The formation of the Frankish state and its features. Chronology of the history of the state of the Franks In what year did the formation of the state of the Franks take place

The origin of statehood among the Franks

In historical monuments, the first mention of the Franks dates back to the 3rd century. The ancestors of the Franks were called differently: Batavs, Hamavs, Sicambri, etc. The concept of "Frank" is a collective term for a group of Middle and Lower Rhine Germanic tribes. Later, the Franks formed two large branches - coastal (Ripuan) and coastal (Salic). Even under Caesar, some Germanic tribes wanted to move to the fertile and rich lands of Gaul, a Roman province located in the center of Western Europe.

Since 276, there has been an arrival of the Franks in Roman Gaul, initially as prisoners, and later as allies of the Romans. This period is characterized by the formation of an early class society of the Franks. The basis of their social life was the neighboring brand community, the stability of which rested on the equality of its members (free peasant warriors) and on the right of collective land ownership. This aspect played a significant role in the superiority of the Franks over the rest of the Germanic tribes.

In the 5th century, after the fall of the Roman Empire, the Franks captured Northeastern Gaul, a vast territory of the Roman Empire. The first royal family of the Merovingian Franks came from the Frankish leader Merovei. The brightest representative of the entire family is King Clovis (481–511), who is the king of the Salian Franks.

Clovis in 486 captured the last Roman possession in Gaul - the Soissons region, with its center in Paris. Ten years later, the king converted to Christianity, with significant political consequences. Clovis received significant support from the church in the fight against the Arians.

By 510, a vast kingdom had been established, covering the area from the middle reaches of the Rhine to the Pyrenees. Clovis proclaimed himself the representative of the Roman emperor throughout the occupied territory and became the ruler of a single territorial state. Clovis had the right to levy taxes from the local population, to dictate his own laws. Under him, the Salic truth was created - the consolidation of the customary law of the Salic Franks.

On the new lands, the Franks took away empty lands, plots of the former Roman treasury and formed communities. The indigenous population adjoined them, as a result of which a new socio-ethnic community of the Celtic-Germanic synthesis was formed.

During the reign of the Merovingian dynasty, feudal relations arose among the Franks. The Salic Pravda (beginning of the 6th century) notes the existence of such social groups as:

• serving nobility (close associates of the king);
• community members (free francs);
• litas (semi-free);
• slaves.

The main differences in social groups were related to the legal status and origin of an individual or the social group to which he belonged. A little later, legal differences among different social groups began to be influenced by belonging to the royal squad, royal service, or to the emerging state apparatus.

The Frankish state existed for more than three and a half centuries.

Periodization of the history of the formation of the Frankish state

There are different approaches to the question of periodization of the history of the state of the Franks. So, according to the chronology of Stefan Lübeck, three periods are distinguished in the history of the state: VI, VII and VIII centuries, respectively.

N. A. Krasheninnikova and O. A. Zhidkov distinguish two periods:

• The first period, "the era of lazy kings" - from the end of the 5th to the 7th century. During this period, four separate parts of the Frankish state took shape, in each of which all power belonged to the royal mayors. The power of kings was concentrated in their hands.
• The second period - from the 7th to the middle of the 9th century. The formation, flourishing and subsequent fall of the Carolingian dynasty is observed.

The line separating these periods was characterized by a change of ruling dynasties, was the beginning of a stage of deep socio-political and economic transformations of Frankish society, as a result of which the feudal state was formed, developed and strengthened.

From 768 to 814 the state was ruled by Charlemagne, a descendant of Pepin the Short. During this period, the heyday of the Carolingian dynasty falls. As a result of more than 50 military campaigns, Charlemagne managed to create an empire that had no analogues in Western Europe, which included many different tribes and peoples in addition to the Franks.

The Frankish state under Charlemagne lasted 20 years, after which the territory of the empire was divided among themselves by the heirs of the king. This division was fixed in 843 by an agreement signed by the grandchildren of Charlemagne.

Remark 1

The Frankish state appeared as a result of the conquest of part of the Roman Empire. The Franks, thanks to internal self-organization, managed to prevail over other contenders for the "Roman inheritance". From the Gallo-Roman population, the Franks began to adopt more advanced methods of management and management. This helped to strengthen the position of the Frankish state.

Features of the Frankish state

Characteristic features of the formation and further development of the Frankish state:

1. The state managed to avoid in its development all three stages characteristic of feudalism.
2. The state arose in a society that entered the era of feudalism in the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system. At the same time, society in its development passed the stage of slavery. Such a society was characterized by multiformity, that is, a combination of various kinds of relations - slave-owning, communal, tribal, feudal, and the incompleteness of the process of formation of the main classes of feudal society.
3. The formation of the Frankish state took place quickly, which was facilitated by multiple victorious wars and the class differentiation of Frankish society.
4. The ideological offensive of the Christian church, the growing role of the church began to manifest itself in power claims. The church was a large landowner and received numerous land donations. Religious authorities began to interact closely with secular authorities.
5. The origin, flourishing and disintegration of the Frankish state were observed during the period of the early feudal monarchy.
6. The Frankish state carried elements of a traditional communal organization, the establishment of a tribal democracy.

The role of the Frankish state in the formation and development of the states of Western Europe cannot be underestimated. As a result of the collapse of the Frankish state, new independent states arose - Germany, France, Italy.

The Franks were a union of tribes of ancient Germanic tribes. They lived east of the lower Rhine. The forests of Charbonnière divided them into Salii and Ripuarii. In the 4th century, Toxandria began to belong to them, where they became federates of the empire.

Formation of the Frankish kingdom

The Great Migration of Nations allowed the Merovingian dynasty to occupy a dominant position. In the second half of the 5th century Clovis, a representative of the dynasty, led the Salian Franks. The king was famous for his cunning and enterprise. Thanks to these qualities, Clovis was able to create a powerful Frankish empire.

In 481, the coronation of the first king took place in Reims. According to legend, a dove sent from heaven brought a phial with oil for the ceremony of greasing the kingdom of the king.

Frankish kingdom under Clovis

Soissons with the surrounding territory turned out to be the last Gallic lands that belonged to Rome. Paternal experience told Holdwig about the huge treasures of villages and cities near Paris, as well as about the weakened Roman power. In 486, the troops of Syagrius near Soissons were defeated, and the power of the former empire passed to Holdwig. To increase the territory of his kingdom, he went with the army to the Alemans in Cologne. Once the Alemanni pushed back the Ripuarian Franks. Near Zulpich there was a battle that went down in history as the Battle of Tolbiac. It was of great importance for the future fate of the king. The pagan Holdwig was married to the Burgundian princess Clotilde, who was a Christian by religion. She had long urged her husband to accept her faith. When the Alemanni began to win in battle, Holdwig promised at the top of his voice to be baptized if he could win. The army consisted of many Gallo-Roman Christians. Heard lunch inspired the soldiers, who subsequently won the battle. The enemy fell, and many of his warriors asked Holdwig for mercy. The Alemani fell into dependence on the Franks. On Christmas Day 496 Holdwig was baptized in Reims.

Holdwig brought a lot of wealth as a gift to the church. He changed his sign: instead of three toads on a white background, there were three fleur-de-lis on blue. The flower has acquired a symbolic meaning of purification. The squad was baptized at the same time. All Franks became Catholics, and the Gallo-Roman population became one people. Now Holdwig was able to act under his banner as a fighter against heresy.

In 506, a coalition is formed against the Visigothic king, who owned ¼ of the southwestern Gallic lands. In 507, the Visigoths were driven back beyond the Pyrenees, and the Byzantine emperor named Holdwig a Roman consul, sending him a purple mantle and a crown. The Roman and Gallic nobility had to recognize Holdwig in order to maintain their possessions. Wealthy Romans intermarried with the Frankish leaders, forming one ruling layer.

The emperor sought to achieve a suitable balance of power in the western territory and form a stronghold against the Germans. The Byzantines preferred to pit the barbarians against each other.

Holdwig sought to unite all the Frankish tribes. He used cunning and atrocities to achieve this goal. With cunning and harshness, he destroyed his former allied leaders, subordinate to the Merovingians.

Over time, Clovis became the ruler of all the Franks. But soon he died. He was buried in Paris in the church of Saint Genevieve, which he built with his wife.

The kingdom passed to the four sons of Holdwig. They divided it into equal parts and sometimes united for military purposes.

Administration of the Frankish kingdom under Clovis

Holdwig codified law, documenting old Frankish customs and new royal decrees. He became the sole supreme ruler. He had the entire population of the country under his command, and not just the Frankish tribes. The king had more powers than the military leader. Power could now be inherited. Any action against the king was punishable by death. People close to the king were appointed to each region - counts. Their duties included collecting taxes, sending military detachments, and managing the court. The supreme judicial authority was the king.

To preserve the conquered lands, it was necessary to provide reliable support for the retinue that accompanied the king. This could provide a treasury full of gold and a constant seizure of new funds from rivals. Holdwig and subsequent rulers, in order to consolidate their power and control over new territories, generously distributed lands to combatants and close associates for good and faithful service. Such a policy contributed to the increase in the process of land subsidence of the squad. The combatants became feudal landowners throughout Europe.

Government scheme of the Frankish kingdom

Chlothar, Childeber, Chlodomir and Thierry became four kings of one kingdom. Historians have called the Frankish kingdom "Shared Kingdom".

At the end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th centuries, the scheme for managing the kingdom changed. Power over one people was replaced by power in a specific territory, and, accordingly, power over different peoples.

The Franks united in 520-530 to take over the Burgundian state. The sons of Holdwig, by joint efforts, were able to annex the region of Provence, the lands of the Bavarians, Thuringians and Alemanni.

However, the unity was only illusory. The family began discord and civil strife with treacherous and cruel murders. Chlodomer died during a military campaign against Burgundy. His children were killed by their own uncles Chlothar and Childeber. Chlothar turned out to be the king of Orleans. Together with his brother in 542, they went to the Visigoths and captured Pamplona. After the death of Chldebert, Chlothar seized his part of the kingdom.

By 558, Chlothar I had unified Gaul. He left behind three heirs, one hundred led to a new division into three states. In the country of the Merovingians there was no economic, ethnic, political and judicial-administrative unity. The social structure in the kingdom was different. Under pressure from the land authorities at the beginning of the 7th century, the king himself limited his power.

Subsequent rulers from the Merovingian house were insignificant. The affairs of state were decided by mayors, whom the king himself appointed from noble families. In this mess, the highest position was that of the manager of the palace. He became the first person after the king. The Frankish state broke up into 2 parts:

• Austrasia - German lands in the eastern part;
• Neustria is the western part.

West Frankish kingdom

The West Frankish kingdom occupies the territory of modern France. In 843, the Treaty of Verdun was concluded between the grandsons of Charlemagne to divide the Frankish Empire. Dynastic ties were at first maintained between the Frankish kingdoms. They were conditionally still part of the Frankish "Roman Empire". Starting from 887, in the western part, the imperial power was no longer considered supreme.

Feudal fragmentation began in the kingdom. Counts and dukes symbolically recognized the power of the king, sometimes they could be at enmity with him. The king was chosen by the feudal lords.

In the 9th century, the Normans began to invade the kingdom. They collected tribute not only from the people, but also from the king. The Norman prince Rollond and the West Frankish king in 911 concluded an agreement on the formation of the county of Normandy. The merchant and feudal estates began to belong to the conquerors.

By 987, the West Frankish kingdom gradually turned into France. In this year, the last representative of the Carolingian dynasty died, and the Capetian dynasty took its place. Louis VIII was officially named the first king of France in 1223.

East Frankish Kingdom

According to the Treaty of Verdino, Louis II of Germany got the lands to the east of the Rhine and the north of the Alps. The formed kingdom would prove to be the forerunner of the strongest Holy Roman Empire and the current Germany.

The king's official title was "King of the Franks" until 962.

During its existence, the territory expanded. Lortoringia, Alsace, the Netherlands were added to it. Regensurg became the capital of the kingdom.

The unusualness of the East Frankish kingdom lay in its composition. It united 5 large duchies: Thuringia, Swabia, Franconia, Bavaria and Saxony. They represented tribal semi-independent principalities.

The eastern part differed from the western backwardness in socio-political terms due to the influence of the state-legal institutions of Rome and the preservation of tribal relations.

In the 9th century, there was a process of consolidation of power and awareness of the unity of the German nation and state. The principle of inheritance of power by the eldest son was formed. In the absence of a direct heir, the king was elected by the nobility.

In 962, the King of the East Frankish Kingdom assumes the title of "Emperor of the Romans and Franks" and establishes the "Holy Roman Empire".

Form of government Monarchy Dynasty Merovingians, Carolingians kings - V century - List of kings of France Emperor of the West - - Charlemagne - - Louis I the Pious - - Lothair I

Frankish state (kingdom; fr. royaumes francs, lat. regnum (imperium) Francorum), less often Frankia(lat. francia) is the conditional name of a state in Western and Central Europe from the 9th century to the 9th century, which was formed on the territory of the Western Roman Empire simultaneously with other barbarian kingdoms. The area has been inhabited by the Franks since the 3rd century. Due to the continuous military campaigns of the Frankish mayor Charles Martel, his son Pepin the Short, and the grandson of Charlemagne, the territory of the Frankish empire reached the largest size during its existence by the beginning of the 9th century.

As a result of the tradition of dividing the inheritance among the sons, the territory of the Franks was only conditionally ruled as a single state, in fact it was divided into several subordinate kingdoms ( Regna). The number and location of the kingdoms changed over time, and initially Francia only one kingdom was named, namely Austrasia, located in the northern part of Europe on the rivers Rhine and Meuse; however, sometimes this concept included the kingdom of Neustria, located north of the Loire River and west of the Seine River. Over time, the application of the name Frankia shifted in the direction of Paris, as a result, being established above the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe Seine river basin that surrounded Paris (nowadays known as Ile-de-France), and gave its name to the entire kingdom of France.

History of appearance and development

origin of name

The first written mention of the name Frankia contained in eulogies dated to the beginning of the 3rd century. At the time, the term referred to the geographical area north and east of the Rhine River, roughly in the triangle between Utrecht, Bielefeld and Bonn. This title covered the land holdings of the Germanic tribes of the Sicambres, Salic Franks, Bructers, Ampsivarians, Hamavs and Hattuarii. The lands of some tribes, for example, the Sicambri and the Salic Franks, were included in the Roman Empire and these tribes supplied the border troops of the Romans with soldiers. And in 357, the leader of the Salic Franks included his lands in the Roman Empire and strengthened his position thanks to an alliance concluded with Julian II, who pushed the Hamavi tribes back to Hamaland.

The meaning of the concept Frankia expanded as the lands of the Franks grew. Some of the Frankish leaders, such as Bauton and Arbogast, swore allegiance to the Romans, while others, such as Mallobaudes, acted in the Romanesque lands for other reasons. After the fall of Arbogast, his son Arigius succeeded in establishing a hereditary county in Trier, and after the fall of the usurper Constantine III, some Franks sided with the usurper Jovinus (411). After the death of Jovinus in 413, the Romans were no longer able to keep the Franks within their borders.

Merovingian period

Historical contribution of successors Chlodion not known for certain. It can definitely be argued that Childeric I, probably the grandson Chlodion, ruled the Salian kingdom centered in Tournai, being federate Romans. Historical role childerica consists in bequeathing the lands of the Franks to his son Clovis, who began to extend his power over other Frankish tribes and expand the areas of his possession in the western and southern part of Gaul. The Kingdom of the Franks was founded by King Clovis I and within three centuries became the most powerful state in Western Europe.

Clovis converted to Christianity and took advantage of the power of the Roman Catholic Church. During his 30-year reign (481 years - 511 years), he defeated the Roman commander Siagrius, conquering the Roman enclave Soissons, defeated the Alemanni (Battle of Tolbiac, 504), putting them under the control of the Franks, defeated the Visigoths in the battle of Vuille in 507, having conquered their entire kingdom (with the exception of Septimania) with its capital in Toulouse, and also conquered Bretons(according to the Frankish historian Gregory of Tours), making them vassals of Frankia. He subjugated all (or most) of the neighboring Frankish tribes living along the Rhine, and included their lands in his kingdom. He also subjugated various Roman paramilitary settlements ( laeti) scattered throughout Gaul. By the end of his 46-year life, Clovis ruled all of Gaul, with the exception of the province Septimania And Burgundian kingdom in the southeast.

Governing body Merovingian was a hereditary monarchy. The kings of the Franks followed the practice of divisible inheritance: dividing their possessions among their sons. Even when multiple kings ruled Merovingian, the kingdom - almost like in the late Roman Empire - was perceived as a single state, collectively led by several kings, and only a series of various events led to the unification of the entire state under the rule of one king. The Merovingian kings ruled by the right of the anointed of God and their royal majesty was symbolized by long hair and acclamation, which was carried out by their ascension to the shield according to the traditions of the Germanic tribes at the choice of the leader. After death Clovis in 511 the territories of his kingdom were divided among his four adult sons so that each would get an approximately equal share of the fiscus.

The sons of Clovis chose as their capital cities around the northeastern region of Gaul - the heart of the Frankish state. eldest son Theodoric I reigned at Reims, second son Chlodomir- in Orleans, the third son of Clovis Childebert I- in Paris and, finally, the youngest son Chlothar I- in Soissons. During their reign, tribes were included in the Frankish state Turing(532 year), Burgundian(534) and also Saxons And Frisians(about 560). The outlying tribes that lived beyond the Rhine were not securely subject to Frankish dominion and, although they were forced to participate in the military campaigns of the Franks, in times of weakness of the kings, these tribes were uncontrollable and often tried to leave the state of the Franks. Nevertheless, the Franks preserved the territoriality of the Romanized Burgundian kingdom unchanged, turning it into one of their main regions, including the central part of the kingdom of Chlodomir with its capital in Orleans.

It should be noted that the relationship between the brother-kings cannot be called friendly, for the most part they competed with each other. After death Chlodomira(524) his brother Chlothar killed the sons of Chlodomir in order to take over part of his kingdom, which, according to tradition, was divided among the remaining brothers. The eldest of the brothers Theodoric I, died of illness in 534 and his eldest son, Theudebert I managed to defend his inheritance - the largest Frankish kingdom and the heart of the future kingdom austria. Theudebert became the first Frankish king to officially break ties with the Byzantine Empire, starting to mint gold coins with his image and calling himself great king (magnus rex), implying his protectorate, extending all the way to the Roman province of Pannonia. Theudebert joined the Gothic wars on the side of the Germanic tribes of the Gepids and Lombards against the Ostrogoths, adding to his possessions the provinces of Rezia, Norik and part of the Veneto region. His son and heir Theodebald, could not hold the kingdom, and after his death at the age of 20, the entire huge kingdom went to Chlothar. In 558, after death childebert, the rule of the entire Frankish state was concentrated in the hands of one king, Chlotaria.

This second division of the inheritance into four was soon disrupted by fratricidal wars, which began, according to the concubine (and subsequent wife) Chilperica I Fredegonda, due to the murder of his wife Galesvinta. Spouse sigiberta, Brunnhilde, who was also the sister of the murdered Galesvinta, incited her husband to war. The conflict between the two queens continued until the next century. Guntramn tried to achieve peace, and at the same time twice (585 and 589) tried to conquer Septimania I'm ready, but both times I was defeated. After a sudden death Charibert in 567, all the remaining brothers received their inheritance, but Chilperic was able during the wars to further increase his power, again conquering Bretons. After his death, Guntramnu needed to conquer again Bretons. Imprisoned in 587 Treaty of Andelo- in the text of which the Frankish state is explicitly called Francia-between Brunnhilda And Guntram secured the latter's protectorate over Brunnhilde's young son, Childebert II, who was the successor sigiberta, who was killed in 575. Taken together, Guntramn and Childebert's dominions were more than 3 times the size of the heir's kingdom. Chilperica, Chlotary II . In this era Frankish state consisted of three parts and such a division in the future will continue to exist in the form Neustria, Austrasia And Burgundy.

After death Guntramna in 592 Burgundy went entirely to Childebert, who also soon died (595). The kingdom was divided by his two sons, the eldest Theodebert II got austria and part Aquitaine, owned by Childebert, and the younger - Theodoric II, departed Burgundy and part Aquitaine owned by Guntramn. Together, the brothers were able to conquer most of the territory of the kingdom of Chlothar II, who eventually had only a few cities in his possession, but the brothers could not capture him himself. In 599, the brothers sent their troops to Dormel and occupied the region Dentelin, however, subsequently they ceased to trust each other and they spent the rest of their reign in enmity, which was often fomented by their grandmother Brunnhilde. She was unhappy that Theodebert excommunicated her from his court, and subsequently convinced Theodoric to overthrow his older brother and kill him. This happened in 612 and the entire state of his father Childebert was again in the same hands. However, this did not last long, since Theodoric died in 613 preparing a military campaign against Chlothar, leaving an illegitimate son, Sigibert II, who at that time was about 10 years old. Among the results of the reign of the brothers Theudebert and Theodoric was a successful military campaign in Gascony, where they founded Duchy of Vasconia, and the conquest of the Basques (602). This first conquest of Gascony also brought them lands south of the Pyrenees, namely Biscay and Gipuzkoa; however, in 612 the Visigoths received them. On the opposite side of your state Alemanni during the uprising, Theodoric was defeated and the Franks lost their power over the tribes living beyond the Rhine. Theudebert extorted the Duchy of Alsace from Theodoric in 610, setting off a long conflict over ownership of the region. Alsace between Austrasia and Burgundy. This conflict will end only at the end of the 17th century.

As a result of the civil strife of the representatives of the house of the ruling dynasty - the Merovingians, power gradually passed into the hands of the mayors, who held the positions of administrators of the royal court. During the short young life of Sigibert II, the position mayor's house, which had previously been rarely seen in the kingdoms of the Franks, began to take a leading role in the political structure, and groups of Frankish nobility began to unite around the majors of Barnachar II, Rado and Pepin of Landen in order to deprive real power Brunnhilde, great-grandmother of the young king, and hand over power Chlotariu. Varnahar himself had already held the post by this time. Mayor of Austrasia, while Rado and Pepin received these positions as a reward for a successful coup d'état Chlotaria, the execution of the seventy-year-old Brunnhilde and the assassination of the ten-year-old king.

Immediately after his victory, the great-grandson of Clovis Chlothar II in 614 proclaimed the Edict of Chlothar II (also known as Edict of Paris), which is generally considered a set of concessions and indulgences for the Frankish nobility (this point of view has recently been questioned). Regulations edict were primarily aimed at ensuring justice and stopping corruption in the state, however edict also fixed the zonal features of the three kingdoms of the Franks and, probably, endowed representatives of the nobility with greater rights to appoint judicial bodies. By 623 representatives Austrasia began to insistently demand the appointment of their own king, since Chlothar was very often absent from the kingdom, and also because he was considered a stranger there, due to his upbringing and previous reign in the Seine river basin. Satisfying this demand, Chlothar granted his son Dagobert I the reign Austrasia and that was duly approved by the warriors of Austrasia. However, despite the fact that Dagobert had full power in his kingdom, Chlothar retained unconditional control over the entire Frankish state.

During the years of joint government Chlotaria And Dagobert, often referred to as "the last ruling Merovingians", not fully subjugated since the late 550s Saxons, rebelled under the leadership of Duke Bertoald, but were defeated by the joint troops of father and son and re-incorporated into Frankish state. After Chlothar 's death in 628 , Dagobert , by his father 's will , granted part of the kingdom to his younger brother Charibert II . This part of the kingdom was re-formed and named Aquitaine. Geographically, it corresponded to the southern half of the former Romanesque province of Aquitaine and its capital was in Toulouse. Also included in this kingdom were the cities of Cahors, Agen, Périgueux, Bordeaux and Saintes; Duchy of Vasconia was also included among his lands. Charibert successfully fought with Basques, but after his death they rebelled again (632). At the same times Bretons protested Frankish rule. The Breton king Judikael, under the threat of Dagobert to send troops, relented and concluded an agreement with the Franks on which he paid tribute (635). In the same year, Dagobert sent troops to pacify Basque, which was successfully completed.

Meanwhile, by order of Dagobert, Chilperic of Aquitaine, Charibert's heir, was killed, and that's it. Frankish state was again in the same hands (632), despite the fact that in 633 the influential nobility Austrasia forced Dagobert to appoint his son Sigibert III as their king. This was facilitated in every possible way by the “top” of Austrasia, who wanted to have their own separate rule, since aristocrats prevailed at the royal court Neustria. Chlothar reigned in Paris for decades before becoming king in Metz; also Merovingian dynasty at all times after it was primarily a monarchy Neustria. In fact, the first mention of "Neustria" in the annals occurs in the 640s. This delay in reference to "Austrasia" is probably because the Neustrians (who constituted the majority of writers of the time) referred to their lands simply as "Frankia". Burgundy in those days also opposes itself with respect to Neustria. However, during the time of Gregory of Tours, there were Austrasians, who were considered a people isolated within the kingdom, and took rather drastic actions to gain independence. Dagobert, in his dealings with Saxons, Alamanni, Turings, as well as with Slavs, who lived outside the Frankish state, and whom he intended to force to pay tribute, but was defeated by them in the Battle of Wogastisburg, invited all representatives of the eastern peoples to the court Neustria, but not Austrasia. It was this that made Austrasia ask for its own king in the first place.

Young sigibert rules under the influence Major of Grimoald the Elder. It was he who persuaded the childless king to adopt his own son, Childebert. After the death of Dagobert in 639, Duke Radulf of Thuringia staged a rebellion and attempted to proclaim himself king. He defeated Sigibert, after which there was a major turning point in the development of the ruling dynasty (640). During the military campaign, the king lost the support of many nobles, and the weakness of the monarchical institutions of that time was proved by the inability of the king to conduct effective military operations without the support of the nobility; for example, the king was unable even to provide his own guard without the loyal support of Grimoald and Adalgisel. Often it is Sigebert III who is considered the first of lazy kings(fr. Roi fineeant), and not because he didn’t do anything, but because he didn’t finish much.

The Frankish nobility was able to control all the activities of the kings thanks to the right to influence the appointment of majordoms. The separatism of the nobility led to the fact that Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitaine became more and more isolated from each other. Ruled in them in the 7th century. so-called. "lazy kings" had neither authority nor material resources.

The reign of the mayordoms

Carolingian period

Frankish state at the death of Pepin 768 and the conquest of Charlemagne

Pepin strengthened his position in 754 by entering into a coalition with Pope Stephen II, who, in a luxurious ceremony in Paris at Saint-Denis, presented the King of the Franks with a copy of a false charter known as Gift of Constantine, anointing Pepin and his family to the kingdom and proclaiming him Defender of the Catholic Church(lat. patricius Romanorum). A year later, Pepin fulfilled his promise to the pope and returned the Exarchate of Ravenna to the papacy, having won it back from the Lombards. Pepin will give as a gift to the pope as Pipin's gift conquered lands around Rome, laying the foundations of the papal state. The papacy had every reason to believe that the restoration of the monarchy among the Franks would create a revered basis of power (lat. potestas) in the form of a new world order centered on the Pope.

Around the same time (773-774), Charles conquered the Lombards after which Northern Italy came under his influence. He resumed donations to the Vatican and promised the papacy protection from Frankish state.

Thus, Charles created a state extending from the Pyrenees in the southwest (in fact, after 795, it included the territories northern Spain(Spanish mark)) through almost the entire territory of modern France (with the exception of Brittany, which was never conquered by the Franks) to the east, including most of modern Germany, as well as the northern regions of Italy and modern Austria. In the church hierarchy, bishops and abbots strove to obtain the guardianship of the royal court, where, in fact, the primary sources of patronage and protection were located. Karl fully proved himself as the leader of the western part Christendom and his patronage of monastic intellectual centers was the beginning of the so-called period Carolingian Revival. Along with this, under Charles, a large palace was built in Aachen, many roads and a water canal.

The final division of the Frankish state

As a result, the Frankish state was divided as follows:

• The West Frankish kingdom was ruled by Charles the Bald. This kingdom is the harbinger of modern France. It consisted of the following large fiefs: Aquitaine, Brittany, Burgundy, Catalonia, Flanders, Gascony, Septimania, Île-de-France and Toulouse. After 987 the kingdom became known as France, since the representatives of the new ruling dynasty of the Capetians were originally Dukes of Île-de-France.

• The Median Kingdom, whose lands were wedged between East and West Francia, was ruled by Lothair I. The kingdom formed as a result of the Treaty of Verdun, which included the Kingdom of Italy, Burgundy, Provence and the western part of Austrasia, was an "artificial" entity that had no ethnic or historical commonality. This kingdom was divided in 869 after the death of Lothair II into Lorraine, Provence (moreover, Burgundy was in turn divided between Provence and Lorraine), as well as northern Italy.

• The East Frankish kingdom was ruled by Louis II of Germany. It contained four duchies: Swabia (Alemannia), Franconia, Saxony and Bavaria; to which later, after the death of Lothair II, the eastern parts of Lotharingia were added. This division continued until 1268, when the Hohenstaufen dynasty ended. Otto I was crowned on February 2, 962, which marked the beginning of the history of the Holy Roman Empire (the idea Translatio imperii). Since the 10th century East Frankia also became known as Teutonic kingdom(lat. regnum Teutonicum) or Kingdom of Germany, and this name became dominant during the era of the Salian dynasty. From this time, after the coronation of Conrad II, the title began to be used Holy Roman Emperor.

Society in the Frankish state

Legislation

Various tribes francs, for example, the Salian Franks, the Ripuarian Franks and the Hamavs, had various legal regulations, which were systematized and consolidated much later, mainly during Charlemagne. Under the Carolingians, the so-called barbarian codes -

The Frankish state occupied vast territories in Central and Western Europe, until the 5th century. were part of the Western Roman Empire. The chronological framework for the existence of Frankia is 481-843. Over the 4 centuries of its existence, the country has gone from a barbarian kingdom to a centralized empire.

Three cities were the capitals of the state at different times:

• Tour;
• Paris;
• Aachen.

The country was ruled by representatives of two dynasties:

• From 481 to 751 - Merovingians;
• From 751 to 843 - Carolingians (the dynasty itself appeared earlier - in 714).

The most prominent rulers under whom the Frankish state reached the peak of its power were Charles Martell, Pepin the Short and.

The rise of Frankia under Clovis

In the middle of the 3rd century, the Frankish tribes invaded the Roman Empire for the first time. They twice made attempts to occupy Roman Gaul, but both times they were expelled. In the 4th-5th century. The Roman Empire began to be increasingly attacked by barbarians, which included the Franks.

By the end of the 5th c. part of the Franks settled on the coast of the Rhine - within the modern city of Cologne (at that time it was the settlement of Colonia). They began to be called Rhenish or Ripuarian francs. Another part of the Frankish tribes lived north of the Rhine, so they were called northern or salic. They were ruled by the Merovingian family, whose representatives founded the first Frankish state.

In 481, the Merovingians were led by Clovis, the son of the deceased King Childeric. Clovis was greedy for power, mercenary and sought to expand the borders of the kingdom through conquest at all costs. From 486, Clovis began to subjugate the outlying Roman cities, the population of which voluntarily passed under the authority of the Frankish ruler. As a result, he got the opportunity to bestow property and land on his close associates. Thus began the formation of the Frankish nobility, who recognized themselves as vassals of the king.

At the beginning of the 490s. Clovis married Chrodechild, who was the daughter of the king of Burgundy. The wife had a huge influence on the actions of the king of Frankia. Chrodechild considered her main task to be the spread of Christianity in the kingdom. On this basis, disputes constantly occurred between her and the king. The children of Chrodechild and Clovis were baptized, but the king himself remained a staunch pagan. However, he understood that the baptism of the Franks would strengthen the prestige of the kingdom in the international arena. The approach of the war with the Alamanni forced Clovis to radically change his views. After the Battle of Tolbiac in 496, in which the Franks defeated the Alamanni, Clovis decided to convert to Christianity. At that time, in Western Europe, in addition to the classical Western Roman version of Christianity, the Arian heresy also dominated. Clovis wisely opted for the first creed.

The rite of baptism was performed by the bishop of Reims, Remigius, who converted the king and his soldiers to the new faith. To enhance the significance of the event for the country, the whole of Reims was decorated with ribbons and flowers, a font was installed in the church, and a huge number of candles burned. The baptism of Frankia elevated Clovis above other Germanic rulers who disputed their right to supremacy in Gaul.

The main opponent of Clovis in this region were the Goths, led by Alaric II. The decisive battle of the Franks and the Goths took place in 507 at Vuille (or Poitiers). The Franks won a major victory, but they failed to completely subjugate the Gothic kingdom. At the last moment, the ruler of the Ostrogoths, Theodoric, came to the aid of Alaric.

At the beginning of the 6th c. the Byzantine emperor honored the Frankish king with the titles of proconsul and patrician, which elevated Clovis as a Christian ruler.

Throughout his reign, Clovis asserted his rights to Gaul. An important step in this direction was the transfer of the royal court from Tournai to Lutetia (modern Paris). Lutetia was not only a well-fortified and developed city, but also the center of all Gaul.

Clovis had many more ambitious plans, but they were not destined to be realized. The last great deed of the Frankish king was the unification of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks.

Frankish state in the 6th-7th centuries.

Clovis had four sons - Theodoric, Childerbert, Chlodomer and Chlothar, who, unlike their wise father, did not see the point in creating a single centralized state. Immediately after his death, the kingdom was divided into four parts with capitals in:

• Reims (Theodoric);
• Orleans (Chlodomer);
• Paris (Hilderbert);
• Soissons (Chlothar).

This division weakened the kingdom, but did not prevent the Franks from conducting successful military campaigns. The most significant victories for the Frankish kingdom include successful campaigns against the Thuringian and Burgundian kingdoms. They were conquered and incorporated into Frankia.

After Khdodvig's death, the kingdom plunged into internecine wars for two hundred years. Twice the country was under the rule of one ruler. The first time this happened was in 558, when the youngest son of Clovis Chlothar the First was able to unite all parts of the kingdom. But his reign lasted only three years, and civil strife again swept the country. The second time to unite the Frankish kingdom was only in 613, Chlothar the Second, who ruled the country until 628.

The results of long civil strife were:

• Constant change of internal borders;
• Confrontation between relatives;
• Murders;
• Drawing combatants and ordinary peasants into the political confrontation;
• Political rivalry;
• Lack of central authority;
• Cruelty and promiscuity;
• Trample of Christian values;
• Reducing the authority of the church;
• Enrichment of the military estate due to constant campaigns and robberies.

Socio-economic development under the Merovingians

Despite the political fragmentation of the 6th-7th centuries, it was at this time that Frankish society experienced a rapid development of social ties. The basis of the social structure was feudalism, which arose even under Clovis. The king of the Franks was the supreme suzerain, granting land to his vassals-rescuemen in exchange for faithful service. Thus, two main forms of land ownership arose:

• hereditary;
• Alienable.

The combatants, receiving land for their service, gradually grew rich and became large feudal landowners.

There was a separation from the general mass and the strengthening of noble families. Their power undermined the power of the king, which resulted in the gradual strengthening of the positions of mayordoms - managers at the royal court.

The changes also affected the peasant community-brand. The peasants received land in private ownership, which caused an acceleration of the processes of property and social stratification. Some people got fabulously rich, while others lost everything. Landless peasants quickly fell into dependence on the feudal lords. There were two forms of peasant enslavement in the early medieval kingdom of the Franks:

1. Through comments. The impoverished peasant asked the feudal lord to establish patronage over him and transferred his lands to him for this, recognizing his personal dependence on the patron. In addition to the transfer of the land allotment, the poor man was obliged to follow any instructions of the seigneur;
2. Through the baker - a special agreement between the feudal lord and the peasant, according to which the latter received a plot of land for use in exchange for the performance of duties;

In most cases, the impoverishment of the peasant inevitably led to the loss of personal freedom. In a matter of decades, most of the population of Frankia was enslaved.

Board of mayordoms

By the end of the 7th c. royal power was no longer an authority in the Frankish kingdom. All the levers of power were concentrated at the mayors, whose position in the late 7th - early 8th centuries. became hereditary. This led to the fact that the rulers of the Merovingian dynasty lost control of the country.

At the beginning of the 8th c. legislative and executive power passed to the noble Frankish family of the Martells. Then the position of the royal mayor was taken by Karl Martell, who carried out a number of important reforms:

• On his initiative, a new form of ownership arose - beneficiaries. All lands and peasants included in the beneficiaries became conditional own vassals. The right to hold a beneficiary had only persons who performed military service. Leaving the service also meant the loss of benefits. The right to distribute benefices belonged to large landowners and the mayor. The result of this reform was the formation of a strong vassal-fief system;
• The army was reformed, within the framework of which a mobile cavalry army was created;
• The vertical of power was strengthened;
• The entire territory of the state was divided into districts, headed by counts appointed directly by the king. Judicial, military and administrative power was concentrated in the hands of each count.

The results of the reforms of Charles Martel were:

• Rapid growth and strengthening of the feudal system;
• Strengthening the judicial and financial systems;
• The growth of the power and power of the feudal lords;
• Increasing the rights of landowners, especially large ones. At that time, in the Frankish kingdom, there was a practice of distributing immunity letters, which could only be issued by the head of state. Having received such a document, the feudal lord became a full owner in the subject territories;
• Destruction of the property donation system;
• Confiscation of property from churches and monasteries.

Martel was succeeded by his son Pepin (751), who, unlike his father, was crowned. And already his son - Charles, nicknamed the Great, in 809 became the first emperor of the Franks.

During the reign of the mayordoms, the state became much stronger. The new state system was characterized by two phenomena:

• The complete liquidation of local authorities that existed until the middle of the 8th century;
• Strengthening the power of the king.

The kings received wide powers of authority. First, they had the right to call a people's assembly. Secondly, they formed a militia, a squad and an army. Thirdly, they issued orders that applied to all residents of the country. Fourthly, they had the right to hold the post of supreme commander in chief. Fifthly, the kings administered justice. And finally, sixthly, they collected taxes. All orders of the sovereign were binding. If this did not happen, the violator was expected to have a huge fine, corporal punishment or the death penalty.

The judicial system in the country looked like this:

• The king has the highest judicial power;
• In the localities, cases were first dealt with by the courts of the communities, and then by the feudal lords.

Thus, Charles Martell not only changed the country, but created all the conditions for the further centralization of the state, its political unity and the strengthening of royal power.

Carolingian rule

In 751, King Pepin the Short ascended the throne from a new dynasty, which was called the Carolingians (after Charlemagne, son of Pepin). The new ruler was not tall, for which he went down in history under the nickname "Short". He succeeded Hillderic the Third, the last representative of the Merovingian family, on the throne. Pepin received a blessing from the Pope, who consecrated his ascension to the royal throne. For this, the new ruler of the Frankish kingdom provided the Vatican with military assistance as soon as the Pope applied for it. In addition, Pepin was a zealous Catholic, supported the church, strengthened its positions, and gave extensive possessions. As a result, the Pope recognized the Carolingian family as the legitimate heirs to the throne of the Franks. The head of the Vatican declared that any attempt to overthrow the king would be punishable by excommunication.

The administration of the state after the death of Pepin passed to his two sons Charles and Carloman, who died soon after. All power was concentrated in the hands of the eldest son, Pepin the Short. The new ruler received a remarkable education for his time, knew the Bible perfectly, went in for several sports, was well versed in politics, spoke classical and folk Latin, as well as his native Germanic language. Carl studied all his life, because he was naturally inquisitive. This hobby led to the fact that the sovereign founded a system of educational institutions throughout the country. So the population began to gradually learn to read, count, write and study the sciences.

But the most significant successes of Charles were the reforms aimed at the unification of France. First, the king improved the administrative division of the country: he defined the boundaries of the regions and planted in each of his governors.

Then the ruler began to expand the borders of his state:

• In the early 770s. conducted a series of successful campaigns against the Saxons and Italian states. Then he received a blessing from the Pope and went on a campaign against Lombardy. Having broken the resistance of local residents, he annexed the country to France. At the same time, the Vatican repeatedly used the services of Charles's troops to pacify their recalcitrant subjects, who from time to time raised uprisings;
• In the second half of the 770s. continued the fight against the Saxons;
• Fought with the Arabs in Spain, where he tried to protect the Christian population. In the late 770s - early 780s. founded a number of kingdoms in the Pyrenees - Aquitaine, Toulouse, Septimania, which were to become springboards for the fight against the Arabs;
• In 781 he created the Italian kingdom;
• In the 780s and 790s, he defeated the Avars, thanks to which the borders of the state were expanded to the east. In the same period, he broke the resistance of Bavaria, including the duchy in the empire;
• Karl had problems with the Slavs who lived on the borders of the state. In different periods of government, the tribes of the Sorbs and Luticians offered stiff resistance to Frankish domination. The future emperor managed not only to break them, but also to force them to recognize themselves as his vassals.

When the borders of the state were expanded to the maximum, the king took up the pacification of the recalcitrant peoples. In different regions of the empire, uprisings constantly broke out. The Saxons and Avars caused the most problems. Wars with them were accompanied by great loss of life, destruction, hostage-taking and migration.

In the last years of his reign, Charles faced new problems - the attacks of the Danes and Vikings.

In the domestic policy of Charles, the following points are worth noting:

• Establishing a clear procedure for the collection of the people's militia;
• Strengthening the borders of the state by creating border areas - marks;
• Destruction of the power of the dukes who claimed the power of the sovereign;
• Convocation of Diets twice a year. In the spring, all people endowed with personal freedom were invited to such a meeting, and in the fall, representatives of the higher clergy, administration and nobility came to the court;
• Development of agriculture;
• The erection of monasteries and new cities;
• Support for Christianity. Especially for the needs of the church in the country, a tax was introduced - tithe.

In 800 Charles was proclaimed emperor. This great warrior and ruler died of a fever in 814. The remains of Charlemagne were buried in Aachen. From now on, the late emperor began to be considered the patron of the city.

After the death of his father, the imperial throne passed to his eldest son, Louis the First Pious. This was the beginning of a new tradition, which meant the onset of a new period in the history of France. The power of the father, like the territory of the country, was no longer to be divided between the sons, but passed on by seniority - from father to son. But this caused a new wave of internecine wars already for the right to own the imperial title among the descendants of Charlemagne. This weakened the state so much that the Vikings, who reappeared in France in 843, easily captured Paris. They were driven out only after the payment of a huge ransom. The Vikings left France for a while. But in the mid-880s. they reappeared near Paris. The siege of the city lasted more than a year, but the French capital withstood.

Representatives of the Carolingian dynasty were removed from power in 987. The last ruler of the Charlemagne family was Louis V. Then the highest aristocracy chose a new ruler for themselves - Hugo Capet, who founded the Capetian dynasty.

The Frankish state was the greatest country of the medieval world. Under the rule of his kings were vast territories, many peoples and even other sovereigns who became vassals of the Merovingians and Carolingians. The heritage of the Franks can still be found in the history, culture and traditions of the modern French, Italian and German nations. The formation of the country and the flowering of its power is associated with the names of prominent political figures who forever left their traces in the history of Europe.

Political system. The state of the Franks cannot be called united. After a short unity during the reign of Clovis, Neustria (New Western Kingdom), Burgundy and Austrasia (Eastern Kingdom) and Aquitaine (southern part) stand apart on the territory of the state. The period of the Merovingian rule is characterized, firstly, by the gradual degeneration of the organs of the tribal organization into the organs of the state, secondly, the decline in the role of local government bodies, and, thirdly, the formation of the state in the form of an early feudal monarchy.

Immunity letters, which the king issued to his vassals, provided the latter with a number of powers in the territory under his control.

The formulas were samples of documents that were kept in the offices of secular and spiritual institutions and served as a kind of standard for making various kinds of transactions: purchase and sale, loans, etc.

Among the written sources, the Salic truth is of the greatest interest for research, since it revealed the features of the social and state system, transitional from a tribal community to a state.

Salic truth. The original text of the Salic truth, the formation of which took place during the reign of Clovis, has not reached us. The most ancient manuscripts date back to the times of Pepin the Short and Charlemagne. Salic truth played the role of a judge, that is, it served as a source that guided state officials, in particular judges, in the administration of justice. It was an unsystematic record of disparate legal customs that reflected the remnants of the tribal system, such as expulsion from the community for committing a crime, etc.

The norms of the legal monument are characterized by formalism and casuistry. Formalism can be traced in the establishment of a strict order of legal actions associated with symbols and rituals. Violation of these actions, non-observance of the rituals established by the norms of law led to the nullity (invalidity) of this or that action. So, the law demanded in one case to pronounce strictly defined words, in the other - to break the branches "by the measure of a cubit". The casuistry of the norms of criminal law, fixed by the Salic truth, is beyond doubt, because they dealt not with general concepts, but with specific incidents (cases).

Although the Salic truth includes the norms of all legal institutions, it is characterized by incompleteness and fragmentation. At the same time, the Salic truth reflects the significant role that religious institutions played in society, adjacent to legal norms (the use of oaths, ordeals in legal proceedings to remove charges from a person), shows the process of decomposition of tribal relations, which is associated with the property stratification of society, gives an idea of the social system of the Franks at the beginning of the 6th century.

Property relations. The norms of the Salic truth fixed two types of land ownership: communal (collective) and family-wide. Pasture lands and lands occupied by forest lands were collectively owned by the community, household plots and arable lands were in the common family property. The existence of communal property among the Franks is evidenced by the title "On Settlers". The stranger could stay in the village only with the consent of every single villager. The execution of the decision of the community court on the eviction of a stranger was carried out by the count. However, if a newcomer managed to live without protest from members of the community for one year and one day, he acquired the right to settle by prescription. The existence of family property is evidenced by the strict liability of the perpetrators for arson or destruction of the fence of the land allotted to the family. The land plot was not subject to sale and purchase. The law allowed only its inheritance by children through the male line. At the end of the VI century. it became possible to transfer land to other relatives, including the daughters and sisters of the deceased. This was enshrined in the edict of King Chilperic. At the beginning of the 7th century the Franks already, no doubt, received the right to dispose of both household and arable land.

Movable property was in personal ownership. It was freely alienated and passed on by inheritance.

Commitment relationship. The institution of contract law was in its infancy due to the underdevelopment of commodity-money relations. The code of laws did not contain general conditions for the validity of contracts, but only fixed the need to reach an agreement between the parties when concluding certain types of contracts. In case of non-performance of the contract, the property liability of the debtor occurred. If the debtor refused to repay the debt (return the thing), the court obligated him not only to fulfill the contract, but also to pay a fine. The law also provided for the personal liability of the debtor in the form of debt slavery.

Sudebnik fixed such types of contracts as purchase and sale, loan, loan, exchange and donation. The conclusion of the contract, as a rule, took place publicly.

Salic truth contains norms concerning the emergence of obligations as a result of causing harm as a result of a crime.

Inheritance. The Franks had two types of inheritance: by law and by will.

Land property, when inherited by law, first passed to males. In the VI century. the law allowed daughters to inherit in the absence of sons; in their absence, father, mother, brother, sister and other relatives from the paternal side became heirs.

The Salic truth fixed inheritance by will in the form of the so-called affatomy (donation). It consisted in the fact that the testator transferred the property belonging to him to a trustee (intermediary) and obligated him to transfer the property to the heir (heirs) no later than a year later. The affatomy procedure was carried out publicly in the people's assembly in compliance with formalities and a special procedure.

Marriage and family law. The norms of marriage and family law, reflected in the Salic Truth, revealed issues related to the conclusion and dissolution of marriage, as well as family relations.

The form of marriage was the purchase of a bride by the groom. This was preceded by the consent of the parents of the bride and groom. Bride kidnapping was punishable by a fine. Marriages between relatives and marriages between freemen and slaves were forbidden. The marriage of a slave and a free man entailed the loss of freedom for the latter.

The man in the family occupied a dominant place. The husband exercised custody of his wife and children: boys - up to 12 years of age, girls - before marriage. After the death of her husband, the widow fell under the guardianship of adult sons or other heirs of the deceased. Although the wife had her own property (dowry), she could not dispose of it without the permission of her husband.

Divorce was originally allowed only at the initiative of the husband. A husband could divorce only if his wife was unfaithful or committed certain crimes. A wife who left her husband was subject to the death penalty. In the 8th century Charlemagne established the indissolubility of marriage.

Criminal law. This legal institution was not developed, bore the imprints of the tribal system. This is evidenced by the casuistic nature of legal norms, the high amounts of fines, the consolidation of objective imputation (responsibility without fault), and the persistence of the remnants of blood feud. So, the judge gave the victim the opportunity to deal with the guilty, if the latter was caught at the scene of the crime.

In addition, the Salic truth reinforces the prevailing social inequality and, when determining sanctions for a crime, proceeds from the class position of the victim, and sometimes from the class position of the offender.

The Franks understood the crime as the infliction of harm to person and property and the violation of the royal "peace". All the crimes described in the Salic truth can be grouped into five groups: 1) violation of the king's orders; 2) crimes against a person (murder, bodily harm, etc.); crimes against property (theft, breaking someone else's fence, etc.); 4) crimes against morality (violence against a free girl); 5) crimes against justice (perjury, failure to appear in court).

The norms of the Salic truth contain provisions regarding aggravating circumstances, such as complicity, murder in a campaign, an attempt to hide the traces of a crime. There is the concept of incitement to theft and murder.

The Franks understood punishment as compensation for harm to the victim or members of his family and the payment of a fine to the king for violating the royal “peace”. Instead of blood feud, the Salic truth begins to provide for the payment of a fine. For the murder, a fine was imposed in favor of the relatives of the murdered, the so-called wergeld (the price of a person). The size of the wergeld was determined by the social position of the slain. Different punishments were applied to freemen and slaves. The free were sentenced to pay a fine and be expelled from the community (outlawing). When committing property crimes, the perpetrator, in addition, recovered losses, and when causing harm to health - funds for the treatment of the victim. When expelled from the community, the guilty, as a rule, had their property confiscated. Slaves were subjected to the death penalty, mutilation and corporal punishment.

The trial on the Salic truth was of an accusatory nature. The evidence of the fact of the commission of a crime was the detention of the perpetrator at the scene of the crime, the confession of the accused himself, and testimonies.

To remove the accusation, such evidence as swearing, oaths, ordeals were used; Judicial fights In case of concurrency, several persons (as a rule, 12 relatives, acquaintances of the accused) could confirm his good reputation and thereby certify that he could not commit a crime. Ordeals ("God's judgment") were used among the Franks most often in the form of a "pot test", that is, with the help of boiling water. Ordeals could be paid off by paying a fine in favor of the victim and the treasury. Judicial fights were held in the presence of judges. The feudal lords fought on horseback and in full armor, ordinary people used sticks as weapons. The one who won the duel was considered to have won the case. Torture was used against slaves to confess their guilt.

The trial proceeded as follows. At the hearing, the victim brought charges against the guilty party. The accused either admitted the charge brought against him or denied it. If found guilty, the court ruled on the merits. Otherwise, the judge proceeded to examine the evidence.

If the court recognized the guilt of the accused, the latter had to comply with the decision of the court. In case of non-execution of the court decision, the victim applied to the Rakhinburg court, which, in order to ensure the execution of the court decision, confiscated the property of the guilty person in the amount of the debt. If the convict did not agree with the decision of the Rakhinburg court, he was summoned to the court of a hundred after 40 days. In case of refusal this time to comply with the decision of the court, the victim summoned the condemned king to the court. Refusal to appear in the royal court or to comply with its decisions entailed the declaration of the guilty person. In this case, both the perpetrator and his property became the property of the victim.