The main sources of the mechanisms of the emergence of emotions. Origin and mechanism of emotions. Biological theory of emotions by P. K. Anokhin

Theories of human emotion

24.06.2017

Snezhana Ivanova

Psychological theories of emotions each interpret the emergence of emotions in a particular time period in their own way.

Emotions are an important part of our daily reality. With their help, a person has the ability to respond to ongoing events according to his internal state. It is known that sometimes emotions guide our daily actions and actions. There are several theories of emotion that explain the origin of this phenomenon. Psychological theories of emotions each interpret their occurrence in a particular time period in their own way. Let's consider them in more detail.

Theories of the emergence of emotions

evolutionary theory

This theory of emotions is based on the well-known concept of Charles Darwin. Gradually increasing is present in everything. It is also characteristic of the nature of emotions, and not only of the animal world. According to this concept, the emergence of emotions is due to a person's reaching a qualitatively different level of development. This level determines its further development. Emotions help an individual to express his feelings, to interact effectively with other people, to achieve his goals. We all live in a society and in order to feel needed, we constantly need to interact with members of our species. The evolutionary concept insists that human emotions evolved gradually, over time, from lower levels to higher ones. This theory is based on the concept that an individual's feelings develop over the years. That is, an adult is able to experience a whole range of emotions of varying degrees and can recognize a variety of feelings in himself. Children, on the other hand, often cannot explain to themselves what is happening to them, they do not know how to control their own emotional state and therefore turn out to be guided by feelings.

Rudimentary theory

This psychological theory of emotions is also quite interesting in its own way. The rudimentary concept is aimed at analyzing feelings from the point of view of the development of social consciousness. She considers the emergence of emotions as a behavioral reaction, formed under the influence of elementary instincts. Affective reactions are due to nature, they are almost impossible to control by external efforts. The rudimentary theory suggests that emotions appeared in a person under the influence of affective reactions, that is, they were originally laid down. Affective reactions, in turn, are considered as residual phenomena given to us by nature itself. They testify to the inseparable connection between man and animals. Every living being has a whole range of reactions to certain stimuli, and people are no exception here.

Psychoanalytic theory

The psychoanalytic theory of emotions was widely adopted by the research work of Sigmund Freud. This concept considers the phenomenon of the emergence of emotions through the prism of the psychological component. That is, a person spends a certain amount of energy to perceive information, ongoing events or interact with different people. The psychological component here is very important, because it affects the feelings of a person, helps him understand himself and the world around him. It allows you to track the reaction of people and your own to the words spoken or the actions taken. Psychological theory considers emotions as an integral part of everyday life. Without emotions, a person would not be able to fully exist and develop. Only by resorting to psychoanalysis, one can try to explain some of the actions of people and their individual characteristics of behavior. The analysis of feelings allows you to detect an urgent problem in time, which creates difficult situations.

A large role in determining the emotional component belongs to the unconscious. Sigmund Freud, speaking about the theory of the unconscious, noted the need to look beyond one's own capabilities. In his opinion, any psychological difficulties are based on unresolved problems of the past. Only by turning to your origins, you can actually defeat fears, doubts, insecurities and other psychological difficulties. A person contains a great potential, but cannot use it to the fullest due to the existence of restraining factors. What are these factors? Self-doubt, fear of seeming stupid, fear of new things, other behavioral reactions.

Two factor theory

Its founder is the scientist Stanley Schechter. He developed the doctrine that human emotion has two main leavings, which, in fact, govern the sphere of feelings: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation. The first component, as a rule, determines the second. In other words, at first we succumb to some kind of reaction that occurs in the depths of our unconscious, and then we try to think with our heads and explain to ourselves what actually happened. With the help of the cognitive component, a person can draw specific conclusions, come to complex conclusions, and make discoveries. The psychological orientation of the theory of emotions suggests that the individual usually passes through himself all the events that happen to him. Emotional experiences have a deep meaning: they allow you to reach a completely new level of understanding the essence of things. It is not always possible for a person to consciously explain something to himself, and then a problem arises: an intrapersonal conflict begins, since feelings continue to control him.

Need Information Theory

The author of this theory is the domestic scientist Pavel Vasilyevich Simonov. He investigated the problem of the relationship of emotions with psychological factors and revealed a close pattern between them. What is it expressed in? The fact is that every person has a need for knowledge of the world around him, as well as for self-knowledge. The desire to possess information is due to the nature of man and his individual needs. When studying something, a person experiences certain feelings, and it is they that encourage him to develop further, to learn something new. Emotions allow you to absorb complex information quickly and easily. The theory proves that if knowledge has passed through the emotional sphere, then it will not be forgotten. Everything that a person experiences through his feelings remains with him.

Theory of cognitive dissonance

Theories of emotion would be incomplete without this wonderful concept. Its founder is Leon Festinger. According to this concept, in everything a person does, he puts his feelings. Positive feelings reinforce self-confidence, while negative feelings help you achieve your goals despite the prevailing circumstances. The theory of cognitive dissonance shows that when there is some discrepancy between feelings and reality, then a person tries to improve the conditions under which he could feel more comfortable. The emergence of feelings here is associated with a negative factor, although this leads to development. This theory reveals the psychological characteristics of the individual, reveals the level of her needs and reactions.

Thus, when talking about theories of the origin of emotions, it is important to remember that each concept deserves respect. Every concept has its own undeniable right to exist. The choice of a person in everyday reality is to adhere to one of the theories of the origin of emotions, while rejecting others, or to recognize the existence of all concepts at once. This is because every person has the right to his own opinion and his own reality in which he lives all the time. The psychological aspects of each concept regarding the sphere of feelings can be called correct, since they affect different parts of one complex issue.

There is a wide range of hypotheses affecting the probable causes of emotional phenomena.

Emotion as biofeedback from organs involved in expression. One of the first concepts describing the causes of emotional experience, which has retained its significance to this day, is the concept proposed by W. James and S. Lange (James, 1884; Lange, 1895). These researchers lived in different countries and at the same time independently put forward similar ideas. They explained the emergence of emotional experience by the functioning of the feedback mechanism from the effector organs involved in the expression of emotion. According to this notion, we are sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, happy because we laugh. Thus, in this concept, the relationship between awareness of emotion and behavior

Its first expression is the opposite of the obviously observed one: awareness of the emotional state occurs after a physiological reaction.

This hypothesis was initially rejected due to the existence of a significant number of facts that contradict it. However, many researchers are now returning to it again. This is because psychotherapeutic practice relies heavily on the existence of such feedback, and includes such techniques as the need to smile to change mood, or to relax muscles to calm down.

The importance of feedback from effectors is also confirmed by neurological practice (Hohman, 1966). So, when examining patients with spinal cord injuries, a clear pattern is found, according to which, the higher the level of damage, the less the intensity of emotions experienced by these patients.

Experiments also support the value of reverse stimulation from effectors. In one of the studies, subjects were asked to change the tension of those facial muscles that corresponded to a certain emotion, but nothing was said about the emotion itself (Ekman e. a., 1983; Levenson e. a., 1990). So mimically reproduced the expression of fear, anger, surprise, disgust, grief, happiness. At the moment of muscle tension, vegetative functions were recorded. The results indicated that simulated expression did change the state of the autonomic nervous system. When anger was simulated, the heartbeat became more frequent and the body temperature rose; when fear was reproduced, the heart rate increased, but the body temperature dropped; when the state of happiness was simulated, only a slowing of the heartbeat was noted.

The physiological substantiation of the possibility of participation of reverse stimulation in the formation of psychological experience can be such a sequence of events. During a person's life, classical conditioned reflexes are formed, associatively linking changes in the facial muscles with one or another state of the autonomic nervous system. That is why feedback from the facial muscles can be accompanied by vegetative changes.

So far, there is no reason to reject the possibility that these connections may be innate. Evidence of the possibility of such an assumption may be the fact that when observing other people's emotions, people involuntarily repeat them. Any of those reading these lines, looking at the drawing (Fig. 13.6), cannot intuitively follow the emotion depicted on it.

It is possible that the conditioned reflex connection connecting emotional manifestation and mental experiences arises at very early stages of ontogenesis in the corresponding critical period. It can be so close to the moment of birth and be so brief that it leads to an illusory idea of ​​the innate nature of this kind of connection.

Emotion as the activity of brain structures. W. Cannon (Cannon, 1927) and P. Bard (Bard, 1929) proposed a concept, the essence of which is

that psychological awareness and physiological response in the process of emotional response occurs almost at the same time. Information about the emotional signal enters the thalamus, from it simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, which leads to awareness, and to the hypothalamus, which leads to a change in the body's vegetative status (Fig. 13.8). Further research has revealed a significant number of brain structures involved in the formation of emotion.

Hypothalamus. With using the technique of self-irritation, the pleasure center was discovered (Olds, Fobes, 1981). In such an experiment, electrodes implanted in the brain of a rat, a pedal contact, and a source of electric current are included in one circuit. Moving, the rat could press the pedal. If the electrodes were implanted in the area of ​​the lateral hypothalamus, then after a single pressing the rat did not stop doing it. Some of them stepped on the pedal up to 1000 times an hour and died because they stopped performing the actions necessary for survival.

The emotional state of an animal can be changed by introducing certain biologically active substances into certain areas of the hypothalamus (Iktmoto and Panksepp, 1996). The role of this brain structure in emotional response has been demonstrated many times. In the lateral hypothalamus

Rice. 13.8. The Kennon-Bard model assumes the simultaneous flow of information from the thalamus to the cortex and subcortical structures.

soul, two types of neurons have been identified that respond differently to emotional situations. One type of neurons was called motivational, since it showed maximum activity in motivational behavior, and the other type was called reinforcing, since these cells were activated when the animal was satiated (Zaichenko et al., 1995).

Tonsil (amygdala). X. Kluver and P. Bucy (Kluver, Bucy, 1939) removed the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex in monkeys and described a syndrome later named after them. In the monkey, which was an aggressive alpha male before the operation, after extirpation of the temporal lobe, the former aggressiveness and fear disappeared, but hypersexuality was revealed. On the one hand, these data indicate the importance of the temporal lobes for the development of aggression; on the other hand, they demonstrate the existence of a reciprocal relationship between sexuality and aggressiveness. This contradicts the view of K. Lorenz (Lorenz, 1969), who asserted the identity of aggressiveness and male sexuality, since, from his point of view, sexual behavior is an integral part of aggressive behavior.

It has been established that Klüver-Bucy syndrome is caused by the absence of the amygdala. It has now been proven that this structure forms the body's response to an aversive stimulus (causing an avoidance response). Any emotional response is associated with the circumstances in which it occurs. This is how a classic conditioned reflex is developed, where the reinforcement is one or another emotional state of the body. This type of learning is called conditioned emotional response.

The amygdala plays a role in several types of emotional behavior: aggression, fear, disgust, maternal behavior. This structure is the focus of the sensory and effector systems, responsible for the behavioral, autonomic and hormonal components of the conditioned emotional response, activating the corresponding neural circles located in the hypothalamus and brain stem.

J.E. LeDoux (1987) showed that the central nucleus of the amygdala is necessary for the development of a conditioned emotional response, since in its absence it was not possible to develop a reflex (Fig. 13.9). As can be seen from the figure, the amygdala is associated with the lateral hypothalamus, which is responsible for the autonomic component of the emotional response, and with the periaqueductal gray matter, which organizes the behavioral response. The amygdala also has projections to the hypothalamus involved in the release of stress hormones. That is why irritation of the central nucleus of the tonsil leads to ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract. However, when the tonsil is surgically removed, an ulcer does not form under stress. Apparently, it implements this function through the caudate nucleus.

Sensory association cortex analyzes complex stimuli of sufficient complexity. Although individual emotional reactions in a person are caused by simple stimuli, most of them are quite complex, for example, the appearance of a person in the field of vision. The amygdala receives information from the inferior temporal cortex and the cortex of the temporal tubercle. To the latter are projections from the visual, auditory and

Rice. 13.9. Involvement of the amygdala in the formation of a conditioned emotional response (Carlson, 1992).

somatosensory association cortex. Thus, the amygdala has information of any modality.

D well. L. Downer in the experiment destroyed the left amygdala in monkeys, simultaneously performing commissurotomy (Downer, 1961). Thus, the left half of the brain was deprived of the structure synthesizing information from all sensory inputs, and could not compensate for this lack of information from the right hemisphere. Prior to the operation, touching the monkey caused an aggressive reaction. After the operation, this behavior was evoked only when the animal looked with the right eye. When viewed with the left eye, there was no aggressiveness. This suggests, in particular, that the right hemisphere of the brain is of particular importance for emotional reactions.

The role of the thalamus in the implementation of the conditioned emotional response. Most of the emotional reactions are quite primitive, since they arose quite early on the path of evolutionary development. The destruction of the auditory cortex does not entail the absence of an emotional conditioned response, while the destruction of the thalamus inevitably leads to the impossibility of its development.

For the formation of a conditioned emotional response to sound, the medial part of the medial geniculate body, which sends auditory information to the primary auditory cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, must be preserved (Fig. 13.10). In addition, the neurons of the medial geniculate body project into the amygdala. The destruction of these connections leads to the impossibility of developing an emotional conditioned response to a sound signal. In the same way, in order to develop a conditioned emotional response to a visual signal, the lateral geniculate bodies that carry visual information to the brain must be preserved.

Orbitofrontal cortex located at the base of the frontal lobes (Fig. 13.11). It has direct inputs from the dorsomedial thalamus, temporal cortex, and ventromedial tegmental area. Indirect connections go to it from the amygdala and olfactory cortex, are projected into the singular cortex, the hippocampal system, the temporal cortex, the lateral hypothalamus, and the amygdala. It is connected in multiple ways to other areas of the frontal lobes of the brain.

Rice. 13.10. Medial section of the brain through the medial geniculate body, which receives information from the auditory systems and projects to subcortical structures (Carlson, 1992)

The role of the orbitofrontal cortex first began to be determined in the middle of the 19th century. Important information about the function of this area in emotional behavior was provided by the case of the bomber Phineas Gage. The metal rod ejected by the explosion pierced the frontal part of his brain. Gage survived, but his behavior changed significantly. If before the injury he was serious and thorough, then after this incident he turned into a frivolous and irresponsible person. His behavior was characterized by childishness and carelessness, it was difficult for him to draw up a plan for future actions, and his actions themselves were capricious and random.

Rice. 13.11. Orbitofrontal cortex.

Such injuries reduce the processes of inhibition and self-concentration, change personal interests. Back in the 40s of the XX century, a lot of material was collected on the role of the orbitofrontal cortex in emotional behavior. Most of the data indicated that damage to it, changing the emotional sphere of a person, does not affect the intellectual level.

For example, in one curious case, a person suffered from a syndrome of obsession, which manifested itself in the constant washing of hands. This anomaly prevented him from leading a normal life and eventually led to a suicide attempt. The patient shot himself in the head through the mouth, but survived, although he damaged the frontal cortex. At the same time, obsession disappeared, and the intellectual level remained the same.

Numerous studies on the destruction of the orbitofrontal cortex,

conducted on animals, testified to a significant change in their behavior: the disappearance of aggressiveness and the absence of visible intellectual deviations. This led the Portuguese scientist Egas Moniz to the idea of ​​convincing neurosurgeons to perform a similar operation on humans. He believed that such an operation could remove a pathological emotional state from aggressive psychopaths, while keeping their intelligence intact. Several such operations were actually carried out, and their results confirmed the original thought of the author. For this, E. Moniz received the Nobel Prize in 1949.

Later, this operation, called lobotomy performed on thousands of patients. Especially many of these surgical interventions were performed on American soldiers who returned after World War II with a syndrome that later became known as the “Vietnamese”, “Afghan”, etc. an alarming situation to start a physical attack without having time to consider whether such a reaction is justified. In all other respects, they do not differ from the norm, being, moreover, physically healthy and able-bodied. It is now obvious that E. Monitz was wrong, since lobotomy leads not only to a decrease in the intellectual level, but, no less important, to irresponsible behavior. Such patients cease to plan their actions, to be responsible for them and, as a result, lose their ability to work and the ability to live independently. Lobotomy as an operation was quite well developed and was carried out not even in the operating room, but in a regular doctor's office. It was performed with a special knife called transorbital leisotome. The surgeon, using a wooden mallet, inserted a knife into the brain through a hole made just below the upper eyelid, and then turned it right and left to the orbital bone near the eye. Essentially, the operation was done in the dark, because it was not clear where the knife was located or what structures it cut, so there was more damage than necessary, although the main consequence was the separation of the prefrontal region from the rest of the brain (Carlson, 1992).

The results of NMR tomography indicate that the more the activity of the prefrontal cortex, the left temporal region (tonsil), the bridge, the greater the amplitude of the approximate GSR (Raine et al., 1991). It is now believed that the orbitofrontal cortex is included in the evaluation of the sequence of actions. If this area is damaged by a disease, then the subject can theoretically assess the emotional significance of the stimulus, i.e., he can easily analyze situations in pictures and diagrams. However, he will not be able to apply this knowledge in life. Similarly, Gage, who was mentioned earlier, lost one job after another, spent all his savings, and eventually lost his family.

It can be assumed that the orbitofrontal cortex is not directly involved in the decision-making process, but ensures the translation of these decisions into life, into specific feelings and behavior. The ventral connections of this area of ​​the cortex with the diencephalon and the temporal area bring to it information about the emotional significance of the signal. Dorsal connections to the singular cortex allow it to influence both behavior and autonomy.

Rice. 13.12. Singular bark (Carlson, 1992).

Singular bark plays an important role in the formation of emotional experience (Fig. 13.12). J.W. Papez (1937) suggested that the singular cortex, entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and thalamus form a circle that is directly related to motivation and emotion. Psychologist P.D. McLean (1949) also included the amygdala in this system and called it limbic. The singular cortex provides an interface between the decision-making structures in the frontal cortex, the emotional structures of the limbic system, and the brain mechanisms that control movement. It interacts back and forth with the rest of the limbic system and other areas of the frontal cortex. Electrical stimulation of the singular gyrus can cause the experience of positive or negative emotions (Talairach e. ​​A., 1973).

Damage to the singular cortex is associated with akinetic mutism, in which patients refuse to speak and move. Significant trauma to this area is incompatible with life. There is reason to believe that it plays an initiating role in emotional behavior.

Plan

Introduction

General characteristics of emotions

emotional states

The development of human emotions

Theories of emotion

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Every day we encounter something in everyday life and it causes a certain attitude in us. Cognizing reality, a person in one way or another relates to objects, phenomena, events, to other people and, of course, to his personality. Some objects and phenomena cause us sympathy, others, on the contrary, disgust. For example, a book we read or a job we do can make us happy or sad, pleasurable or disappointing. Even individual properties of objects, information about which we receive through sensations, such as color, taste, smell, are not indifferent to us. Joy, sadness, admiration, indignation, anger, fear, etc. - all these are different types of a person's subjective attitude to reality. Relationships are formed between a person and the outside world, which become the subject of emotions. Emotions, feelings serve to reflect the subjective attitude of a person to himself and to the world around him. But how often do we trace our emotional reactions to certain things, objects or phenomena? Here we can not do without the ability to analyze ourselves and our attitude to what surrounds us. Therefore, I chose this topic for writing an essay, as it is very interesting for me and, one might say, unknown. In practical life, by emotions we understand the most diverse reactions of a person - from violent outbursts of passion to subtle colors of moods. In psychology, emotions are understood as mental processes that occur in the form of experiences and reflect personal significance and assessment of external and internal situations for human life. Let's try to understand this in more detail.

General characteristics of emotions

So what are these emotions? Emotions (from lat. emovere - to excite, excite). Emotions are a special class of subjective psychological states. They characterize the needs of a person and the objects to which they are directed. Emotions, according to Charles Darwin, arose in the process of evolution, as a means by which living beings establish the significance of certain conditions to meet their urgent needs. The value of emotions for the body is a warning about the destructive nature of any factors. Therefore, we can say that emotions are one of the main mechanisms for regulating the functional state of the body and human activity. Thanks to emotions, a person is aware of his needs and the objects to which they are directed. And also, due to the fact that any emotion is positive or negative, a person can judge the achievement of the goal. Positive emotion is always associated with obtaining the desired result, while negative emotion, on the contrary, gives a signal of failure in achieving the goal. Most emotional states are reflected in the characteristics of human behavior. For example, redness or blanching of a person's skin in a certain situation may indicate his emotional state. It turns out that emotion can be considered as a holistic emotional reaction, which includes not only the mental component - experience, but also the physiological changes in the body that accompany this experience. Emotional states that have arisen in the process of activity can increase or decrease a person's vital activity. The first are called sthenic, the second - asthenic. The emergence and manifestation of emotions is associated with the complex complex work of the cortex, subcortex of the brain and the autonomic nervous system, which regulates the work of internal organs. This determines the close connection of emotions with the activity of the heart, respiration, with changes in the activity of skeletal muscles and facial muscles. Experiments have discovered in the depths of the brain, in the limbic system, the existence of centers of positive and negative emotions, called the centers of "pleasure, heaven" and "suffering, hell."

Emotions are divided into positive and negative, that is, pleasant and unpleasant. The most ancient in origin and the most common form of emotional experiences is the pleasure derived from organic needs, and the displeasure associated with the inability to do this when the need is exacerbated. In turn, the sensual tone of sensations is considered to be a peculiar coloring of sensations, which characterizes our attitude to the individual qualities of an object.

Emotions also exist in animals, but in humans they acquire a special depth and have many shades and combinations. AT depending on the personal (tastes, interests, moral attitudes, experience) and temperamental characteristics of people, as well as on the situation in which they are, the same reason can cause them different emotions.

More complex are positive (joy, delight) and negative (anger, grief, fear) emotions. Emotions also differ in intensity and duration, and also in the degree of awareness of the reason for their appearance. In this regard, moods, emotions and affects are distinguished. We will talk about the types of emotions below in more detail.

emotional states

As we said above, emotions are complex mental phenomena. The most significant emotions are the following types of emotional experiences: affects, emotions themselves, feelings of mood and emotional stress.

Affect(from Latin affectus - emotional excitement, passion) - a strong, stormy and relatively short-term emotional experience (flash), which completely captures the human psyche and predetermines a single reaction to the situation as a whole. Quite often, this reaction and the irritants that influence are not sufficiently realized - and this is one of the reasons for the uncontrollability of this state. One of the main features of affect is that this emotional reaction imposes on a person the need to perform some action, but the person himself loses a sense of reality.

With affect, the consequences of what is being done are little thought out, as a result of which a person's behavior becomes impulsive. A person ceases to control himself and may not be aware of what he is doing. This is explained by the fact that in a state of passion there is a very strong emotional excitation, which, affecting the motor centers of the cerebral cortex, turns into motor excitation. Under the influence of such excitation, a person makes abundant and often erratic movements and actions. It happens that a person becomes numb, his movements and actions completely stop, he seems to lose the power of speech. They say about such a person that he does not remember himself, was in unconsciousness. After an affect, a breakdown often occurs, indifference to everything around or remorse for what they have done. But still, one should not argue that in a state of passion a person is not at all aware of his actions and does not evaluate what is happening. Even with the strongest affect, a person is more or less aware of what is happening, just while some people are able to master their thoughts and actions, while others are not.

Emotions. Emotions differ from affects in the duration of the state and also their distinguishing feature is that emotions are a reaction not only to current events, but also to probable or remembered ones. Most of the objects and phenomena of the external environment affect our senses and cause us to have complex emotional sensations and feelings, which can include both pleasure and displeasure. For example, the memory of something unpleasant for us at the same time as a difficult feeling can also cause joy from the realization that this unpleasant thing is in the past. There is also a bright combination of positive and negative coloring of emotional experiences in overcoming the difficulties that we have to deal with. By themselves, the actions that are performed in these cases often cause us unpleasant and difficult feelings, but the success we achieve is inextricably linked with positive emotional experiences. Emotions, like feelings, are perceived by a person as his own inner experiences and are transmitted to other people, they empathize. And also the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of a person with his behavior, actions, statements, and activities is manifested.

Feelings- even more than emotions, stable mental states that have a clearly expressed objective character. They express a stable attitude towards some objects (real or imaginary). A person can only experience feelings for someone or something. For example, a person cannot experience the feeling of love if he does not have an object of affection.

Feelings play a rather significant role in building contacts with other people. We all know that a person prefers to be in a comfortable environment for him, and not in conditions that cause negative emotions. It should also be said that feelings are always individual. What one person likes may cause negative feelings in another person. This can be explained by the fact that they are mediated by the system of value attitudes of a particular person.

Depending on the direction of the feelings are divided into moral(a person's experience of his relationship to other people), intellectual(feelings associated with cognitive activity), aesthetic(a sense of beauty when perceiving art, natural phenomena), practical(feelings associated with human activity).

Moral or moral-political feelings are manifested in emotional attitudes towards various public institutions and organizations, as well as towards the state as a whole. An important feature of this group of feelings is their effective nature. They can act as motivating forces of heroic deeds and deeds. Therefore, one of the tasks of any state system is always the formation of such moral and political feelings as patriotism, love for the Motherland.

Intellectual feelings are experiences that arise in the process of human cognitive activity, they not only accompany it, but also stimulate, enhance it, affect the speed and productivity of thinking, the content and accuracy of the knowledge gained. Intellectual feelings such as: surprise, curiosity, a feeling of joy about the discovery made, a feeling of doubt about the correctness of the decision are evidence of the relationship between intellectual and emotional processes.

Aesthetic feelings are the emotional attitude of a person to the beautiful in nature, in people's lives and art. When we observe the objects and phenomena of reality around us, we can experience a special feeling of admiration for their beauty, we feel especially deep feelings when perceiving works of fiction, musical, dramatic and other types of art. The aesthetic attitude is manifested through different feelings - delight, joy, contempt, disgust, longing, suffering, etc.

In conclusion, it should be said that the division of feelings into groups is rather conditional. human feelings are so complex and multifaceted that it is rather difficult to attribute them to any particular group.

Passion- this is a manifestation of a strong and stable manifestation to something or someone. This is a rather complex type of emotional states. It is an alloy of emotions, motives, feelings, concentrated around a certain type of activity or subject.

mood considered to be the longest, or even “chronic” emotional state that colors all our behavior. The mood is characterized by less intensity and objectivity. It can be joyful or sad, cheerful or depressed, cheerful or depressed, calm or irritated. It can be distinguished by duration. The stability of mood depends on quite a few reasons - the age of a person, his individual characteristics of character and temperament, willpower, etc. Mood can color a person's behavior for quite a long time, even a few weeks. Moreover, mood can become a stable personality trait. It is this peculiarity of mood that is meant when people are divided into optimists and pessimists. Mood also plays a huge role in the effectiveness of the activity that a person is engaged in, for example, everyone knows that the same work in one mood seems easy and pleasant, and in another - hard and depressing. And it is also known that in a good mood a person is able to perform a much greater amount of work than in a bad mood. It is impossible not to notice that people with high self-esteem often have an elevated mood, and people with low self-esteem have a more pronounced tendency to passive-negative emotional states that are associated with the expectation of adverse outcomes.

The above characteristics of the types of emotional states are quite general. Each of the species has its subspecies, which differ in intensity, duration, awareness, depth, origin, conditions of occurrence and disappearance, effects on the body, dynamics of development, direction, etc.

The development of human emotions

Education of emotions and feelings in a person begins from early childhood. An important condition for the formation of positive emotions and feelings is care from adults. The child who lacks love and affection in most cases grows up cold and unresponsive. And in order for emotional sensitivity to arise, responsibility for another is also important, for example, taking care of younger brothers and sisters, and if there are none, then about pets. It is very important and necessary that the child himself takes care of someone and is responsible for someone. Also, the most important condition for the formation of emotions is that the feelings of children are not limited only to the limits of subjective experiences, but receive their realization in some specific actions, actions and activities. Otherwise, it is easy to educate sentimental people who are only capable of verbal outpouring, but not capable of steadily putting their feelings into practice.

The earliest manifestations of emotions in children are associated with the organic needs of the child. This refers to the manifestations of pleasure and displeasure, with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the need for food, sleep, etc. In this regard, feelings such as fear and anger begin to manifest early. At first they are unconscious. For example, if we take a newborn child in our arms and, lifting it up and then quickly lowering it down, you will see that the child will shrink all over, although he has never fallen. The first manifestations of anger, which are associated with displeasure, with dissatisfaction with their needs, are of the same unconscious nature. For example, the same child had angry wrinkles on his forehead when he was teased. It should also be noted that children also develop empathy and compassion quite early. Positive emotions in a child develop gradually through play and exploratory behavior. First, the baby has pleasure at the moment of obtaining the desired result, and then the playing child is pleased not only with the result, but also with the process of activity itself, here already the pleasure is associated not with the end of the process, but with its content. In older children, an anticipation of pleasure appears, emotion in this case arises at the beginning of play activity, and neither the result nor the performance itself is central to the child's experience.

The development of negative emotions is due to the instability of the emotional sphere of children and is closely connected with frustration. Frustration is an emotional reaction to a hindrance in achieving a conscious goal. The state of frustration that often recurs in early childhood and the stereotypical forms of its manifestation in some reinforce lethargy, indifference, lack of initiative, while in others - aggressiveness, envy and anger. Therefore, in order to avoid such effects, it is undesirable when raising a child to too often achieve his requirements by direct pressure. Because, insisting on the immediate fulfillment of the requirements, adults do not provide the child with the opportunity to achieve the goal set for him and create conditions that contribute to the consolidation of stubbornness and aggressiveness in some and lack of initiative in others. Also of great importance in the formation of such an emotional state as aggressiveness is the punishment of the child, especially the measure of punishment. It turns out that children who are severely punished at home show more aggressiveness while playing with dolls than children who are not severely punished. But at the same time, the complete absence of punishment also adversely affects the development of children's character.

Along with the formation of positive and negative emotions in children, moral feelings are gradually formed. The rudiments of moral consciousness appear for the first time in a child under the influence of praise, approval, and also censure, when the child hears from adults that one thing is possible, necessary and must, and the other is not good and impossible. Although the first ideas of children about what is “good” and what is “bad” are closely related to the personal interests of both the child himself and other people.

In children, the beginnings of such a complex feeling as an aesthetic feeling appear quite early. One of its manifestations is the pleasure that children experience when listening to music. Also, by the end of the first year, children may like certain things, this is manifested in relation to toys and his personal belongings. The source of the development of aesthetic feelings is drawing, music, singing, visiting theaters, cinemas, concerts.

In schoolchildren, life ideals change at school age. With the transition of the child to school, with the expansion of his intellectual horizons, other people (not only relatives, as in children of preschool age), for example, teachers, specific historical or literary heroes, already act as an ideal.

Emotions play an important role in human life. To date, no one can deny the connection of emotions with the characteristics of the vital activity of the body. It is known that under the influence of emotions the activity of the organs of blood circulation, respiration, digestion, glands of internal and external secretion, etc., changes. Excessive intensity and duration of experiences can cause disturbances in the body. For example, during emotional experiences, blood circulation changes: the heartbeat quickens or slows down, the tone of blood vessels changes, blood pressure rises or falls, etc. As a result of some experiences, a person blushes, while others turn pale. And our heart reacts so sensitively to all changes in emotional life that among the people it has always been considered the receptacle of the soul, the organ of feelings.

Theories of emotion

Ch. Darwin's theory (on the biological nature and benefits of emotions: expressive emotional movements are a vestige of expedient instinctive actions, they are a biologically significant signal for individuals of their own and other species). For the first time, emotional expressive movements became the subject of Ch. Darwin's study. In 1872 Charles Darwin published the book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Based on comparative studies of the emotional movements of mammals, he created the biological concept of emotions. In this work he argued that the evolutionary principle applies not only to the biological but also to the mental and behavioral development of animals. In his opinion, there is much in common between the behavior of man and animal. He substantiated this on the basis of observations of the external expression of various emotional states in animals and people. Darwin believed that emotions appeared in the process of evolution of living beings as vital adaptive mechanisms that contribute to the adaptation of the organism to the conditions and situations of its existence. This theory is called evolutionary.

Anokhin's theory (emotions are a product of evolution, an adaptive factor in the life of the animal world, contributing to the preservation of the life of an individual and the whole species; positive emotions arise if the actual result of an action coincides with or exceeds the expected result; negative emotions arise if the real result is worse than expected; repeated failures in obtaining the expected result cause inhibition of inefficient activity). Anokhin's theory considers emotions as a product of evolution, as an accessory factor in the life of the animal world. Consideration of emotions from a biological point of view allows us to recognize that emotions have become fixed in evolution as a mechanism that keeps life processes within optimal limits and prevents the destructive nature of a deficiency or excess of any life factors in a given organism. Positive emotions arise when the real result of a perfect behavioral act coincides with or exceeds the expected useful result, and vice versa, the lack of a real result, a mismatch with the expected one, leads to negative emotions.

The James-Lange theory (the emergence of emotions is due to changes in organic processes: breathing, pulse, facial expressions. Emotions = the sum of organic sensations “a person is sad because he cries, Anna is vice versa”). James and, independently of him, Lange formulated a theory according to which the emergence of emotions is due to changes caused by external influences, as in an arbitrary motor sphere. The sensations associated with these changes are emotional experiences. According to James, “we are sad because we cry; we are afraid because we tremble; We rejoice because we laugh. According to the James-Lange theory, organic changes are the root causes of emotions. Being reflected in the human psyche through a feedback system, they generate an emotional experience of the corresponding modality. According to this point of view, first, under the influence of external stimuli, the changes characteristic of emotions occur in the body, and only then does the emotion itself arise. It should be said that the emergence of this theory has led to a simplification of the understanding of the mechanisms of arbitrary regulation. For example, it was believed that unwanted emotions, such as grief or anger, could be suppressed by deliberately performing actions that would normally result in positive emotions. In conclusion, it should be said that the James-Lange theory played a positive role, pointing to the connection of three events: an external stimulus, a behavioral act, and an emotional experience. But despite this, the James-Lange theory caused a number of objections, and one of them was Cannon's theory.

Cannon's theory (not organic processes cause emotions, but Emotions and Organic processes are generated simultaneously by a single source). Cannon found that the bodily changes observed during the occurrence of different emotional states are very similar to each other and not so diverse as to explain the qualitative differences in the highest emotional experiences of a person. Moreover, Cannon discovered that organic changes artificially induced in a person are by no means always accompanied by emotional experiences. Cannon's strongest argument against the James-Lange theory was his experiment, thanks to which he discovered that artificially induced cessation of organic signals in the brain does not prevent the emergence of emotions.

Cannon's provisions were developed by P. Bard, who showed that in fact both bodily changes and the emotional experiences associated with them occur almost simultaneously.

In later studies, it was found that of all the structures of the brain, the most functionally connected with emotions is not even the thalamus itself, but the hypothalamus and the central parts of the limbic system. In experiments on animals, it was found that electrical effects on these structures can control emotional states, such as anger, fear (X. Delgado).

Helhorn theory. Emotions carry out energy mobilization of the body:

· Positive emotions cause blood flow, increased nutrition of tissues - they "rejuvenate" a person.

Negative emotions cause vasospasm - they "age" a person.

Arnold's concept. An intuitive assessment of a situation, for example, a threat, causes a desire to act, which is expressed in various bodily changes, is experienced as an emotion and can lead to the action “We are afraid because we think we are being threatened.”

A separate group of theories are views that reveal the nature of emotions through cognitive factors, i.e. thinking and consciousness.

The theory of cognitive dissonance by L. Festinger (positive emotions are the result of the coincidence or excess of the received information with the expected; negative emotions are the result of a lack, discrepancy between the received information and the original; if you lower the level of expectations, then more positive emotions are caused.) The main concept of this theory was dissonance. Dissonance is a negative emotional state that occurs when the subject has conflicting information about the object. According to this theory, a person has a positive emotional experience when his expectations are confirmed, i.e. when the actual performance results are consistent. At the same time, the positive emotional state that has arisen can be characterized as consonance. Negative emotions arise when there is a discrepancy or dissonance between the expected and actual results of the activity. The state of cognitive dissonance is usually experienced by a person as discomfort, and it is natural that he seeks to get rid of it as soon as possible. To do this, he has at least two ways: first, change his expectations so that they correspond to reality, and secondly, try to get new information that would be consistent with previous expectations. Thanks to the position of this theory, emerging emotional states are considered as the main reason for the corresponding actions and deeds.

Simonov's information theory (according to Simonov, emotion is a reflection by the brain of higher animals and humans of the magnitude of the need and the probability of its satisfaction at the moment. And it is expressed by the formulaE =- P (I n- And c). Domestic physiologist P.V. Simonov formulated this rule according to the formula E =- P (I n- And c). Where:

E - emotion, its quality and strength;

P - the magnitude and specificity of the actual need;

I n - information necessary to meet the current need;

And c - existing information, i.e. the information that a person has at the moment.

The consequences of this formula are as follows: if a person does not have a need, then he does not experience emotions either; Emotion does not arise even in the case when a person experiencing a need has the full opportunity to realize it. If the subjective assessment of the probability of meeting the need is large, positive qualities appear. Negative emotions arise if the subject negatively assesses the possibility of satisfying the need. It turns out that, consciously or unconsciously, a person constantly compares information about what is required to satisfy a need with what he has, and, depending on the results of the comparison, experiences different emotions.

Finally, it should be said that so far there is no single point of view on the nature of emotions. Numerous studies are still being conducted that focus on the study of emotions. The knowledge that we now have about emotions speaks of their duality. On the one hand, these are subjective factors, which include various mental phenomena, as well as cognitive processes and features of the organization of human values. On the other hand, emotions are determined by the physiological characteristics of the individual.

Conclusion

So, from the foregoing, we can conclude that emotions are psychological reactions inherent in each of us to good and bad, these are our anxieties and joys, our despair and pleasure, emotions provide us with the ability to experience and empathize support interest in life, in the environment. the world. Emotions are part of our psychological activity, part of our "I". Each of us has differences in the depth and stability of feelings. For some people, they are superficial in nature, they flow easily and unobtrusively in others, feelings capture the whole and leave a deep mark after themselves. But this is precisely what determines the uniqueness of a particular person, determines his individuality.

Also not unimportant is the fact that feelings and emotions contribute to a deeper knowledge of the person himself. Thanks to experiences, a person learns his capabilities, abilities, advantages and disadvantages. A person's experiences in a new environment often reveal something new in himself, in people, in the world of surrounding objects and phenomena.

It can also be concluded that for the entire mental health of a person, the main goal is his correct emotional education from early childhood and throughout life. This can be especially noted when raising a younger teenager. When the emotional sphere undergoes a transitional period from childhood to adulthood. If at a younger age the emotional state of a child depends on the satisfaction of his needs and the assessment of an adult, then during this period of development and formation of a personality, a teenager begins to independently control his emotions.

A modern person in his actions often has to be guided mainly not by emotions, but by reason, but in many life situations the influence of emotions on human behavior is very great. And the general desire to maintain a positive emotional state in oneself and others is a guarantee of health, vigor and good mood. The good news is that emotions can be controlled, and in case of urgent need, there are a number of ways to defuse emotional stress.

And although we are not always aware of this fact, it must be said that emotions are one of the main mechanisms for regulating the functional state of the body and human activity. Thanks to emotions, we are aware of our needs and the objects to which they are directed, which is certainly very important for us. And also, due to the fact that any emotion is positive or negative, we judge the achievement of the goal.

Bibliography

1. Stolyarenko L.D. Fundamentals of psychology. - RnD., 2008.

2. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg. 2009.

3. Meshcheryakova B.G., Zinchenko V.P. Modern psychological dictionary.

4. Izard K.E. Psychology of emotions. - St. Petersburg. 1999.

5. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - St. Petersburg. 1999.

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The organism on the impact of external and internal stimuli, which have a pronounced subjective coloring. With the help of emotions, a person's personal attitude to the world around him and to himself is determined. Emotions are one of the leading mechanisms for regulating the adaptive and mental activity of the body. Emotional states are realized in certain behavioral reactions.

Emotions arise at the stage of assessing the probability of satisfaction or dissatisfaction that have arisen, as well as when these needs are met.

The biological significance of emotions consists in their performance of signaling and regulatory functions.

The signaling function of emotions lies in the fact that they signal the usefulness or harmfulness of this impact, the success or failure of the action being performed. adaptive the role of this mechanism lies in the immediate reaction to the sudden impact of external irritation, since the emotional state instantly causes pronounced experiences of a certain color. This leads to the rapid mobilization of all body systems to the implementation of a response, the nature of which depends on whether a given stimulus serves as a signal of a beneficial or harmful effect on the body. Thus, influences emanating both from the external environment and from the organism itself lead to the emergence of emotional experiences that give a general qualitative characteristic of the influencing factor, ahead of its fuller, more detailed perception.

Regulatory function of emotions manifests itself in the formation of activity aimed at satisfying the needs that have arisen, as well as at strengthening or stopping the action of stimuli, i.e., in the implementation of the mechanisms of adaptation of the organism to continuously changing environmental conditions. Unsatisfied needs of the body are usually accompanied by an emotion that is unpleasant. Satisfaction of the initial need, as a rule, is accompanied by a pleasant emotional experience. The emergence of positive emotions when a need is satisfied characterizes the success of the search to achieve the goal, which leads to the cessation of further search activity. On the other hand, the repeated satisfaction of certain needs, accompanied by subjectively pleasant emotional experiences, leads to the fact that in the future the body is stimulated to purposeful activity by the idea of ​​a future positive emotion. This second stimulating moment of purposeful motivation is the result of communication and therefore acquires special significance in the future of man and animal.

Types of emotions

Emotions are divided into positive and negative. Positive emotions determine such a state of the organism, which is characterized by the active efforts of the animal and man, aimed at preserving and strengthening this state. Negative emotions are manifested in efforts aimed at eliminating the unfavorable state of the body caused by the dissatisfaction of needs or the effects of a harmful factor. Positive and negative emotions play a significant role in adaptive behavior.

Emotions are also divided into lower and higher. The lower emotions are more elementary, connected with the organic needs of animals and humans, and are divided into two types:

• homeostatic, aimed at maintaining the body's homeostasis and always having a negative character;
• instinctive, associated with sexual, the instinct for the preservation of the species and other behavioral reactions.

Higher emotions arise only in a person in connection with the satisfaction of social and ideal needs (intellectual, moral, aesthetic, etc.). These more complex emotions have developed on the basis of consciousness and have a controlling and inhibitory effect on the lower emotions.

Distinguish between sthenic emotions - causing vigorous activity and asthenic - reducing activity. According to the duration and severity, emotions of mood, passion, affect are distinguished.

Theories of emotion

Biological theory of emotions(P, K, Anokhin). This theory of emotions is based on the concept of a functional system: an emotion is associated with the appearance of a need, which can be accompanied by a negative emotion and its elimination, as a result of which a positive emotion arises, that is, it is part of the afferent synthesis, and also takes place in the structure of the acceptor of the result of the action.

The essence of this theory lies in the fact that positive emotions when a need is satisfied arise only when the parameters of the actually obtained result coincide in the most exact way with the parameters of the expected result programmed in the acceptor of the results of the action. In this case, an agreement reaction occurs, which is subjectively accompanied by a sense of satisfaction, positive emotions. If the parameters of the actually obtained result do not coincide with those programmed in the acceptor of the results of the action, this is accompanied by a feeling of dissatisfaction, anxiety - negative emotions. This leads to the formation of an orienting-exploratory reaction and to the formation of a new combination of effector excitations necessary for the organization of a new full-fledged peripheral act, which will provide a result whose parameters coincide with the results of the action programmed in the acceptor.

Need-information theory of emotions(P, V, Simonov), according to which the emergence of emotion is based on the need and information necessary to achieve it. To understand their relationship, he proposed the formula E \u003d P (In-Is), where E is emotion, its degree, quality and sign, P is the strength and quality of the need, Ying is information about the means necessary to satisfy the need, Is is information about existing means that the subject actually has. If the amount of information is insufficient to satisfy the need, a negative emotion arises; if it is sufficient, a positive emotion arises as a result of satisfying the need.

The idea put forward by G.I. Kositsky that in order to achieve the goal (satisfy the need), certain information (In), energy (En) and time (Vn) are needed: if, existing in the body, information (Is), energy (Es ) and the time (Vs) is less than necessary, then a state of stress (Sn) arises, which can be expressed by the empirical formula: goals.

In accordance with theory of I. Peipets the emergence of emotions is conditioned. Cortical emotional processes arise in, from there impulses go to the mammillary bodies, then to the anterior nuclei and to the cingulate (Peypetz circle). The emotional coloring of mental processes is created by the spread of these impulses to other areas of the cortex. The receptive area of ​​emotional experiences is the cingulate gyrus. The integrity of this chain is the mechanism that organizes the experience and expression of emotions. Emotions arise either first in the cortex, from where impulses enter the “circle” through the hippocampus, or as a result of the hypothalamus, in which case the cortex of the cingulate gyrus should be considered as a perceiving area for emotional sensations as a result of impulses coming from the hypothalamus. The limbic system is considered to be the "visceral brain". It is believed that it is here that the integration of perceived information received from all body structures, including skeletal muscles and internal organs, and the formation of certain emotional states takes place.

Currently, it is generally accepted that the nervous substrate of emotions is the limbic-hypothalamic complex. The inclusion of the hypothalamus in this system is due to the fact that the multiple connections of the hypothalamus with various structures of the brain create a physiological and anatomical basis for the emergence of emotions.

The neocortex, on the basis of interaction with other structures, especially the hypothalamus, limbic and reticular systems, as well as between different areas of the neocortex itself, undoubtedly plays an important role in the subjective assessment of emotional states.

Emotional states are an important form of adaptive reactions of the body, and play a huge role in creating conditions for a wider and more perfect adaptation of animals and humans to environmental conditions.

Neuroanatomical foundations of emotions.

This information appeared thanks to the work of the American neurologist James Pepetz, who, studying patients with lesions of the hipcampus and cingulate gyrus, put forward the hypothesis of the existence of a whole system that provides emotions, which was called the "limbic system". It includes:

• cingulate gyrus
• hypocampus
• hypothalamus
• thalamus
• transparent septum (between hemispheres)

Together they form a closed system or limbic circle, due to the interrelationships between them. The source of excitation of this system is the hypothalamus, the signals from which follow to the underlying sections, activating the autonomic and motor components of the emotional reaction. From it, excitation is transmitted to the cingulate gyrus through the thalamus.

The cingulate gyrus is a substratum of emotional experiences, having special inputs for emotional stimuli, similar to what the sensory cortex has. The signal from the cingulate gyrus through the hypocampus is sent to the mastoid bodies of the hypothalamus, from there to the transparent septum, and then again to the cingulate gyrus. Thus, there is a certain closed system of interconnections.

In addition to these structures, the cortex and amygdala show emotiogenic properties. So the removal of the amygdala leads to a change in the emotional state. In experiments conducted by Pribram on rhesus monkeys, when the amygdala was removed from the leader male, a complete loss of aggressiveness was observed, as a result of which this male completely lost his place in the zoosocial hierarchy and turned into a frightened, submissive animal.

Electrical stimulation of the amygdala causes emotions of fear, anger, rarely pleasure. According to a number of researchers, the emotional functions of the amygdala are realized at relatively later stages of the behavioral act. After the needs were actualized and already transformed into a certain emotional state. In this case, the amygdala is able to choose from competing emotions the one that is significant, if any.

Serious emotional disorders arise in connection with damage to the frontal parts of the cerebral cortex, in particular, emotional dullness develops, disinhibition of lower emotions and drives. Removal (bilateral) of the temporal poles in monkeys leads to the development of a sense of fear.

The limbic cortex controls emotional expressiveness, speech intonation. Hemispheric asymmetry plays an important role in providing emotions. So, for example, a temporary shutdown of the left hemisphere by an electroconvulsive shock causes a shift in the emotional sphere of a right hemisphere person towards negative emotions.

Bragina and Dobrokhotova found that patients with lesions of the left hemisphere are more anxious and preoccupied, while those of the right hemisphere are more frivolous and careless.

Physiological expression of emotions. Emotions are expressed not only in motor reactions, but also at the level of tonic muscle tension. Persons suffering from various conflicts and, especially with neurotic deviations, are characterized by greater stiffness of movements than others. Many psychotherapeutic techniques are associated with the removal of this tension, for example, relaxation methods and autogenic training. They teach you to relax, which reduces irritability, anxiety and related disorders.

An important component of emotions are changes in the activity of the autonomic nervous system: changes in skin resistance, hormonal and chemical composition of the blood.

A special group of emotional reactions are changes in the biocurrents of the brain. The emotional states of a person are reflected in the change in the ratio of rhythms: ά, β, θ and δ. EEG changes characteristic of emotions most clearly occur in the frontal regions.

The emotional component performs a special function in the structure of motivation. The emotion that arises as part of motivation plays an important role in determining the direction of behavior and the ways of its implementation.
Emotion is a special form of mental reflection, which in the form of direct experience reflects not objective phenomena, but a subjective attitude towards them. The peculiarity of emotions is that they reflect the significance of objects and situations affecting the subject, due to the relationship of their objective properties to the needs of the subject. Emotions serve as a link between reality and needs.
Emotions cover a wide range of phenomena. There are several points of view on what subjective experiences should be called emotions. We present three of them.
So, P. Milner believes that although it is customary to distinguish emotions (anger, fear, joy, etc.) from the so-called general sensations (hunger, thirst, etc.), nevertheless, they reveal much in common and their division is rather conditional. One of the reasons for their distinction is the different degree of connection between subjective experiences and excitation of receptors. So, the experience of heat, pain is subjectively associated with the excitation of certain receptors (temperature, pain). On this basis, such states are usually designated as sensations. The state of fear, anger is difficult to associate with the excitation of receptors, so they are designated as emotions. Another reason why emotions are opposed to general sensations is because they occur irregularly. Emotions often arise spontaneously and depend on random external factors, while hunger, thirst, sexual desire arise at certain intervals. However, both emotions and general sensations arise as part of motivation as a reflection of a certain state of the internal environment, through the excitation of the corresponding receptors. Therefore, their difference is conditional and is determined by the peculiarities of the change in the internal environment.
However, there is another point of view. Thus, P. Fress believes that although there is a single continuum of inner experiences - from weak feelings to strong ones, only strong feelings can be called emotions. Their distinguishing feature is the disruptive effect on current activities. It is these strong feelings that are designated as emotions. Emotions develop when the motivation becomes too strong compared to the actual capabilities of the subject. Their appearance leads to a decrease in the level of adaptation. According to this view, emotions are fear, anger, grief, sometimes joy, especially excessive joy. For example, joy can become an emotion when, due to its intensity, we lose control over our own reactions: excitement, incoherent speech, and even uncontrollable laughter are evidence of this. Such a narrowing of the concept of emotion corresponds to the idea expressed in the activation theory of D. Lindsley, according to which emotions correspond to a local area at the top of the activation scale with its highest level. Their appearance is accompanied by a deterioration in performance.
Not all subjective experiences are related to emotions according to the classification of emotional phenomena by A.N. Leontiev. He distinguishes three types of emotional processes: affects, emotions proper, and feelings. Affects are strong and relatively short-term emotional experiences, accompanied by pronounced motor and visceral manifestations. In a person, affects are caused both by biologically significant factors affecting his physical existence, and by social, for example, social assessments, sanctions. A distinctive feature of affects is that they arise in response to a situation that has actually occurred. In contrast to affects, emotions themselves are a longer state, sometimes only weakly manifested in external behavior. They express an evaluative personal attitude to the emerging or possible situation. Therefore, unlike affects, they are capable of anticipating situations and events that have not actually occurred yet. They arise on the basis of ideas about experienced or imagined situations. The third type of emotional processes is the so-called objective feelings. They arise as a specific generalization of emotions and are associated with an idea or an idea about some object - concrete or abstract (for example, a feeling of love for a person, hatred, etc.). Objective feelings express stable emotional relationships.
Thus, the least clear is the question of the relationship of emotions as a narrower class of phenomena characterized by the brightness of subjective experiences, with those experiences, the emotional richness of which is less pronounced. The latter are characteristic of a very wide class of human states. For example, these are experiences of fatigue, boredom, hunger, etc. Do these two groups of experiences exist separately, or do they have a common, unified neurophysiological mechanism?
A number of experimental data obtained by methods of psychosemantics rather speak in favor of the latter assumption.
Functions of emotions
The biological significance of emotions is that they allow a person to quickly assess their internal state, the need that has arisen, and the possibility of satisfying it. For example, the true nutritional need for the amount of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, salts, etc. we evaluate through the corresponding emotion. This is an experience of hunger or a feeling of satiety.
There are several functions of emotions: reflective (evaluative), motivating, reinforcing, switching and communicative.
The reflective function of emotions is expressed in a generalized assessment of events. Emotions cover the whole organism and thus produce an almost instantaneous integration, a generalization of all types of activities that it performs, which allows, first of all, to determine the usefulness and harmfulness of the factors affecting it and to react before the localization of the harmful effect is determined. An example is the behavior of a person who has received a limb injury. Focusing on pain, a person immediately finds a position that reduces pain.
The emotional evaluative abilities of a person are formed not only on the basis of the experience of his individual experiences, but also as a result of emotional empathy that arises in communication with other people, in particular through the perception of works of art, the media.
The evaluative or reflective function of an emotion is directly related to its motivating function. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word “emotion” comes from the French verb “mouvoir”, meaning “to set in motion”. It began to be used in the 17th century, talking about feelings (joy, desire, pain, etc.) as opposed to thoughts. Emotion reveals the search zone, where the solution to the problem, the satisfaction of the need will be found. Emotional experience contains an image of the object of satisfying the need and attitude towards it, which prompts a person to act.
P.V.Simonov highlights the reinforcing function of emotions. It is known that emotions are directly involved in the processes of learning and memory. Significant events that cause emotional reactions are quickly and permanently imprinted in memory. Thus, a well-fed cat cannot develop conditioned food reflexes. Successful learning requires the presence of motivational arousal, in this case reflected in the feeling of hunger. However, the combination of an indifferent stimulus with hunger excitation is still insufficient for the development of conditioned food reflexes. The third component is required - the impact of a factor that can satisfy the existing need - food. In the experiments of T.N. Oniani, who combined an external stimulus with electrical stimulation of the limbic structures of the brain, causing a need for food in a well-fed cat, only a conditioned reaction of avoidance and fear was developed. And it was not possible to get the conditioned reflexes of food, the main reason - the electrical stimulation of the limbic structure, used as a reinforcement, did not contain a reward - the satisfaction of the need.
Also, it is not possible to develop conditioned reflex hunger if indifferent stimuli - environmental signals are combined with a state caused by food deprivation. In such an animal, the environment of the experiment does not develop exploratory feeding behavior, but a reaction of fear and avoidance. Those. the indifferent stimulus is associated with the avoidance reaction with which the animal reacts to a situation of prolonged starvation, since this reaction reduces fear.
Thus, the real reinforcement for the development of a conditioned reflex (classical and instrumental) is a reward. Food can be a reward for a hungry animal. The painful irritation itself is not a reward, it is given only by liberation, avoidance of it. Receiving a reward is associated with the emergence of positive emotions. Therefore, "only the integration of hunger excitation with excitation from a factor capable of satisfying this need, i.e., a mechanism that generates a positive emotion, ensures the development of a conditioned reflex" (Simonov P.V. Motivated brain. M., 1987).
The reinforcing function of emotions was most successfully studied on the experimental model of "emotional resonance" proposed by P.V. Simonov. It was found that the emotional reactions of some animals can arise under the influence of negative emotional states of other individuals exposed to electrocutaneous stimulation. This model reproduces the situation of the emergence of negative emotional states in a community, typical of social relationships, and makes it possible to study the functions of emotions in the purest form without the direct action of pain stimuli. In the experiments of L.A. Preobrazhenskaya, in which the "victim" dog was punished with electric current in front of the "observer" dog, the latter's heart rate increased and the synchronization of the hippocampal theta rhythm increased. This indicates the appearance of negative emotional stress in her. Under such conditions, the "observer" dog is able to develop an instrumental avoidance reflex (in the form of lifting a paw), which stops the current supply to the "victim" dog. The development of such an instrumental reflex in the "observer" dog is accompanied by a decrease in its heart rate and a decrease in the hippocampal theta rhythm, i.e. the disappearance of the negative emotional state. Consequently, the prevention of negative emotional stress serves her as the reward on which this conditioned instrumental reflex is developed.
Under natural conditions, human activity and animal behavior are determined by many needs of different levels. Their interaction is expressed in the competition of motives that manifest themselves in emotional experiences. Evaluations through emotional experiences have a motivating power and can determine the choice of behavior.
The switching function of emotions is especially clearly revealed in the competition of motives, as a result of which the dominant need is determined. So, in extreme conditions, a struggle may arise between the natural human instinct for self-preservation and the social need to follow a certain ethical standard, it is experienced in the form of a struggle between fear and a sense of duty, fear and shame. The outcome depends on the strength of motives, on personal attitudes.
Consider the communicative function of emotions. Mimic and pantomimic movements allow a person to convey his experiences to other people, to inform them about his attitude to phenomena, objects, etc. Facial expressions, gestures, postures, expressive sighs, changes in intonation are the "language of human feelings", a means of communicating not so much thoughts as emotions.
There are genetically predetermined universal complexes of behavioral reactions that express the emergence of basic fundamental emotions. The genetic determinism of expressive reactions is confirmed by the similarity of expressive facial movements in the blind and the sighted (smile, laughter, tears). Differences in facial movements between blind and seeing young children are very small. However, with age, the facial expressions of the sighted become more expressive and generalized, while in the blind it not only does not improve, but even regresses. Consequently, mimic movements have not only a genetic determinant, but also strongly depend on training and education.
Physiologists have found that the expressive movements of animals are controlled by an independent neurophysiological mechanism. By stimulating various hypothalamic points in awake cats with electrical currents, the researchers were able to detect two types of aggressive behavior: "affective aggression" and "cold-blooded" attack. To do this, they placed a cat in the same cage as a rat and studied the effect of stimulating the cat's hypothalamus on its behavior. When some points of the hypothalamus are stimulated in a cat, at the sight of a rat, affective aggression occurs. She pounces on the rat with her claws extended, hissing, i.e. its behavior includes behavioral responses that display aggression, which usually serve to intimidate in the struggle for superiority or for territory. During a "cold-blooded" attack, which is observed when another group of points of the hypothalamus is stimulated, the cat catches the rat and grabs it with its teeth without any sounds or external emotional manifestations, i.e. her predatory behavior is not accompanied by a display of aggression. Finally, by changing the location of the electrode once more, the cat can be induced to behave in a rage behavior without attacking. Thus, demonstrative reactions of animals expressing an emotional state may or may not be included in the animal's behavior. The centers or group of centers responsible for the expression of emotions are located in the hypothalamus.
The communicative function of emotions implies the presence of not only a special neurophysiological mechanism that determines the implementation of the external manifestation of emotions, but also a mechanism that allows you to read the meaning of these expressive movements. And such a mechanism has been found. Studies of neuronal activity in monkeys have shown that the basis of the identification of emotions by facial expressions is the activity of individual neurons that selectively respond to emotional expression. Neurons that respond to threatening faces have been found in the superior temporal cortex and amygdala in monkeys. Not all expressions of emotion are equally easy to identify. It is easier to recognize horror (57% of the subjects), then disgust (48%), surprise (34%). According to a number of data, the most information about emotion contains the expression of the mouth. The identification of emotions increases as a result of learning. However, some emotions begin to be well recognized at a very early age. 50% of children under the age of 3 recognized the reaction of laughter in the photographs of actors, and the emotion of pain at the age of 5-6 years.
Physiological expression of emotions
Emotions are expressed not only in motor reactions: facial expressions, gestures, but also in the level of tonic muscle tension. In the clinic, muscle tone is often used as a measure of affect. Many consider increased muscle tone as an indicator of a negative emotional state (discomfort), a state of anxiety. The tonic reaction is diffuse, generalized, captures all the muscles and thus makes it difficult to perform movements. Ultimately, it leads to tremors and chaotic, uncontrollable movements.
Persons suffering from various conflicts, and especially with neurotic deviations, are characterized, as a rule, by greater stiffness of movements than others. R. Malmo and co-workers showed that muscle tension in mental patients is higher than in the control group. It is especially high in psychoneurotic patients with a predominance of pathological anxiety. Many psychotherapeutic techniques are associated with the removal of this tension, for example, relaxation methods and autogenic training. They teach you to relax, which reduces irritability, anxiety and related disorders.
One of the most sensitive indicators of changes in the emotional state of a person is his voice. Special methods have been developed that allow one to recognize the occurrence of emotional experiences by voice, as well as to differentiate them by sign (positive and negative). To do this, the voice of a person recorded on a magnetic tape is subjected to frequency analysis. With the help of a computer, the speech signal is decomposed into a frequency spectrum. It has been established that as emotional stress increases, the width of the frequency spectrum of spoken words and sounds expands and shifts to the region of higher frequency components. At the same time, for negative emotions, the spectral energy is concentrated in the lower-frequency part of the shifted spectrum, and for positive emotions, in its high-frequency zone. These shifts in the spectrum of the speech signal can be caused even by a very large physical load. This method allows in 90% of cases to correctly determine the increase in emotional stress, which makes it especially promising for studying human states.
An important component of emotion are changes in the activity of the autonomic nervous system. Vegetative manifestations of emotions are very diverse: changes in skin resistance (SGR), heart rate, blood pressure, vasodilation and constriction, skin temperature, hormonal and chemical composition of blood, etc. It is known that during rage, the level of norepinephrine and adrenaline in the blood increases, the heart rate quickens, the blood flow is redistributed in favor of the muscles and the brain, the pupils dilate. Through these effects, the animal is prepared for the intense physical activity necessary for survival.
Changes in the biocurrents of the brain constitute a special group of emotional reactions. Physiologists believe that in animals the EEG correlate of emotional stress is the alert rhythm (or hippocampal theta rhythm), the pacemaker of which is located in the septum. Its strengthening and synchronization are observed when the animal develops defensive, orienting-exploratory behavior. The hippocampal theta rhythm also increases during paradoxical sleep, one of the features of which is a sharp increase in emotional tension. In humans, such a bright EEG indicator of the emotional state as the hippocampal theta rhythm of an animal cannot be found. A rhythm similar to the hippocampal theta rhythm is generally poorly expressed in humans. Only during the performance of certain verbal operations and writing in the human hippocampus is it possible to observe an increase in the regularity, frequency, and amplitude of the theta rhythm.
The emotional states of a person are reflected in the EEG, most likely in a change in the ratio of the main rhythms: delta, theta, alpha and beta. EEG changes characteristic of emotions most clearly occur in the frontal regions. According to some data, in persons with the dominance of positive emotions, alpha rhythm and slow components of the EEG are recorded, and in persons with a predominance of anger, beta activity.
P.Ya. Balanov, V.L. Deglin and N.N. Nikolaenko used electroconvulsive therapy by the method of unipolar seizures to regulate emotional states in patients, which are caused by applying electrical stimulation to one side of the head - right or left. They found that positive emotional states were associated with increased alpha activity in the left hemisphere, and negative emotional states were associated with increased alpha activity in the right hemisphere and increased delta activity in the left hemisphere.
In addition, the appearance of emotional states is accompanied by changes in the electrical activity of the amygdala. In patients with electrodes implanted in the amygdala, when discussing emotionally colored events, an increase in high-frequency oscillations in its electrical activity was found. In patients with temporal lobe epilepsy, who are characterized by pronounced emotional disturbances in the form of increased irritability, malice, rudeness, epileptic electrical activity was registered in the dorsomedial part of the tonsil. The destruction of this section of the tonsil makes the patient non-aggressive.
Neuroanatomy of emotions
The structural basis of emotions (according to J. Peipets, 1937)
Information about the anatomical substrate for the development of certain emotions is usually drawn from experiments with the destruction and stimulation of various parts of the brain, as well as from the study of the functions of the human brain in the clinic in connection with brain operations and various medical procedures.
The first most harmonious concept, linking emotions with the functions of certain brain structures, was published in 1937 and belongs to the American neurologist J. Peipets. Studying emotional disorders in patients with lesions of the hippocampus and cingulate gyrus, he put forward hypotheses about the existence of a single system that combines a number of brain structures and forms a brain substrate for emotions. This system represents a closed circuit and includes: the hypothalamus - the anteroventral nucleus of the thalamus - the cingulate gyrus - the hippocampus - the mamillary nuclei of the hypothalamus. She received the name of the Peipets circle (see figure). Later, P. McLean in 1952, taking into account that the cingulate gyrus, as it were, borders the base of the forebrain, proposed calling it and other brain structures associated with it the limbic system (limbus - edge). The source of excitation for this system is the hypothalamus. Signals from it follow to the midbrain and underlying sections to initiate vegetative and motor emotional reactions. Simultaneously, the neurons of the hypothalamus send signals through the collateral to the anteroventral nucleus in the thalamus. Along this path, excitation is transmitted to the cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex.
The cingulate gyrus, according to J. Peipets, is a substratum of conscious emotional experiences and has special inputs for emotional signals, just as the visual cortex has inputs for visual signals. Further, the signal from the cingulate gyrus through the hippocampus again reaches the hypothalamus in the region of its mamillary bodies. So the circuit is closed. The path from the cingulate gyrus connects subjective experiences that occur at the level of the cortex with signals emerging from the hypothalamus for visceral and motor expression of emotions.
Today, however, the beautiful hypothesis of J. Peipets comes into conflict with many facts. Thus, the role of the hippocampus and thalamus in the emergence of emotions was in doubt. In humans, stimulation of the hippocampus by electric current is not accompanied by the appearance of emotions (fear, anger, etc.). Subjectively, patients experience only confusion.
Of all the structures of the Peipez circle, the hypothalamus and the cingulate gyrus show the closest relationship with emotional behavior. In addition, it turned out that many other brain structures that are not part of the Peipez circle have a strong influence on emotional behavior. Among them, a special role belongs to the amygdala, as well as the frontal and temporal cortex of the brain.
The role of the hypothalamus is great both in the development of motivational behavior and in the development of emotions associated with it. The hypothalamus, where the dual centers that regulate the start and stop of the main types of innate behavior, are concentrated, is considered by most researchers as an executive system in which vegetative and motor manifestations of motivation, including emotions, are integrated. As part of emotion, it is customary to single out the actual emotional experience and its somatic and visceral expression. The possibility of their appearance independently of each other indicates the relative independence of their mechanisms. Dissociation of emotional experience and its expression in motor and vegetative reactions was found in some lesions of the brain stem. It appears in the so-called pseudo-effects: intense mimic and vegetative reactions, characteristic of crying or laughter, can occur without corresponding subjective sensations.
The amygdala reveals important emotiogenic properties. In higher animals, it is located in the cortex, at the base of the temporal lobe. Removal of the amygdala disrupts the mechanisms of emotions. According to V.M. Smirnov, electrical stimulation of the amygdala in patients causes emotions of fear, anger, rage, and rarely pleasure. Rage and fear are caused by irritation of various departments of the amygdala. Experiments with bilateral removal of the tonsil mainly indicate a decrease in the aggressiveness of the animal. The attitude of the amygdala to aggressive behavior was convincingly demonstrated by K. Pribram in experiments on monkeys in a colony of rhesus monkeys. After bilateral removal of the amygdala from the leader of the pack, Dave, who was distinguished by authority and occupied the highest rung of the zoosocial hierarchy, he lost his aggressiveness and moved to the lowest rung of the zoosocial ladder. His place was taken by the most aggressive one, who was second in the hierarchy before the operation (Zeke). And the former leader turned into a submissive, frightened animal.
According to a number of researchers, the emotional functions of the amygdala are realized at relatively late stages of behavior, after the actualized needs have already been transformed into the corresponding emotional states. The amygdala weighs competing emotions generated by competing needs and thereby determines behavioral choices. The amygdala receives extensive information about the outside world. Its neurons respond to light, sound and skin irritation.
In addition, the frontal and temporal cortex are of particular importance in the regulation of emotions. The defeat of the frontal lobes leads to profound violations of the emotional sphere of a person. Two syndromes predominantly develop: emotional dullness and disinhibition of lower emotions and drives. In this case, first of all, higher emotions associated with activity, social relations, and creativity are violated. The removal of the temporal poles in monkeys leads to the suppression of their aggressiveness and fear. The anterior limbic cortex controls emotional tone; expressiveness of speech in humans and monkeys. After a bilateral hemorrhage in this area, the patient's speech becomes emotionally inexpressive.
According to modern data, the cingulate gyrus has bilateral connections with many subcortical structures (septum, superior tubercles of the quadrigemina, locus coeruleus, etc.), as well as with various areas of the cortex in the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes. Its connections are more extensive than any other part of the brain. There is even an assumption about the higher coordinating function of the cingulate gyrus in relation to emotions.
Currently, a large amount of experimental and clinical data has been accumulated on the role of the cerebral hemispheres in the regulation of emotions. The study of the functions of the left and right hemispheres revealed the existence of emotional asymmetry of the brain. According to V.L. Deglin, temporary shutdown of the left hemisphere by an electroconvulsive current shock causes a shift in the emotional sphere of the “right hemisphere person” towards negative emotions. His mood worsens, he pessimistically assesses his position, complains of feeling unwell. Turning off the right hemisphere causes the opposite effect - an improvement in the emotional state. T.A. Dobrokhotova and N.N. Bragina found that patients with lesions in the left hemisphere are anxious and preoccupied. Right-sided defeat is combined with frivolity, carelessness. The emotional state of complacency, irresponsibility, carelessness that occurs under the influence of alcohol is associated with its predominant effect on the right hemisphere of the brain.
Demonstration of films of different content with the help of contact lenses in the right or left field of vision showed that the right hemisphere reacts faster to slides with an expression of sadness, and the left - to slides of joyful content. According to other data, the right hemisphere recognizes emotionally expressive faces faster, regardless of the quality of the emotion.
Recognition of facial expressions is more associated with the function of the right hemisphere. It worsens with damage to the right hemisphere. Damage to the temporal lobe, especially on the right, disrupts the recognition of the emotional intonation of speech. When the left hemisphere is turned off, regardless of the nature of the emotion, the recognition of the emotional coloring of the voice improves.
Turning off the left hemisphere makes the situation incomprehensible, non-verbalizable and, therefore, emotionally negative. Turning off the right hemisphere makes the situation simple, clear, understandable, which causes the predominance of positive emotions.
Emotional asymmetry of the brain is also characteristic of normal healthy people. Individuals with a dominant right hemisphere are characterized by increased anxiety and neuroticism. The predominance of the functions of the left hemisphere, determined by the group of motor, visual and auditory methods, is combined with low levels of anxiety.
Neurochemistry of emotions
The emergence of any emotion is based on the activation of various groups of biologically active substances in their complex interaction. The modality, quality of emotions, their intensity are determined by the relationship of the noradrenergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic systems, as well as a number of neuropeptides, including endogenous opiates.
An important role in the development of the pathology of mood and affects is played by biogenic amines (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine).
According to S. Keti, with an increase in the concentration of serotonin in the brain, a person's mood rises, and its deficiency causes a state of depression. The positive effect of electroshock therapy, which eliminates depression in patients in 80% of cases, is associated with increased synthesis and growth of norepinephrine in the brain. Substances that improve mood increase the content of norepinephrine and dopamine in the nerve endings. The results of the examination of the brain of patients who committed suicide in a state of depression showed that it is depleted in both norepinephrine and serotonin. Moreover, norepinephrine deficiency is manifested by depression of melancholy, and a lack of serotonin is manifested by depression of anxiety. Violations in the functioning of the cholinergic system lead to psychosis with a predominant defeat of the intellectual (information) processes. The cholinergic system provides informational components of behavior. Cholinolytics - substances that reduce the level of activity of the cholinergic system, impair the performance of food-procuring behavior, violate the perfection and accuracy of motor avoidance reflexes, but do not eliminate the reaction to pain and do not relieve hunger.
The state of aggressiveness depends on the ratio of the activity of the cholinergic and noradrenergic systems. An increase in aggressiveness is explained by an increase in the concentration of norepinephrine and a weakening of the inhibitory effect of serotonin. Aggressive mice showed reduced levels of serotonin in the hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. The introduction of serotonin inhibits the aggressiveness of the animal.
A good experimental model for studying the biochemical nature of emotions is the phenomenon of brain self-stimulation. The technique for self-irritation of the brain was developed by J. Olds and P. Milner. The most detailed map of self-irritation points in the rat brain was compiled by J. Olds. It turned out that the strongest effect of self-irritation is associated with the hypothalamus, the medial forebrain bundle and the septum. During electrical self-stimulation of the brain through implanted electrodes, animals show surprising perseverance in an effort to continue self-irritation. This means that this self-stimulation is accompanied by positive emotions, which the animal seeks to prolong. All points of self-stimulation are united by the fact that they coincide with the localization of noradrenergic and dopaminergic structures. Therefore, the phenomenon of self-irritation is associated with the participation of two main systems: noradrenergic and dopaminergic.
In the phenomenon of self-stimulation, motivational and reinforcing (rewarding) components are distinguished. It is assumed that norepinephrine is associated with an inciting, motivating component in the self-irritation reaction, and dopamine is associated with a reinforcing, “rewarding” effect that occurs as a result of self-stimulation and is accompanied by a positive emotional experience.
On the basis of data on the mechanisms of self-irritation, most researchers tend to believe that the emergence of positive emotions is associated with the activation of a special reward mechanism (“reward”). The basis of this mechanism is the catecholaminergic system.
Thus, Modern data point to a strong dependence of our moods and experiences on the biochemical composition of the internal environment of the brain. The brain has a special system - a biochemical analyzer of emotions. This analyzer has its own receptors and detectors; it analyzes the biochemical composition of the internal environment of the brain and interprets it in terms of emotions and moods.
Currently, the concept of J. Peipets about the special functions of the cingulate gyrus, which he considers as an organ in which a subjective, conscious emotional experience is formed, is of increased interest. Perhaps this is where the cortical level of the emotional analyzer is represented. The feedback of the cingulate gyrus with the hypothalamus, which is affirmed in the concept of the "Peypets circle", gives grounds to see in it the way through which the influence of conscious subjective experience on the behavioral expression of emotions is carried out, which is ultimately programmed at the level of the hypothalamus, which coordinates the autonomic and motor manifestations of emotions. .

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