In the last decade, the receipt of wages at some Russian enterprises has assumed the same probabilistic nature, but nevertheless, people continue to go to work, hoping to receive it.

Homans' behaviorist exchange concept appeared in the middle of the XX century. Arguing against representatives of many areas of sociology, Homans argued that a sociological explanation of behavior must necessarily be based on a psychological approach. The interpretation of historical facts should also be based on a psychological approach. Homans motivates this by the fact that behavior is always individual, while sociology operates with categories applicable to groups and societies, so the study of behavior is the prerogative of psychology, and sociology in this matter should follow it.

According to Homans, when studying behavioral reactions, one should abstract from the nature of the factors that caused these reactions: they are caused by the influence of the surrounding physical environment or other people. Social behavior is just the exchange of socially valuable activities between people. Homans believes that social behavior can be interpreted using Skinner's behavioral paradigm, if we supplement it with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe mutual nature of stimulation in relationships between people. The relationship of individuals with each other is always a mutually beneficial exchange of activities, services, in short, it is the mutual use of reinforcements.

Homans summarized exchange theory in several postulates:

• the postulate of success - those actions that most often meet social approval are most likely reproduced;
• stimulus postulate - similar incentives associated with reward are more likely to cause similar behavior;
• the postulate of value - the probability of reproducing an action depends on how valuable the result of this action is to a person;
• the postulate of deprivapia - the more regularly a person's act is rewarded, the less he appreciates the subsequent reward;
• the double postulate of aggression-approval - the absence of expected reward or unexpected punishment makes aggressive behavior likely, and unexpected reward or the absence of expected punishment leads to an increase in the value of the rewarded act and contributes to its more likely reproduction.

The most important concepts of the exchange theory are:

• the cost of behavior is the cost to the individual of this or that action, - the negative consequences caused by past actions. In everyday terms, it is a payback for the past;
• benefit - arises when the quality and size of the remuneration exceed the cost of the given act.

Thus, exchange theory portrays human social behavior as a rational search for gain. This concept looks simplistic, and it is not surprising that it drew criticism from a wide variety of sociological trends. For example, Parsons, who defended the fundamental difference between the mechanisms of behavior of humans and animals, criticized Homans for the inability of his theory to explain social facts on the basis of psychological mechanisms.

In its exchange theory I. Blau attempted a kind of synthesis of social behaviorism and sociologism. Realizing the limitations of a purely behavioral interpretation of social behavior, he set the goal of moving from the level of psychology to explaining on this basis the existence of social structures as a special reality that cannot be reduced to psychology. Blau's concept is an enriched theory of exchange, in which four successive stages of the transition from individual exchange to social structures are distinguished: 1) the stage of interpersonal exchange; 2) the stage of power-status differentiation; 3) the level of legitimation and organization; 4) the stage of opposition and change.

Blau shows that, starting from the level of interpersonal exchange, the exchange may not always be equal. In cases where individuals cannot offer each other sufficient reward, the social ties formed between them tend to disintegrate. In such situations, attempts arise to strengthen the disintegrating ties in other ways - through coercion, through the search for another source of reward, through submission to the exchange partner in the manner of generalized credit. The latter path means a transition to the stage of status differentiation, when a group of persons capable of giving the required reward becomes more privileged in terms of status than other groups. In the future, the legitimization and consolidation of the situation and the separation of opposition groups take place. By analyzing complex social structures, Blau goes far beyond the paradigm of behaviorism. He argues that the complex structures of society are organized around social values \u200b\u200band norms, which serve as a mediating link between individuals in the process of social exchange. Thanks to this link, the exchange of rewards is possible not only between individuals, but also between the individual and the group. For example, considering the phenomenon of organized charity, Blau defines what distinguishes charity as a social institution from simply helping a rich individual to a poorer one. The difference is that organized charity is a socially oriented behavior, which is based on the desire of a rich individual to comply with the norms of the wealthy class and share social values; through norms and values, a relationship of exchange is established between the donating individual and the social group to which he belongs.

Blau identifies four categories of social values \u200b\u200bon the basis of which exchange is possible:

• particularistic values \u200b\u200bthat unite individuals on the basis of interpersonal relationships;
• universalist values \u200b\u200bthat act as a yardstick for assessing individual merits;
• legitimate authority is a system of values \u200b\u200bthat provides the power and privileges of a certain category of people in comparison with all others:
• oppositional values \u200b\u200b- ideas about the need for social changes, allowing the opposition to exist at the level of social facts, and not only at the level of interpersonal relations of individual oppositionists.

We can say that Blau's theory of exchange is a compromise variant, combining elements of the theory of Homans and sociologism in the interpretation of the exchange of rewards.

Role concept by J. Mead is a symbolic interactionism approach to the study of social behavior. Its name reminds of the functionalist approach: it is also called role-based. Mead views role behavior as the activity of individuals interacting with each other in freely accepted and played roles. According to Mead, the role interaction of individuals requires them to be able to put themselves in the place of another, to evaluate themselves from the position of another.

Synthesis of exchange theory with symbolic interactionism also tried to implement P. Zingelman. Symbolic inter-actionism has a number of intersections with social behaviorism and exchange theories. Both of these concepts emphasize the active interaction of individuals and view their subject from a microsociological perspective. According to Singelman, interpersonal exchange relationships require the ability to place oneself in the position of another in order to better understand his needs and desires. Therefore, he believes that there is reason for the merger of both directions into one. However, social behaviorists were critical of the emergence of the new theory.

The social control system is one of the elements of the personality socialization mechanism. We imagined socialization as a process of mastering cultural norms and social roles. Socialization concerns, first of all, the individual and takes place under a certain control of society, those around him (they not only teach children, but also control the correctness of mastering patterns of behavior). It is believed that social control is achieved by a combination of factors of predisposition to conquest, coercion and poddanstvo social norms, rules of behavior, values. It is also interpreted as a purposeful impact of society on the behavior of an individual, and ensures a normal relationship between social forces, expectations, requirements and human nature, as a result of which a "healthy" social order arises, adheres to a normal way of social life (the theory of E. Ross, P. parka). The problem of social control is essentially an integral problem of the relationship between the individual and society, the citizen and the state. Figuratively speaking, social control performs the function of a policeman who monitors people's behavior and "fines" those who do not comply with the appropriate measures. If there was no social control, people could do whatever they want, and in the way they want. Therefore, social control acts as the foundation of stability in society, its absence or weakening leads to disorder, social anomie (ignoring norms and rules).

Social control is a way of self-regulation of the social system, which ensures the orderliness of interactions between people through normative regulation. Its system includes all the methods of reaction of both large public formations and a specific individual to various specific actions of a person or groups, all means of social pressure in order to put the normalized behavior and activities within certain social boundaries.

Examining social institutions, we see that they perform a controlling, influential, regulatory function, and are reduced to a certain "social control" (you can give examples from everyday life). It can be schematically explained as follows: each member of society realizes how to behave in different situations, in order to be understandable, to know what to expect from him, and what the reaction of the groups will be. That is, the "organized course" of our social life can be ensured due to the fact that the mutual transfer is the behavior of people.

Each social group develops a system of means through which each person behaves in accordance with the norms, patterns of behavior in various situations. In the process of social control, relationships are formed, which, however, are much more difficult than "adjusting" individual qualities to certain social standards. Here it is necessary to take into account the fundamental feature of the functioning of individual consciousness and social. The individual and society (social group) are interacting constituent elements of social control. This is a process of interaction between individuals and socialized (groups, classes), the scheme of which includes two types of actions: individual actions and social actions (group, collective). But this is still not enough. It is fundamentally important to take into account a kind of additional intermediate elements of this system, variables of a socio-psychological nature: self-assessment of the subject of action (both an individual and a social group), perception and assessment of the social situation (social perception) by both an individual and a social group.

Self-assessment and assessment of the situation are important social and psychological indicators, the manifestation of which makes it possible to largely predict the content and direction of individual and social actions. In turn, self-esteem, assessment and perception of the social situation depend on the specifics of the social and individual assessment scale. The mechanism of action of social control is shown schematically in Fig. 2.

The system of means of social control includes:

■ a system of measures, norms, rules, prohibitions, sanctions, laws, a system of suppression (including physical destruction);

■ a system of incentives, awards, positive, benevolent incentives, etc.

All this is called the "social control" system. It is a mechanism for maintaining public order and requires two main groups of elements - norms and sanctions.

Norms are attitudes, instructions: how to behave in society. These are primarily the responsibilities of a person or group to others, as well as expectations (desired behavior). They form a network of social relations, interactions in a group, society. Social norms are also "guards" of order and values.

Sanctions - a means of encouragement and punishment, encourages people to comply with norms.

The elements of the social control system include:

■ habit - as an established way of behavior of an individual in various situations where he does not have a negative reaction from the group;

■ custom or tradition - as an established way of behavior, where the group connects its moral assessments and the violation of which the group causes negative sanctions;

■ laws - as normative acts adopted by the highest body of state power;

■ sanctions - as a system of measures, actions that regulate people's behavior (they were mentioned above). By law, society protects the precious: human life, state secrets, property, human rights and dignity.

Social norms perform very important functions in society, namely:

■ regulate the general course of socialization;

■ integrate people into groups, and groups into communities;

■ control deviations from normalized behavior and activities;

■ serve as a model, a standard of behavior.

Sanctions - the guards of norms, they "bear responsibility" for the observance of norms by people. Social sanctions are a fairly ramified system, on the one hand, of rewards, incentives for fulfilling norms, that is, for conformity, consent. On the other hand, there are punishments for rejection and non-compliance with them, that is, for deviance. Conformity, consistency and correctness of actions are the goals of social control. Thus, sanctions can be positive or negative. Another criterion for the division of social sanctions is the presence of the consolidation of their actions in the regulatory framework. Therefore, they are divided into formal and informal. The same goes for social norms. Consequently, the norms and sanctions are combined into a single whole. Based on this, the norms and sanctions can be conditionally reflected in the form of a logical square (Fig. 3).

The norms themselves do not directly control anything. The behavior of people is controlled by other people on the basis of the same norms and on the basis of authorizing circulars.

Formal control, as already noted, based on condemnation or approval from the official authorities or administration. It is global, carried out by people empowered - agents of formal control: law enforcement officials, administrative and other authorized persons.

Informal control is based on approval or condemnation from relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, and public opinion. For example: the traditional local community still controls all aspects of the lives of its members. Religion (strict adherence to rituals and ceremonies associated with holidays and rituals) was organically interwoven into a single system of social control. There is a system of control and informal relationships between members of criminal gangs or prison communities.

A special kind of elements of social control is public opinion and self-control. Public opinion is a set of ideas, assessments, assumptions, judgments of common sense, which are shared by the majority of the population. It exists both in the production team and in a small settlement, a social stratum.

Self-control is also called internal control, which manifests itself through consciousness and conscience, and is formed in the process of socialization. Scientists have found that more than 2/3 of social control is due to self-control. The higher self-control is developed among members of a society, the less this society has to apply external control. And vice versa. The less a person has developed self-control, the more this society has to apply external factors-levers.

If we expand in the coordinate system all the elements of rules and norms (X) in ascending order depending on the degree of punishment (Y), then their ordering has the following form (Fig. 4).

Compliance is regulated by society with varying degrees of rigor. Most punished are violations of legal laws and prohibitions (murder of a person, disclosure of state secrets, desecration of a shrine, etc.); and least of all - habits (elements of uncleanliness, bad manners, etc.).

Social control always has as its object undesirable behavior, action - deviations (deviations from the norm). At all times, society has sought to overcome undesirable norms of human behavior. An undesirable norm can be attributed to behavior: thieves, and geniuses, and lazy, and too hardworking. Various deviations from the average norm in both positive and negative directions threaten the stability of society, which is most valued at all times. Sociologists call behavior rejected from the norm - deviant. It represents any action that does not comply with written or unwritten norms. So, any behavior that does not arouse the approval of public opinion is called deviant: "crime", "drunkenness", "suicide". But this is in a broad sense. In a narrow sense, deviant behavior is considered a violation of informal norms enshrined in customs, traditions, etiquette, manners, and the like. And all serious violations of formal norms, laws, the observance of which is guaranteed by the state, which means that such violations are unlawful, act as delinquent behavior. Therefore, the first type of behavior is relative (deviant), and the second is an absolute (delinquent) violation. Delinquency includes: theft, robbery, another type of crime.

But, as mentioned above, manifestations of deviant behavior can be not only negative, but also positive.

If we carry out statistical calculations, it turns out that in civilized societies, under normal conditions, each of these groups accounts for about 10-15% of the total population. About 70% of the population is made up of the so-called "middle peasants" - people with insignificant deviations in behavior and activity.

Most often, deviant behavior is observed in adolescents. The reason is, in particular, the psychological characteristics of age: the desire for thrills, the desire to satisfy curiosity, as well as the lack of ability to predict their actions, the desire to be independent. The adolescent often in his behavior does not meet the requirements that society imposes on him, and at the same time is not ready to fulfill certain social roles, provided that others expect him to. In turn, the teenager believes that he does not receive from society what he has the right to count on. All these contradictions are the main source of deviation. About 1/3 of young people in one way or another participate in any illegal activities. The most common forms of deviation among young people are: alcoholism, prostitution, drug addiction, hooliganism, and suicide.

Thus, at one pole there is a group of persons showing the most unflattering behavior (criminals, rebels, terrorists, traitors, vagabonds, cynics, vandals, etc.). At the other extreme, there is a group of people with the most approved deviations (national heroes, outstanding figures in science, sports, culture, talents, successful civilized entrepreneurs, missionaries, patrons, etc.).