Manufacturing advisor - an honorary title given to the owners of large industrial enterprises and merchants of the Russian Empire.

Persons with the title of advisor manufactories had all the rights and advantages accorded to advisers to commerce. The rank corresponded to the VIII class of the civil service. Hereditary honorary citizenship was granted to manufactories-advisers from 1832, and to their widows and children - from 1836. The sons of the manufactories-advisers from 1854 had the right to enter the civil service.

This title was held by many well-known entrepreneurs of the Russian Empire, in particular: A. V. Alekseev, N. A. Balin, D. V. Bryuzgin, G. E. Weinstein, S. P. Glezmer, I. F. Guchkov, P. N. Derbenyov, R. R. Köller, E. E. Klassen, I. M. Kondrashov, G. M. Mark, I. A. Morozov, S. T. Morozov, K. Ya. Pal, S. A. Protopopov, K. V. Prokhorov, N. I. Prokhorov, S. I. Prokhorov, T. V. Prokhorov, F. K. San Galli, A. G. Sapozhnikov, M. G. Soldatenkov, A. V. Tretyakov, D. P. Khlebnikov, A. I. Khludov, G. I. Khludov, K. A. Yasyuninsky.

1. Alexander I. // Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, 1830. - T. XXXI, 1810-1811, No. 24403... - S. 424-426.
2. Paul I. // Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire since 1649. - SPb. : Printing House of the II Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, 1830. - T. XXVI, 1800-1801, No. 19347... - S. 102-103.
3. // Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, 1862. - T. XXXV, first branch, 1860, No. 35670... - S. 379.
4. Nicholas I. // Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, second collection. - SPb. : Printing House of the II Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, 1833. - T. VII, 1832, No. 5284. - S. 193-195.
5. // Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, second collection. - SPb. : Printing House of the II Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, 1837. - T. XI, first branch, 1836, No. 9231... - S. 623.
6. // Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, second collection. - SPb. : Printing House of the II Department of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, 1837. - T. XXIX, second department, 1855, No. 28763... - S. 49-50.

Literature

• Manufacturing advisor // Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.

I didn’t want to look at it further! .. I no longer had the strength ... But the North ruthlessly continued to show some cities with churches blazing in them ... These cities were completely empty, not counting the thousands of corpses thrown right on streets, and overflowing rivers of human blood, drowning in which the wolves feasted ... Horror and pain bound me, not allowing me to breathe even for a minute. Without letting you move ...

What should the "people" feel when they gave such orders ??? I don't think they felt anything at all, for their ugly, callous souls were black and black.

Suddenly I saw a very beautiful castle, the walls of which were damaged in places by catapults, but basically the castle remained intact. The entire courtyard was filled with corpses of people drowning in pools of their own and others' blood. They all had their throats cut ...
- This is Lavaur, Isidora ... A very beautiful and rich city. Its walls were the most protected. But the leader of the crusaders, Simon de Montfort, who was enraged by unsuccessful attempts, called for help all the rabble he could find, and ... 15,000 who came to the call of the "soldiers of Christ" attacked the fortress ... Unable to withstand the onslaught, Lavour fell. All residents, including 400 (!!!) Perfect, 42 troubadours and 80 knights-defenders, brutally fell at the hands of the "holy" executioners. Here, in the courtyard, you see only the knights who defended the city, and also those who held weapons in their hands. The rest (except for the burned Qatar), having stabbed to death, were simply left to rot in the streets ... In the city basement, the killers found 500 hiding women and children - they were brutally killed right there ... without going outside ...
In the courtyard of the castle, some people brought a pretty, well-dressed young woman, bound in chains. A drunken whoop and laughter began all around. The woman was roughly grabbed by the shoulders and thrown into the well. Dull, plaintive groans and cries were immediately heard from the depths. They continued until the crusaders, by order of the leader, filled the well with stones ...
- It was Dame Giralda ... The owner of the castle and this city ... All subjects, without exception, loved her very much. She was soft and kind ... And she carried her first unborn baby under her heart. - Sever finished hard.
Then he looked at me, and apparently immediately understood - I just didn't have any more strength ...
The horror ended immediately.
Sever approached me sympathetically, and, seeing that I was still trembling violently, gently laid his hand on my head. He stroked my long hair, whispering quiet words of comfort. And I gradually began to come to life, recovering after a terrible, inhuman shock ... A swarm of unasked questions was annoyingly circling in my tired head. But all these questions now seemed empty and irrelevant. Therefore, I preferred to wait for what the Sever would say.
- Forgive me for the pain, Isidora, but I wanted to show you the truth ... So that you understand the burden of Katar ... So that you don't think that they easily lost the Perfect ones ...
- I still don't understand it, Sever! Just as I could not understand your truth ... Why did not the Perfect ones fight for life ?! Why didn't you use what you knew? After all, almost each of them could destroy an entire army with just one movement! .. Why surrender?
- I guess that was what I talked to you about so often, my friend ... They just weren't ready.
- Not ready for what ?! - out of old habit, I exploded. - Not ready to save your lives? Not ready to save other, suffering people ?! But all this is so wrong! .. This is wrong !!!
- They were not the warriors that you are, Isidora. - Sever said quietly. “They didn't kill, believing that the world should be different. Considering that they could teach people to change ... Teach Understanding and Love, teach Good. They hoped to give Knowledge to people ... but not everyone, unfortunately, needed it. You are right when you say the Cathars were strong. Yes, they were perfect Magicians and possessed tremendous power. But they did not want to fight FORCE, preferring to fight with the WORD over force. This is what destroyed them, Isidora. That is why I tell you, my friend, they were not ready. And to be very precise, this world was not ready for them. The earth, at that time, respected precisely the strength. And the Cathars carried Love, Light and Knowledge. And they came too early. People were not ready for them ...
- Well, but what about those hundreds of thousands that Vera Qatar carried throughout Europe? What were drawn to Light and Knowledge? There were a lot of them!
- You're right, Isidora ... There were many of them. But what happened to them? As I told you earlier, Knowledge can be very dangerous if it comes too early. People must be ready to accept it. Without resisting or killing. Otherwise, this Knowledge will not help them. Or even worse - if it falls into someone's dirty hands, it will destroy the Earth. I'm sorry if I upset you ...
- And yet, I do not agree with you, Sever ... The time you are talking about will never come to Earth. People will never think the same way. This is normal. Look at nature - every tree, every flower is different ... And you want people to be similar! .. Too much evil, too much violence has been shown to man. And those who have a dark soul do not want to work and KNOW when it is possible to just kill or lie in order to take possession of what they need. One must fight for Light and Knowledge! And win. This is what should be missing to a normal person... The land can be beautiful, North. We just have to show her HOW she can become pure and beautiful ...

Development of capitalist relations in Russia can be judged by changes in trade and industrial legislation.
The Posad population of Petersburg was divided into guilds under Peter I in 1721. The foreign word "guild" did not take root then, and for half a century the merchants were called the first-class and middle-class ones.
The merchants were first divided into three guilds under Catherine II in 1775. At the same time, the size of the minimum capital was established, which the merchant enrolling in the guild had to declare "according to conscience" and pay an annual fee of 1% from him.

Guilds are approved
In 1785, the "Certificate of Rights and Benefits to the Cities of the Russian Empire" was published, in which the division into three guilds was confirmed and the scope of activity of each of them was determined. The merchants of the 1st guild were allowed to carry out general trade both within the empire and abroad, establish factories, factories, and build seagoing ships. The merchants of the 2nd guild enjoyed the right to conduct wholesale and retail trade within the state, as well as maintain factories, factories and river commercial ships. For the merchants of the 3rd guild, petty bargaining was provided in the city and county, and they were also allowed to produce all kinds of handicrafts, maintain small river boats, taverns, baths and inns.
Those who enrolled in the guild were allowed to enter into government leases and contracts. All three guilds were exempt from recruitment, capitation, and the 1st and 2nd guilds were exempted from corporal punishment. The capital was to be announced annually. Failure to declare led to expulsion from the guild (the excluded were called "slobs"). Nobles were forbidden to join guilds.

Titles and awards
At the same time, the title of an eminent citizen was introduced for the most noble and wealthy merchants, persons who held positions in city elections, as well as for scientists, artists, and artists. Merchants - eminent citizens had the right to establish country palaces and gardens, ride in a carriage in pairs and fours, and under certain conditions - to ask for elevation to the nobility.
One of the first to receive the title of an eminent citizen was the St. Petersburg merchant Vasily Grigorievich Kusov. By the decree of March 27, 1800, the honorary titles of commerce advisor and manufactory advisor were introduced, which were awarded to merchants - eminent citizens and merchants of the 1st guild. Due to the insignificance of the capital required to enter the 3rd guild, at the end of the 18th century, merchants recorded most of townspeople population. The lower capital level then rose twice more - in 1794 and in 1807 - and merchants immediately diminished. The title of eminent citizens for merchants was abolished in 1807, at the same time, in order to strengthen ties between estates, the nobles were allowed to carry out foreign trade and enter into trading houses and associations.
Under Nicholas I, the rights of entrepreneurs expanded. The Manifesto of April 10, 1832 established a new title - personal and hereditary honorary citizens. The first was used by graduates of universities, commercial or technological schools. The title of hereditary honorary citizens could be obtained by commerce or manufactories-advisers, holders of orders and those who were 10 or 20 years respectively in the 1st and 2nd guilds continuously and blamelessly. It was possible to acquire honorary citizenship by rewarding for useful activities. Prior to this, only the title of nobility could testify to the privileged position of merchants, having reached which many retired.

Temporary merchants
During the reign of Nicholas I, the duties of the 3rd guild were reduced, all merchants were allowed to bargain abroad, and nobles were allowed to enroll in the guild. The increase in the number of estates with access to trading activities led to the emergence of the status of temporary merchants. This category included nobles, honorary citizens, foreign nationals, nonresident merchants who did not want to leave their former state. They received merchant certificates for their temporary activities in a certain city. There were quite a few temporary merchants in Petersburg. For example, three generations of British subjects of the Andersons, who traded wholesale at the port, were considered temporary merchants for more than half a century.
There were few real nobles among the temporary merchants. One can name Benardaki Dmitry Yegorovich, a retired lieutenant and cavalier, a temporary 1st guild of a merchant since 1851, who traded forest materials, leather goods, mirrors and glass, walnut wood and flour and had a flour mill; Baroness Maria Antonovna Korf, a temporary 2nd guild merchant's wife since 1862, who kept drinking establishments in different parts of St. Petersburg.

Business goes to the masses
Under the Trade Regulations of 1863, the right to engage in trade and industry in Russia became the right of every person. The only exceptions were priests, church clerks, and Protestant preachers. Traders were divided not by the amount of declared capital, but by the type of trade - into wholesalers and those who were involved in retail trade. The volumes of supplies and contracts for the second category were limited to 15,000 rubles, for the first the size of transactions was not limited. Instead of the 3rd guild, petty trade was put in place for persons of a non-cult rank.
The merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds could maintain all kinds of industrial establishments. The merchants of the 1st guild were also granted additional rights, which were rather decorative in nature. They enjoyed the right to visit the Imperial Court, and they had the right to wear a uniform and a sword.
The rights of the merchant class were acquired by taking a guild or merchant certificate. But first, the candidate had to pay all the duties as before. The fee for a certificate for the right to trade and trades was originally in St. Petersburg for the 1st guild 265 rubles, for the 2nd - 65, for petty bargaining - 20. The amount of fees changed over time.

4. Estate, rank, rank, title.

4.1. The main provisions about estates Russian empire.

From the creation of the Russian centralized state until 1917, there were estates in Russia, the borders between which, as well as their rights and obligations, were legally determined and regulated by the government. Initially, in the XVI-XVII centuries. in Russia there were relatively numerous class groups with a poorly developed corporate organization and not very clear distinctions among themselves in rights.

Later, in the course of Peter the Great's reforms, as well as as a result of the legislative activity of the successors of Peter I, especially Catherine II, there was a consolidation of estates, the formation of estate-corporate organizations and institutions, the inter-class partitions became clearer. At the same time, the specifics of Russian society were wider than in many other European countries, the possibilities of transferring from one class to another, including raising the estate status through the civil service, as well as the wide inclusion of representatives of peoples who entered Russia into the privileged classes.

After the reforms of the 1860s. class differences began to gradually smooth out, and after the February Revolution of 1917, the question of abolishing the estates was put on the agenda and was being prepared by the Provisional Government. The all-estate character of the future Russian Republic was to be determined by the Constituent Assembly. But back in August 1917, the previous procedure for entering information about class origin in the birth records was confirmed, right up to the legislative resolution of the issue.

The Bolsheviks carried out the official abolition of the estates.

All estates of the Russian Empire were divided into privileged and tribute ... The differences between them were in the rights to public service and office, the rights to participate in public administration, the rights to self-government, the rights to court and serve sentences, the rights to property and commercial and industrial activities, and, finally, the rights to receive education.

The estate status of each Russian subject was determined by his origin (by birth), as well as his official position, education and occupation (property status), i.e. could change depending on promotion in the state - military or civil - service, receiving an order for official and extra-service merits, graduation from a higher educational institution, whose diploma gave the right to transfer to the upper class, and successful commercial and industrial activities. For women, an increase in class status was also possible through marriage with a representative of a higher class.

The state encouraged the inheritance of professions, which was manifested in the desire to give the opportunity to receive special education at the expense of the treasury, primarily to children of specialists in this profile (mining engineers, for example). Since there were no rigid boundaries between estates, their representatives could move from one class to another: with the help of service, awards, education, and the successful conduct of any business. For serfs, for example, sending their children to educational institutions meant a free fortune for them in the future.

The functions of protecting and certifying the rights and privileges of all classes belonged exclusively to the Senate. He considered cases on the proof of the estate rights of individuals and on the transition from one state to another. Especially a lot of cases were postponed in the Senate fund for the protection of the rights of the nobility. He considered the evidence and asserted the rights to the nobility and to the honorary titles of princes, counts and barons, issued letters, diplomas and other acts confirming these rights, compiled coats of arms and heralds of noble families and cities; in charge of cases of production for seniority in civilian ranks up to the fifth grade inclusive. Since 1832, the Senate has been entrusted with the assignment to honorary citizenship (personal and hereditary) and the issuance of appropriate letters and certificates.

The Senate also exercised control over the activities of the nobility's deputy assemblies, city, merchant, bourgeois and craft societies.

The main stages in the history of the Russian estates, the methods of determining belonging to them and the path to "re-enrollment", their rights and obligations should be considered separately for each class.

4.2. Peasantry.

The peasantry, both in Moscow Russia and in the Russian Empire, was the lowest tax-paying class, which constituted the overwhelming majority of the population. In 1721, various groups of the dependent population were combined into enlarged categories. state (state ), palace , monastic and landlord peasants. At the same time, former black-haired , jasper etc. peasants. All of them were united by feudal dependence directly on the state and the obligation to pay, along with the poll tax, a special (at first four-hryvenny) tax, equated by law to proprietary duties. The palace peasants were directly dependent on the monarch and members of his family. After 1797 they formed the category of the so-called specific peasants. The monastic peasants, after secularization, formed the category of the so-called economic (since until 1782 they were subordinate to the College of Economy). Not differing in principle from the state, paying the same duties and being governed by the same government officials, they stood out among the peasants for their prosperity. In number proprietary (landlord) peasants were both peasants proper and slaves, and the position of these two categories in the XVIII century. got so close that all differences disappeared. Among the landlord peasants were distinguished plowed peasants, corvée and quitrent and yard , but the transition from one group to another depended on the will of the owner.

All peasants were attached to their place of residence and their community, paid a capitation tax and sent recruiting and other in-kind duties, subject to corporal punishment. The only guarantees of the landlord peasants against the arbitrariness of the owners was that the law protected their lives (the right of corporal punishment belonged to the owner), since 1797 the law on the three-day corvee was in force, formally not limiting corvee to 3 days, but in practice, as a rule, it was applied. In the first half of the XIX century. there were also rules prohibiting the sale of serfs without a family, the purchase of peasants without land, etc. For the state peasants, the opportunities were somewhat large: the right to go to the bourgeoisie and register as merchants (if leave evidence ), the right to relocate to new lands (with the permission of the local authorities, if there is little land). After the reforms of the 1860s. the communal organization of the peasantry was preserved with mutual responsibility, the prohibition to leave the place of residence without temporary passports and the prohibition to change their place of residence and enroll in other estates without dismissal from the community. Signs of the class incompleteness of the peasants remained the poll tax, canceled only at the beginning. XX century, their jurisdiction on minor matters to a special volost court, which retained, even after the abolition of corporal punishment under general law, rods as a measure of punishment, and in a number of administrative and court cases - to the zemstvo chiefs. After the peasants received the right to freely leave the community and the right to private ownership of land in 1906, their class isolation decreased.

An important document containing genealogical information was family the lists , which were made up for persons of tax-paying estates (peasants and burghers). They were conducted since 1858 by treasury chambers and volost boards. They acquired particular importance in connection with the new statute on military service of January 1, 1874, which abolished the recruiting system and prescribed the compilation of draft lists of tax-paying estates according to family lists. Since that time, every year parish priests have checked peasant family lists with registers of births, and since 1885 this duty was assigned to volost elders and clerks, therefore lists of males who turned 20 in the next year, with information about the composition of their families postponed in the volost government. Descriptive books of specific peasants are kept in the RGIA. F. 515.

Once the family list was compiled, new information was added over the years, and when new amendments became difficult, a new one was started. Therefore, in the funds of rural municipality boards, you can find 3-4 family lists.

The typewritten family list form had 11 columns. It is in many ways similar to the form of the revision tale of 7-10 revisions.

Column 1 indicated N families in order, in the 2nd - N families according to the last revision tale. Columns 3-8 were filled in with information about the male part of the family. Column 3: nickname (or surname), name and patronymic of the head of the family and the names of his sons, grandchildren, brothers and sons who lived together. Columns 4-6 showed the age of men (year, month and birthday) - on January 1 of the current year. Column 7 entered information about the year in which the family member died, the name and number of years of the newly born. Column 8 indicated the beginning of admission to active service, its end, transfer to the reserve, etc. Column 9 indicated the names and patronymics of wives (who is the husband) and the names of daughters. Column 10 indicated the facts of marriage and death of women.

4.3. Philistinism.

The bourgeoisie - the main urban tax-paying estate in the Russian Empire - originates from the townspeople of Moscow Russia, united in black hundreds and settlements. The bourgeoisie were assigned to their urban societies, which could only leave for temporary passports, and list in others - with the permission of the authorities. They paid a capitation tax, were subject to recruitment and corporal punishment, did not have the right to enter the civil service, and did not enjoy the rights of volunteers when entering military service.

Petty trade, various trades, and employment were allowed for the bourgeoisie. To practice crafts and trade, they had to enroll in workshops and guilds.

The organization of the bourgeois estate was finally established in 1785. In each city they formed a bourgeois society, elected bourgeois councils or bourgeois elders and their assistants (councils were introduced since 1870).

In the middle of the XIX century. the bourgeoisie are exempted from corporal punishment, since 1866 - from the poll tax.

Belonging to the bourgeois class was hereditary. Registration in the bourgeoisie was open for persons obliged to choose a kind of life, for state (after the abolition of serfdom - for all) peasants, but for the latter - only upon dismissal from society and permission of the authorities.

4.4. Workshop (artisans).

Workshops, as corporations of persons engaged in the same craft, were established under Peter I. For the first time, a workshop organization was established by the Instruction to the Chief Magistrate and the rules on registration in workshops. Subsequently, the rights of the guilds were clarified and confirmed by the Crafts and City Regulations under Catherine II.

The guilds were given the pre-emptive right to engage in certain types of crafts and sell their products. To engage in these crafts by persons of other classes, they were required to temporarily register in the workshop with the payment of appropriate fees. Without registration in the shop, it was impossible to open a craft establishment, keep workers and have a sign.

Thus, all persons registered in the workshop were divided into temporary and perpetual workshop. For the latter, belonging to the workshop meant at the same time class belonging. Only perpetual shop rights had full shop rights.

After spending 3 to 5 years in apprentices, they could enroll in an apprentice, and then, after presenting a sample of their work and approval of its guild (craft) council - in a master. For this, they received special evidence ... Only foremen had the right to open establishments with hired workers and keep apprentices.

In separate statements, Jewish artisans were counted. Vedomosti about jews , masters and artisans contained: last name, first name, patronymic, place of residence, marital status, degree of kinship, ownership of land and real estate. The records were kept in the craft councils.

Guilds belonged to the number of taxable estates and were subject to poll tax, recruitment duty and corporal punishment.

Belonging to the workshop was acquired at birth and when registering in the workshop, and was also passed on by the husband to his wife. But the children of the guild, having reached adulthood, had to enroll in apprentices, apprentices, foremen, and otherwise they would go to the bourgeoisie.

The guilds had their own corporate estate organization. Each workshop had its own board (in small towns, from 1852, workshops could be combined with subordination to the craft board). Guilds elected artisan heads, guild (or managerial) foremen and their comrades, apprentices elected and attorneys. Elections were to be held annually.

4.5. Merchants.

In Muscovite Russia, merchants stood out from the general mass of the townspeople, who were divided into guests, hundreds of merchants from the Living Room and the Sukonnaya in Moscow and the "best people" in the cities, and the guests were the most privileged elite of the merchant class.

Peter I, having singled out the merchants from the general mass of the townspeople, introduced their division into guilds and city government. In 1724, the principles of assigning merchants to a particular guild were formulated: "In 1st guilds noble merchants who have large trades and who sell various goods in their ranks, city doctors, pharmacists and healers, ship industrialists. In 2nd guilds who trade in petty goods and all sorts of food supplies, artisans of all kinds of skills, people and others like that; others, namely: all vile people who find themselves in hiring, in black jobs and the like, although citizens are of the essence and have citizenship, only noble and regular citizens are not listed. "

But the final form of the guild structure of the merchants, like the bodies of city government, acquired under Catherine II. On March 17, 1775, it was established that merchants with a capital of more than 500 rubles should be divided into 3 guilds and pay 1% of the declared capital to the treasury, and be free from the poll tax. On May 25 of the same year, it was clarified that in third guild merchants who have declared capital from 500 to 1000 rubles must be recorded, in second - from 1000 to 10000 rubles, in first more than 10,000 rubles. At the same time, "the declaration of capital is left to a voluntary testimony on the conscience of everyone." Those who could not declare a capital of at least 500 rubles., Did not have the right to be called merchants and enroll in the guild. Subsequently, the size of the guild capital increased. In 1785, for the 3rd guild, the capital was set from 1 to 5 thousand rubles, for the 2nd - from 5 to 10 thousand rubles, for the 1st - from 10 to 50 thousand rubles. , in 1794, respectively, from 2 to 8 thousand rubles, from 8 to 16 thousand rubles. and from 16 to 50 thousand rubles. , in 1807 - from 8 to 10 thousand rubles, from 20 to 50 thousand and more than 50 thousand rubles.

The diploma for the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire confirmed that "whoever declares more capital, he is given a place before the one who declares less capital." Another, even more effective means of encouraging merchants to declare capital on a large scale (within the guild norm) was the provision that in government contracts, "trust" affects the extent of the declared capital.

Depending on the guild, merchants enjoyed different privileges and had different rights to trade and craft. All merchants could pay the corresponding money instead of recruiting. The merchants of the first two guilds were exempted from corporal punishment. The merchants of the 1st guild had the right to foreign and domestic trade, the 2nd - to internal, the 3rd - to petty goods.

cities and counties. The merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds had the right to travel around the city in pairs, and

3rd - on only one horse.

Persons of other classes could sign up in the guild on a temporary basis and, by paying guild duties, maintain their class status.

On October 26, 1800, nobles were forbidden to enroll in the guild and enjoy the benefits assigned to some merchants, but on January 1, 1807, the right of nobles to enroll in the guild was restored.

On March 27, 1800, to encourage merchants who excelled in their trading activities, the title commerce advisor equated to the 8th grade of the civil service, and then manufactories -advisor with similar rights. On January 1, 1807, the honorary title was also introduced primary merchants , to which were attributed merchants of the 1st guild, leading only wholesale trade. This title did not have the right to merchants who had both wholesale and retail trade or who held farms and contracts. First-class merchants had the right to travel around the city as a pair or four, and even had the right to visit the court (but only in person, without family members).

The manifesto of November 14, 1824 established new rules and benefits for the merchants. In particular, the merchants of the 1st guild confirmed the right to engage in banking business, enter into government contracts for any amount, etc. The right of merchants of the 2nd guild to trade abroad was limited to 300 thousand rubles. per year, and for the 3rd guild, such trade was prohibited. Contracts and buyouts, as well as private contracts for merchants of the 2nd guild, were limited to an amount of 50 thousand rubles, banking was prohibited. For merchants of the 3rd guild, the right to start factories was limited to light industry and the number of workers up to 32. It was confirmed that a merchant of the 1st guild, engaged only in wholesale or foreign trade, is called a first-class merchant or negociant Those involved in the banking industry could also be called b ankyrami ... Those who spent 12 consecutive years in the 1st guild received the right to be awarded the title of commerce or manufactory advisor. At the same time, it was emphasized that "monetary donations and concessions on contracts do not give the right to be awarded with ranks and orders" - this required special merits, for example, in the field of charity. Merchants of the 1st guild, who had stayed in it for less than 12 years, also had the right to ask for the enrollment of their children in the civil service as chief officer's children, as well as for their admission to various educational institutions, including universities, without dismissal from society ... The merchants of the 1st guild received the right to wear the uniforms of the province in which they were registered. The manifesto emphasized: "In general, the merchants of the 1st guild are not considered taxable, but constitute a special class of honorable people in the state." It was also noted here that merchants of the 1st guild are required to accept only positions city heads and assessors chambers (judicial ), conscientious ships and orders public charities , as well as deputies trade and directors banks and their offices and church headman , but they have the right to refuse the choice to all other public positions; for merchants of the 2nd guild, positions were added to this list burgomasters , ratmans and members shipping reprisals , for the 3rd - city headman , members hexagonal doom , deputies at different places. For all other city positions, the burghers were to be elected if the merchants did not wish to accept them.

On January 1, 1863, a new guild device was introduced. Trade and trades became available to persons of all classes without registering in the guild, subject to payment of all trade and trade certificates, but without class guild rights. At the same time, wholesale trade was assigned to the 1st guild, and retail trade to the 2nd. The merchants of the 1st guild had the right to widespread wholesale and retail trade, contracts and deliveries without restrictions, the maintenance of factories and factories, the 2nd - to retail trade at the place of registration, the maintenance of factories, factories and craft establishments, contracts and supplies in the amount of no more than 15 thousand rubles At the same time, the owner of a factory or plant where there are cars or more than 16 workers had to take a guild certificate of at least the 2nd guild, joint stock companies - the 1st guild.

Thus, belonging to the merchant class was determined by the size of the declared capital. Merchant children and inseparable brothers, as well as the wives of merchants belonged to the merchant (were recorded on one certificate ). Merchant widows and orphans retained this right, but without engaging in trade. Merchant children who reached the age of majority should have

branch again sign up to the guild for a separate certificate or passed into the bourgeoisie. Unseparated merchant children and brothers were to be called not merchants, but merchants sons etc. The transition from guild to guild and from merchants to burghers was free. The transfer of merchants from city to city was allowed provided that there were no arrears on guild and city fees and taking leave evidence ... Entry of merchant children to public service (except for the children of merchants of the 1st guild) was not allowed if such a right was not acquired by education.

The corporate estate organization of the merchant class existed in the form of merchant elders elected annually and their assistants, whose duties included maintaining guild lists , concern for the benefits and needs of the merchants, etc. This position was considered in the 14th grade of the civil service. Since 1870, the merchant elders were approved by the governors.

Belonging to the merchant class was combined with belonging to an honorary citizenship.

4.6. Clergy.

The clergy were considered a privileged, honorable class in Russia at all periods of its history.

The Orthodox clergy was divided into black (all monastics) and white , and belonged to the latter as proper clerics (protopresbyters and archpriests , elders , priests , protodeacons and subdeacons , as well as clerks in rank psalmists ) and churchly -ministers (sexton , sexton etc.). Since the black clergy, as monks who renounced the world, could not have property, did not have offspring, or ceased all civil relations with children, parents and all relatives, and persons of the upper classes entering monasticism could not enjoy any class privileges, talk about the clergy as class group can be primarily applied to the white clergy.

In the XVIII century. the material position of the parish clergy in the countryside was only not much higher than that of wealthy peasants, and in the city it was comparable to the position of the lower part of the bureaucracy and the bulk of the townspeople (with the exception of the clergy of cathedrals and, of course, the court clergy). At the same time, the practice (not formally legalized by any civil code or church canon) of the actual inheritance of church parishes was consolidated, when the diocesan bishop, when retiring "to retire", consolidated the petition the latter, a place for his son or son-in-law. As a result, the applicant could most often get a parish by marrying a priestly daughter, for which there were even the lists brides and those who wished were given recommendations.

At the same time, the principle of the need for spiritual education for the occupation of a clergy position, enshrined in the Spiritual Regulations, was finally established.

From the very beginning, the clergy were free from state taxes, first of all, from the poll tax, recruiting (from the moment of its establishment and up to the introduction of universal military service), and since 1874 - from military service and from military posts. But the freedom of clergy (priests and deacons) from corporal punishment was proclaimed only in 1747.

Persons of clergy were deprived of the right to own serfs (before secularization, this right was exercised corporately by monasteries, bishops' houses and even some churches), but for priests who had transferred to the clergy from the nobility, and also received orders, this right was recognized. The clergy could own uninhabited lands and houses. When owning houses for clergy, there was one restriction: in these houses it was impossible to place taverns and drinking establishments. Clergymen could not deal with contracts and supplies and act as guarantors for them. In general, clergymen were forbidden to engage in "unusual" trade trades, which entailed their being classified as a trade category (ie, enrollment in guilds and guilds). This prohibition went along the same lines as the prohibition of the clergy to attend "games", to play cards, etc.

Belonging to the clergy was acquired at birth and upon joining the ranks of the white clergy from other estates. In principle, the law allowed persons of all estates to enter the clergy, except for the serfs, who did not receive a leave of absence from their owners, but persons of taxable estates could join the ranks of the clergy only if the local diocesan authorities had certified the lack of clergy to fill the corresponding position, with "approving" behavior and in the presence leave evidence from a peasant or urban society. The transition to the white clergy of persons of the nobility until the beginning. XX century was uncharacteristic for Russia, but this practice was quite common in Ukraine.

The children of clergymen inherited their social class and did not have to choose their own kind of life upon reaching the age of majority, but those who remained with their fathers until the age of 15 without giving up to theological schools and appropriate training or expelled from theological schools for lack of understanding and laziness were excluded from the religious rank and had to choose their own kind of life, i.e. ascribe to any community of the taxable estate - philistine or peasant - or sign up into merchants. The children of clergymen who voluntarily deviated from the clergy had to choose their own kind of life. For "superfluous" children of the clergy, the so-called " analyzes "in which the children of clergymen, who were not recorded anywhere and not defined anywhere, were given up as soldiers. This practice finally ceased only by the 60s of the 19th century.

The children of the clergy had the right (and initially this right meant the obligation) to receive education in theological schools. Graduates of theological seminaries and theological academies may wish to pursue a secular career. For this they had to resign from the spiritual department. Those born in the clergy, when entering the civil service, enjoyed the same rights as the children of personal noblemen, but this only applied to clerical children. Upon admission - voluntarily or by analysis - to military service, the children of the clergy who graduated from the secondary department of the seminary and were not dismissed from the seminary for vices, enjoyed the rights volunteers ... But for persons who voluntarily resigned from their priesthood and wished to enter the civil service, such an entry was prohibited for priests for 10 years after the removal of dignity, and for deacons - 6 years.

In practice, the most common variant of class change for the children of the clergy in the XVIII - early. XIX centuries. There was admission to the civil service as a clerk before reaching the first class rank, and later - in universities and other educational institutions. Prohibition in 1884

seminary graduates to enter universities significantly limited this path of estate and social mobility of the clergy. At the same time, the greater openness of theological educational institutions (according to the statutes of 1867 and 1884) for persons of all classes, like the formal prohibition of the inheritance of parishes, contributed to the greater openness of the spiritual class.

The wives of clerics assimilated their class affiliation and retained it after the death of their husbands (before the second marriage).

Persons who belonged to the Orthodox clergy were subject to the court of the spiritual department.

Evidence of belonging to the clergy was metric evidence , clear statements composed in consistories, as well as henchmen diplomas .

The clergy did not have a special corporate estate organization, except for the rudiments of such an organization in the form of diocesan congresses and attempts to introduce in 60 - early. 80s XIX century. the election of the deans. Inherited at birth, belonging to the clergy was retained upon reaching the age of majority only upon entering the clerical office. Belonging to the clergy could be combined with the innate or received (for example, by order) the rights of the nobility and honorary citizenship.

The clergy of the Armenian Gregorian Church in Russia enjoyed the rights, basically similar to those of the Orthodox clergy.

There was no question about the estate and special estate rights of the Roman Catholic clergy, due to the obligatory celibacy in the Catholic Church.

The Protestant clergy enjoyed the rights of honorary citizens.

Clergymen of non-Christian confessions either received honorary citizenship after a certain period of fulfillment of their duties (Muslim clergy), or did not have any special estate rights, except for those belonging to them by birth (Jewish clergy), or enjoyed the rights stipulated in special provisions on foreigners (Lamaist clergy).

4.7. Nobility.

The main privileged class of the Russian Empire was finally formed in the 18th century. It was based on the privileged class groups of the so-called " servicemen by fatherland ranks "(ie by origin). The highest of them was the so-called" duma ranks " - duma boyars , roundabout , nobles and duma clerks , moreover, belonging to each of the listed class groups was determined by both the origin and the passage of the "sovereign service". It was possible to achieve boyars by serving, for example, from the Moscow nobility. At the same time, not a single son of the Duma boyar began service directly from this rank - he had to first visit at least the stewards. Then they walked ranks moscow : stewards , solicitor , nobles moscow and tenants ... Below the Moscow ones went police ranks : nobles elective (or choice), children boyar yard and children boyar police ... They differed among themselves not only in "fatherland", but also in the nature of their service and property status. Duma officials headed the state apparatus. Moscow officials carried out court service, made up the so-called "tsar's regiment" (a kind of guard), and were appointed to leading positions in the army and in the local administration. All of them had significant estates or were endowed with estates near Moscow. The elected nobles were sent in turn to serve at court and in Moscow, and also served "distant service", that is, went on long hikes and carried administrative duties far from the county in which their estates were located. Children boyar yard also carried distant service. Children boyar police due to their property status, they could not carry out long-distance service. They served as a city or siege, making up the garrisons of their county towns.

All these groups were distinguished by the fact that they inherited their service (and could move upwards along it) and possessed hereditary estates, or, upon reaching adulthood, they set up estates, which were the reward for their service.

Intermediate class groups included the so-called servicemen people by device , i.e. recruited or mobilized by the government in archers , gunners , grousers , reiters , spearmen etc., and their children could also inherit the service of their fathers, but this service was not privileged and did not provide opportunities for hierarchical elevation. A monetary reward was given for this service. Lands (at the frontier service) were given in the so-called "vopchie dachas", i.e. not in an estate, but as if in communal ownership. At the same time, at least in practice, their ownership by slaves and even peasants was not excluded.

Another intermediate group were clerk of different categories, which formed the basis of the bureaucratic machine of the Moscow state, recruited voluntarily and received monetary rewards for their service.

Servicemen were free from taxes, which fell with all their weight on heavy people, but none of them, from the town boyar's son to the Duma boyar, was exempted from corporal punishment and could be deprived of his rank, all rights and property at any moment. The "sovereign's service" was obligatory for all servicemen, and one could get rid of it only for illness, wounds and old age.

The only title available in Muscovite Rus is prince - did not give any special advantages, except for the title itself and often did not mean either a high position in the career ladder or large land ownership.

Belonging to service people in the homeland - nobles and boyar children - was recorded in the so-called tenths , i.e. lists of service people compiled during their reviews, analyzes and layout as well as in grants books Local order, which indicated the size of estates given to service people.

The essence of the Peter's reforms in relation to the nobility was that, firstly, all categories of service people in the homeland merged into one "noble gentry estate", and each member of this estate was equal from birth to everyone else, and all differences were determined by the difference in

position on the career ladder, according to the Table of Ranks, secondly, the acquisition of nobility by service was legalized and formally regulated (the nobility was given the first chief officer rank in military service and the rank of the 8th class - collegiate assessor - in civilian service), thirdly , every member of this class

was obliged to be in the public service, military or civil, up to old age or loss of health, fourthly, the correspondence of military and civilian ranks was established, unified in the table of ranks, fifthly, all differences between estates were finally eliminated as a form of conditional ownership and estates on the basis of a single inheritance right and a single duty to serve. Numerous small intermediate groups of "old services of the people" were deprived of their privileges by one decisive act and assigned to the state peasants.

The nobility was primarily a service class with formal equality of all members of this class and a fundamentally open character, which made it possible to include in the ranks of the class the most successful representatives of the lower class in the public service.

Titles: native to Russia princely title and new - county and baronial - only honorary generic names were important and, apart from the rights to title, they did not provide any special rights and privileges to their carriers.

The special privileges of the nobility in relation to the court and the order of serving sentences were not formally legalized, but rather existed in practice. The nobles were not exempted from corporal punishment.

With regard to property rights, the most important privilege of the nobility was the monopoly on the ownership of inhabited estates and courtyards, although this monopoly was still insufficiently regulated and absolute.

The establishment of the Gentry Corps in 1732 became the realization of the privileged position of the nobility in the field of education.

Finally, all the rights and advantages of the Russian nobility were formalized by the Certificate of Merit to the Nobility, approved by Catherine II on April 21, 1785.

This act formulated the very concept of the nobility as a hereditary privileged service class. He established the procedure for acquiring and proving the nobility, its special rights and advantages, including freedom from taxes and corporal punishment, as well as from compulsory service. This act established a noble corporate organization with local noble elective bodies. And the Catherine's provincial reform of 1775, somewhat earlier, secured to the nobility the right to elect candidates for a number of local administrative and judicial positions.

The letter of grant to the nobility finally consolidated the monopoly of this estate on the possession of "serf souls". The same act for the first time legalized such a category as personal nobles. The basic rights and privileges granted to the nobility by the Charter of Charity remained, with some clarifications and changes, in force until the reforms of the 1860s, and in a number of provisions even until 1917.

4.7.1. Acquisition and the confirmation right nobility.

Hereditary nobility , by the very meaning of the definition of this class, was inherited and, thus, acquired by the descendants of the nobility at birth. Women of non-noble origin acquired the nobility when they married a nobleman. However, they did not lose their noble rights when entering into a second marriage in the event of widowhood. At the same time, women of noble origin did not lose their noble dignity when they marry a non-noble person, although the children from such a marriage inherited the estate of their father.

The table of rank determined the order acquisitions nobility service : Achievement of the first chief officer rank in military service and the rank of 8th class in civilian service. On May 18, 1788, it was forbidden to assign hereditary nobility to persons who received the military chief officer's rank upon resignation, but did not serve in this rank. The Manifesto of July 11, 1845 raised the bar for achieving the nobility by service: from now on, hereditary nobility was assigned only to those who received the first staff officer rank in military service (major, 8th class), and in the civil service, the rank of 5th class (state councilor ), and these ranks should have been received in active service, and not upon resignation. Personal nobility was assigned in military service to those who received the rank of chief officer, and

for civil - ranks from 9th to 6th grade (from titular to collegiate counselor). On December 9, 1856, the hereditary nobility in military service began to bring the rank of colonel (captain of the 1st rank in the navy), and in the civil one - a real state councilor.

A certificate of honor to the nobility pointed to another source of acquisition noble dignity - rewarding one of russian orders .

On October 30, 1826, the State Council decided that "in disgust from misunderstandings about ranks and orders, persons of the merchant class who are most mercifully bestowed" henceforth such awards should only be brought by personal, and not hereditary nobility.

On February 27, 1830, the Council of State confirmed that the children of non-noble officials and persons of clergy who received orders, who were born before their fathers received this award, enjoy the rights of the nobility, as do the children of merchants who received orders before October 30, 1826.

But according to the new statute of the Order of St. Anna, approved on July 22, 1845, the rights of hereditary nobility were relied only on those who were awarded the 1st degree of this order; by decree on June 28, 1855, the same restriction was established for the Order of St. Stanislav. Thus, only among the orders of St. Vladimir (except for merchants) and St. George, all degrees gave the right to hereditary nobility. Since May 28, 1900, only the Order of St. Vladimir of the 3rd degree began to give the right to hereditary nobility.

Another limitation in the right to receive nobility by order was the order according to which hereditary nobility was awarded only to those awarded with orders for active service, and not for unofficial distinctions, for example, for charity.

Periodically, a number of other restrictions arose: for example, the prohibition to classify as hereditary nobility the ranks of the former Bashkir army, awarded with any orders, representatives of the Roman Catholic clergy, awarded the Order of St. Stanislav (the Orthodox clergy were not awarded this order), etc.

In 1900, persons of the Jewish confession were deprived of the right to acquire nobility by ranks in the service and by awarding orders.

Grandchildren of personal nobility could apply for elevation to hereditary nobility (i.e., the descendants of two generations of persons who received personal nobility and served for at least 20 years each), elder grandchildren famous citizens (a title that existed from 1785 to 1807) upon reaching the age of 30, if their grandfathers, fathers and they themselves "retained their prominence blamelessly", and also - according to the tradition, not legally formalized, - merchants of the 1st guild on the occasion The 100th anniversary of their firm. So, for example, the founders and owners of the Trekhgornaya manufactory, the Prokhorovs, received the nobility.

Special rules were in effect for a number of intermediate groups. Since the number one-yard people the impoverished descendants of old noble families also fell (under Peter I, some of them enrolled in odnodvorsty in order to avoid compulsory service), who had letters of nobility, on May 5, 1801, they were given the right to seek out and prove the noble dignity lost by their ancestors. But after 3 years it was ordered to consider their evidence "with all severity", while observing that people who had lost it "for guilt and serving time" were not admitted to the nobility. On December 28, 1816, the Council of State recognized that proof of the presence of noble ancestors is not enough for one-courtiers, it is still necessary to achieve the nobility of Che

cut service. To do this, one-courtiers who presented evidence of their origin from a noble family were given the right to enter military service with exemption from duties and production into the first chief officer's rank after 6 years. After the introduction in 1874 of universal conscription, one-courtiers were given the right to restore the nobility lost by their ancestors (if there was appropriate evidence, confirmed by the evidence of the noble assembly of their province) by entering military service as volunteers and receiving an officer's rank in the general procedure provided for volunteers.

In 1831 g. polish gentry , which did not issue from the time of the annexation of the Western provinces of the Russian nobility to Russia by submitting the evidence provided for by the Certificate of Appreciation, was recorded in the one-house palaces or " citizens " .

On July 3, 1845, the rules for the return of the noble state to one-family courtiers were extended to persons who belonged to the former Polish gentry.

IN cossack troops to the hereditary nobility were:

For the Don Army - persons who received headquarters officers' ranks on the basis of a report approved by Catherine II on February 14, 1775, military foremen, who, on the basis of this report, were considered mediocre juniors in front of army seconds-majors and foremen in relation to captains, military officials,

recognized by the decree of September 22, 1798 as army ranks, persons promoted to military officer ranks after the decree on September 22, 1798 comparing them with the ranks with regular troops and before the decree on September 29, 1802, and, finally, persons promoted to military officers' ranks after the decree on September 29, 1802 and before the manifesto on June 11, 1845;

According to the Ural Army - military officials recognized by the decree on April 9, 1799 as army ranks, persons promoted to military officer ranks after comparing them in ranks with regular troops by decree on April 9, 1799 before the decree on December 26, 1803 and after this decree until manifesto June 11, 1845;

According to the Astrakhan Army - military officials, by the Regulations on May 7, 1817, compared in ranks with regular troops, and persons promoted to military officer ranks after May 7, 1817 and before the manifesto on June 11, 1845;

According to the Orenburg Army - military officials, the Regulations on December 12, 1840 compared in ranks with regular troops, persons promoted to military officer ranks after December 12, 1840 and before the manifesto of June 11, 1845, as well as military officials of the former Orenburg thousandth Cossack the regiment compared with the army ranks according to the "highest approved report" on June 8, 1803;

For the Kuban Army (formerly Black Sea) - military officials who received army ranks according to a report approved by Alexander I on November 13, 1802, and persons who received military officer ranks after November 13, 1802 and before the manifesto on June 11, 1845;

According to the Tersky Troops (formerly Caucasian Linear) - military officials, according to the Regulation on February 14, 1845, compared in ranks with the army, and persons who received military officer ranks after the mentioned position and before the manifesto on June 11, 1845;

According to the Siberian Army (formerly Siberian Linear) - persons who received valid army ranks before the manifesto of June 11, 1845, and everyone who received the rank of colonel before the decree on December 6, 1849 or received the rank of military sergeant major for military exploits, as well as officers of the cavalry artillery company, renamed by decree on June 9, 1812 into army ranks or promoted to ranks before June 11, 1845, as well as persons who rose to the rank of military sergeant after December 6, 1849, but before December 9, 1856.

According to the Don, Ural, Astrakhan, Orenburg, Kuban and Tersk Cossack troops, persons who received actual army officer ranks before comparing the Cossack troops in ranks with regular troops, and all those who served from June 11, 1845 to December 9, 1856, were also ranked as hereditary nobility to the rank of military sergeant major.

In the Trans-Baikal Cossack army, in the Irkutsk and Yenisei Cossack cavalry regiments, as well as in the abolished Cossack troops, which had no comparison in ranks with the army - Azov and Novorossiysk, all persons who received valid army ranks before 1845 of the manifesto of June 11 were ranked as hereditary nobility ., everyone who rose to the rank of colonel or received a valid rank of military sergeant major for military exploits before December 9, 1856, and in the Novorossiysk army - promoted to military sergeant major from November 13, 1844 until February 23, 1848.

According to the abolished Bashkir army, persons who received active officer ranks in the service before May 14, 1863, were approved in the hereditary nobility according to the rules that were in force for the Transbaikal Cossack army.

Hereditary nobles were recognized as persons who had abolished Little Russian ranks: general transport , general judges , general podscarbia , general scribes , general esaula , general cornet , general bunchuzhny , colonel military government , bunchukovy comrade , transport regimental Artillery government , esaula Artillery government , cornet Artillery r general Artillery government , regimental esaula , cornet and centurion

Troops government , ataman Artillery general , military comrade regimental and scribes regimental Statsky government , as well as feeding , zemstvo judges and judgment who received these ranks during the existence of hetman rule in Little Russia.

When new territories were annexed to Russia, the local nobility, as a rule, was included in the Russian nobility. This happened with the Tatar Murzas, Georgian princes, etc. For other peoples, the nobility was achieved by obtaining the corresponding military and civilian ranks in the Russian service or Russian orders. So, for example, the noyons and zaisangs of Kalmyks wandering in the Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces (the Don Kalmyks were registered in the Don Army and they were subject to the procedure for obtaining nobility adopted for the Don military ranks), upon receiving orders, they enjoyed the rights of personal or hereditary nobility in the general position ... The senior sultans of the Siberian Kirghiz could ask for hereditary nobility if they served in this rank in the elections for three three years. Holders of other honorary titles of the peoples of Siberia did not have special rights to the nobility, if the latter were not assigned to one of them by separate letters or if they were not promoted to ranks bringing nobility.

Regardless of the method of obtaining hereditary nobility, all hereditary nobles in the Russian Empire enjoyed the same rights. The presence of the title did not give the holders of this title any special rights either. The differences were only depending on the size of real estate (until 1861 - inhabited estates). From this point of view, all the nobles of the Russian Empire could be divided into 3 categories: 1) noblemen included in genealogical books and owning real estate in the province; 2) noblemen included in the genealogical books, but not owning real estate; 3) noblemen not included in the genealogical books. Depending on the size of the ownership of real estate (until 1861 - on the number of serf souls), there was the degree of full participation of nobles in the noble elections. Participation in these elections and, in general, belonging to the noble society of this or that province or district depended on the inclusion in the genealogical books of this or that province. Nobles

who owned real estate in the province were subject to entry in the genealogical books of this province, but the entry into these books was carried out only according to petitions these nobles. Therefore, many noblemen who received their nobility through ranks and orders, as well as some foreign nobles who received the rights of the Russian nobility, were not recorded in the genealogical books of any provinces.

Only the first of the above categories enjoyed in full the rights and advantages of the hereditary nobility, both as part of noble societies, and separately belonging to each person. The second category enjoyed in full the rights and privileges that belonged to each person, and the rights in the composition of noble societies to a limited extent. And, finally, the third category enjoyed the rights and advantages of the nobility assigned to each individual and did not enjoy any rights as part of noble societies. At the same time, any person from the third category could, at his will, at any time move to the second or first category, while the transition from the second category to the first and vice versa depended exclusively on the financial situation.

Every nobleman, especially not an employee, had to enroll in pedigree book the province where he had permanent residence, if he owned any real estate in this province, even if this property was less significant than in other provinces. Nobles who had the necessary property qualification in several provinces at once could enter the genealogy books of all those provinces where they wished to participate in the elections. At the same time, the nobles who proved their nobility through their ancestors, but who did not have any real estate anywhere, were entered into the book of the province where their ancestors owned the estate. Those who received the nobility by rank or order could be included in the book of that

province where they wish, regardless of whether they have real estate there. The same rule extended to foreign nobles, but the latter were included in the genealogical books only after a preliminary presentation about them to the Heraldry Department. Hereditary noblemen of the Cossack troops were entered: the Don troops in the genealogical book of this army, and the rest of the troops - in the genealogical books of those provinces and regions where these troops were located. When the nobles of the Cossack troops were entered into the genealogical books, their belonging to these troops was indicated.

Personal nobles were not included in the genealogical books. The pedigree book was divided into six parts. IN first part introduced "families of nobility, granted or actual"; in second part - the clans of the military nobility; in third - clans of the nobility acquired in the civil service, as well as those who received the right of hereditary nobility by order; in fourth - all foreign families; in fifth - titled childbirth; in sixth part - "ancient noble noble families".

In practice, persons who received the nobility by the order were also recorded in the first part, especially if this order complained outside the usual official order. With the legal equality of all nobles, regardless of which part of the genealogy book they were recorded in, the entry in the first part was considered less honorable than in the second and third, and all three first parts taken together were less honorable than the fifth and sixth. The fifth part included clans that had the Russian titles of barons, counts, princes and secular princes, and the Ostsee barony meant belonging to an ancient family, the barony bestowed on the Russian family - its originally ignoble origin, trade and industry (barons Shafirovs, Stroganovs, etc. ). Earl's title meant

especially high position and special imperial favor, the rise of the clan in the XVIII - early. XIX centuries, so in other cases it was even more honorable than the princely, not supported by the high position of the holder of this title. In the XIX - early. XX centuries. the title of count was often given at the resignation of a minister or as a sign of special royal favor to the latter, as a reward. It is of this origin that the county of Valuevs, Delyanovs, Witte, Kokovtsovs. By itself, the princely title in the XVIII - XIX centuries. did not mean a particularly high position and did not talk about anything except the antiquity of the origin of the genus. There were much more princely families in Russia than counts, and among them there were many Tatar and Georgian princes; there was even a clan of Tungus princes - the Gantimurovs. The greatest nobility and high position of the family was evidenced by the title brightest princes , which distinguished the bearers of this title from other princes and gave the right to be titled "your lordship" (ordinary princes, like counts, used the title "excellency", and the barons were not given special titles).

The sixth part included clans, the nobility of which was a century old at the time of the publication of the Charter of Charity, but due to the lack of certainty of the law when considering a number of cases, the century was calculated according to the time of consideration of documents for the nobility. In practice, most often the evidence for inclusion in the sixth part of the genealogy book was considered especially meticulously, at the same time, the entry in the second or third part did not meet (if there was appropriate evidence) any obstacles. Formally, the entry into the sixth part of the genealogy book did not give any privileges, except for one single one: only the sons of the nobles recorded in the fifth and sixth parts of the genealogical books were enrolled in the Corps of Pages, the Alexandrovsky (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum and the School of Law.

Evidence nobility were considered: d iploma on award to nobility dignity , salaries from monarchs coats of arms , patents on ranks , proof of awards of the order, evidence "through letters of commendation", decrees on award land or villages , layout by noble service estates , decrees or diplomas on award them estates and fiefdoms , decrees or diplomas on salaries villages and fiefdoms (even if they were later lost by the family), decrees , orders or diplomas , data nobleman on embassy , messengership or another parcel, proof of about noble service ancestors , proof of that the father and grandfather "led a noble life or a fortune or service similar to a noble name", supported by the testimony of 12 people, about whose nobility there is no doubt, deed of sale , mortgages , in-line and spiritual about noble estates , proof of that the father and grandfather owned the villages, as well as evidence " generational and hereditary , ascending from son to father , grandfather , great grandfather and so on, as much as they can and want to show "( genealogy , generational murals ) .

The first instance to review evidence of the nobility were noble deputy meetings , consisting of deputies from the county noble societies (one from the county) and the provincial leader of the nobility. The noble parliamentary assemblies considered the evidence presented against the nobility, conducted provincial pedigrees books and sent information and extracts from these books to the provincial governments and the Department of Heraldry of the Senate, and also issued certificates for the entry of noble families into the genealogy book, issued to the nobles at their request the lists from protocols , according to which their genus is included in the genealogy book, or evidence about nobility ... The rights of the noble parliamentary assemblies were limited by the inclusion in the genealogical book of only those persons who had already irrefutably proven their nobility. The elevation to the nobility or the restoration of the nobility was not within their competence. When considering the evidence, the noble parliamentary assemblies had no right to interpret or explain the laws in force. They had to consider evidence only of those persons who owned or owned real estate in the given province themselves or through their wives. But the retired military or officials who chose this province as their place of residence upon resignation, the deputy assemblies could freely enter the genealogical books themselves upon presentation of patents for ranks and certified service records or formulary lists, as well as metric certificates for children approved by spiritual consistories.

Pedigrees books were compiled in each province by a deputy assembly together with the provincial leader of the nobility. The district leaders of the nobility were alphabetic the lists noble childbirth his county, indicating the name and surname of each nobleman, information about marriage, wife, children, real estate, place of residence, rank and service or retirement. These lists were presented with the signature of the marshal of the nobility to the provincial governor. The deputy assembly was based on these lists when entering into the genealogy book of each genus, and the decision on such an introduction had to be based on irrefutable evidence and taken by at least two-thirds of the votes.

Determinations of deputy assemblies were submitted for audit to the Department of Heraldry of the Senate, except for cases of persons. acquired the nobility through service. When sending cases for revision to the Heraldry Department, the noble parliamentary assemblies had to ensure that the genealogies attached to these cases contained information about each person about the evidence of his origin, and the metric certificates were certified in the consistory. The Heraldry Department considered cases about the nobility and genealogical books, considered the rights to nobility and titles of princes, counts and barons, as well as honorary citizenship, carried out the issuance in the manner prescribed by law diplomas , diplomas and evidence for these rights, considered cases of changing the names of noblemen and honorary citizens, compiled a coat of arms of noble families and a city coat of arms, approved and compiled new noble coat of arms and issued copies of coats of arms and genealogies.

When considering cases of proving the nobility for certain localities and peoples (denominations), there was a special procedure. So, when considering cases about Greeks and Mohammedans seeking the nobility, in the event of a lack or absence of evidence required by general legislation, deputy assemblies were obliged to send their negative conclusions, without enforcing them and not announcing to the petitioners, to the governor, who had the right, if, despite to the lack of written evidence, the nobility of this person "is beyond doubt, was announced by the general and at the same time among the people fame or proven by any special events", send his ideas about this to the Minister of Justice, the latter submitted them for consideration to the State Council (to the Department of Civil and spiritual matters).

4.8. Honorary citizenship.

The category of eminent citizens included three group townspeople : having merit on elective urban service (not included in the civil service system and not included in the Table of Ranks), scholars , artists , musicians (remember that until the end of the 18th century neither the Academy of Sciences nor the Academy of Arts were included in the system of the Table of Ranks) and, finally, top merchants ... The representatives of these three, heterogeneous, in fact, groups were united by the fact that, unable to achieve public service, they could apply for certain class privileges personally and wanted to extend them to their offspring.

Eminent citizens were exempted from corporal punishment and conscription. They were allowed to have country yards and gardens (except for inhabited estates) and travel around the city in pairs and fours (the privilege of the "noble estate"), it was not forbidden to have and start factories, plants, sea and river vessels. The title of eminent citizens was inherited, which made them a pronounced class group. The grandchildren of eminent citizens, whose fathers and grandfathers bore this title blamelessly, upon reaching 30 years of age, could ask for the conferment of the nobility.

This estate category did not last long. On January 1, 1807, the title of eminent citizens for merchants was abolished "as mixing heterogeneous merits." At the same time, it was left as a distinction for scientists and artists, but since by that time scientists were included in the system of public service, giving personal and hereditary nobility, this title ceased to be relevant and practically disappeared.

October 19, 1831, in connection with the "analysis" of the gentry, with the exclusion of a significant mass of the small gentry from among the nobles and their registration in the one-courtyards and in the city estates, those of them "who turn in any kind of academic pursuits" are doctors teachers, artists, etc., as well as those who have legalized certificates for the title of law, "to distinguish them from those engaged in petty bourgeois trade or being in service and other lower occupations" received the title honorary citizens ... Then, on December 1, 1831, it was clarified that of the artists, only painters, lithographers, engravers, etc. should be ranked in this title. carvers on stones and metals, architects, sculptors, etc., who have a diploma or an academy certificate.

By the Manifesto on April 10, 1832, a new estate was introduced throughout the empire honorary citizens divided, like the nobles, into hereditary and personal ... IN

the number of hereditary honorary citizens included the children of personal noblemen, children of persons who received the title of hereditary honorary citizen, i.e. born in this state, merchants awarded the titles of commerce and manufactory advisors, merchants awarded (after 1826) by one of the Russian orders, as well as merchants who spent 10 years in the 1st guild or 20 years in the 2nd and not falling into bankruptcy. Individuals who graduated from Russian universities, artists of free states, graduated from the Academy of Arts or received a diploma for the title of an artist of the Academy, foreign scientists, artists, as well as trading capitalists and owners of significant manufactory and factory establishments could apply for obtaining personal honorary citizenship, even though they are not were Russian subjects. Hereditary honorary citizenship could complain "for differences in the sciences" to persons who already have personal honorary citizenship, to persons who have academic degrees doctors or master's, graduates of the Academy of Arts 10 years after graduation "for distinctions in the arts" and foreigners who have taken Russian citizenship and have been in it for 10 years (if they previously received the title of personal honorary citizen).

The title of hereditary honorary citizen was inherited. The husband gave honorary citizenship to his wife if she belonged to one of the lower classes by birth, and the widow did not lose this title with the death of her husband.

Confirmation in hereditary honorary citizenship and the issuance of letters to him were entrusted to the Heroldy.

Honorary citizens enjoyed freedom from poll taxes, from conscription, from standing and corporal punishment. They had the right to participate in city elections and be elected to public positions not lower than those to which merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds are elected. Honorary citizens had the right to use this name in all acts.

The honorary citizenship was lost by court, in the event of malicious bankruptcy; some of the rights of honorary citizens were lost when registering in craft shops.

In 1833 it was confirmed that honorary citizens were not included in the general census, but that they kept special lists for each city. In the future, the circle of persons entitled to honorary citizenship was clarified and expanded.

In 1836, it was established that only university graduates who received a degree at the end of their graduation could apply for personal honorary citizenship. In 1839, the right to honorary citizenship was granted to the artists of the imperial theaters (1st category, who served a certain period of time on stage). In the same year, students of a higher commercial boarding school in St. Petersburg received this right (personally). In 1844, the right to receive honorary citizenship was extended to employees of the Russian-American Company (from the estates that did not have the right to government service). In 1845, the right to hereditary honorary citizenship of merchants who received the Orders of St. Vladimir and St. Anna was confirmed. Since 1845, hereditary honorary citizenship began to bring civilian ranks from the 14th to the 10th grade. In 1848, the right to receive honorary citizenship (personal) was extended to graduates of the Lazarev Institute. In 1849, doctors, pharmacists and veterinarians were ranked as honorary citizens. In the same year, the right to personal honorary citizenship was granted to high school graduates, children of personal honorary citizens, merchants and philistines. In 1849, personal honorary citizens were given the opportunity to enter military service as volunteers. In 1850, the right to be awarded the title of personal honorary citizen was given to Jews who were on special assignments under the governors-general in the Pale of Settlement ("learned Jews under the governors"). Subsequently, the rights of hereditary honorary citizens to enter the civil service were clarified, and the range of educational institutions was expanded, the graduation of which gave the right to personal honorary citizenship. In 1862, technologists of the 1st category and process engineers who graduated from the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology received the right to honorary citizenship. In 1865, it was established that from now on, merchants of the 1st guild were raised to hereditary honorary citizenship after staying in it for at least 20 years. In 1866, the merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds were granted the right to obtain hereditary honorary citizenship, who bought estates in the Western provinces for at least 15 thousand rubles.

Representatives of the elite of the townspeople and clerics of some peoples and localities of Russia were also ranked as honorary citizenship: the Tiflis first-class mokalaks, residents of the cities of Anapa, Novorossiysk, Poti, Petrovsk and Sukhum, at the suggestion of the authorities for special merits, zaisangs from

kalmyks of the Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces, who do not have ranks and own hereditary aimags (hereditary honorary citizenship that did not receive personal), Karaites who held spiritual positions of gakhams (hereditarily), gazans and shamasis (personally), etc.

As a result, at the beginning of the XX century. hereditary honorary citizens by birth included the children of personal nobles, chief officers, officials and clergy, awarded the orders of St. Stanislav and St. Anna (except for 1 degrees), children of clergymen of the Orthodox and Armenian-Gregorian confession, children of church clergy ( sextons, sextons and psalmists), who graduated from the course in theological seminaries and academies and received academic degrees and titles there, children of Protestant preachers, children of persons who have performed the position of Transcaucasian sheikh-ul-Islam or Transcaucasian mufti for 20 years, Kalmyk zaisangs, not who had ranks and owned hereditary aimags, and, of course, the children of hereditary honorary citizens, and personal honorary citizens by birth included those adopted by nobles and hereditary honorary citizens, widows of church clerks of the Orthodox and Armenian-Gregorian confessions, children of the highest Transcaucasian Muslim clergy, if their parents performed blameless service in t For 2 years, Zaisangs from the Kalmyks of the Astrakhan and Stavropol provinces, who have neither ranks nor hereditary aimags.

Personal honorary citizenship could be applied for for 10 years of useful activity, and after 10 years in personal honorary citizenship, hereditary honorary citizenship could be requested for the same activity.

Hereditary honorary citizenship was awarded to those who graduated from some educational institutions, commerce and manufactories-advisers, merchants who received one of the Russian orders, merchants of the 1st guild who have been in it for at least 20 years, artists of the imperial theaters of the 1st category who have served at least 15 years, fleet conductors who have served for at least 20 years, Karaite gakhams who have been in positions of at least 12 years. Personal honorary citizenship, in addition to those already mentioned, was obtained by those who entered the civil service during production in the rank of the 14th grade, who completed the course in some educational institutions, dismissed from the civil service with the rank of the 14th grade and received the chief officer's rank upon retirement from military service, managers of rural craft workshops and masters of these institutions after service, respectively, 5 and 10 years, managers, foremen and teachers of technical and craft educational workshops of the Ministry of Trade and Industry, who have served for 10 years, foremen and technicians of lower craft schools of the Ministry of Public Education, who have also served for at least 10 years, artists of the imperial theaters of the 1st category, who have served for 10 years on the stage, fleet conductors who have served for 10 years, persons who have navigational titles and have sailed for at least 5 years, ship mechanics who have sailed for 5 years, honorary overseers of Jewish educational institutions who have held this position for at least 15 years, "learned Jews under the governors" for special merits after service for at least 15 years, foremen imperial Peterhof lapidary factory, which have served for at least 10 years and some other categories faces.

If the honorary citizenship belonged to this person by birth, it did not require special confirmation, if it was assigned, it was required decision Department of Heraldry of the Senate and diploma from the Senate.

Belonging to honorary citizens could be combined with staying in other classes - merchants and clergy - and did not depend on the type of activity (until 1891, only entering some guilds deprived an honorary citizen of some of the advantages of his title).

There was no corporate organization of honorary citizens.

4.9. Cossacks.

The Cossacks in the Russian Empire were a special military class (more precisely, a class group) that stood apart from the others. The class rights and obligations of the Cossacks were based on the principle of corporate ownership of military lands and freedom from duties, subject to mandatory military service... The class organization of the Cossacks coincided with the military one. With an elected local government Cossacks obeyed the wax chieftains (military orders or orders), who enjoyed the rights of the commander of a military district or governor-general. From 1827 the heir to the throne was considered the supreme chieftain of all Cossack troops.

By the beginning. XX century in Russia there were 11 Cossack troops, as well as Cossack settlements in 2 provinces.

Under the ataman, a military headquarters functioned, in the places control was carried out by the atamans of departments (on the Don - the district ones), in the villages - by the village atamans elected by the village gatherings.

Belonging to the Cossack estate was hereditary, although formally enrollment in the Cossack troops for persons of other classes was not excluded.

During the service, the Cossacks could reach the ranks and orders of the nobility. In this case, belonging to the nobility was combined with belonging to the Cossacks.

Ivan Rukavishnikov

Damned kind

Ivan Rukavishnikov and his novel "The Cursed Family"

The novel-trilogy by Ivan Sergeevich Rukavishnikov "The Cursed Family" was last published before the present edition in 1914 and has long become a rarity, and the name of its author is known to few people today. The content of the novel is the story of three generations of the Nizhny Novgorod merchants, from which the author himself emerged. By this time, the large commercial and industrial capital of Russia declared itself loudly, and it seemed that the future belonged to it. Therefore, the "money aces" depicted in the novel, shown by a native of the same environment from the inside with all their aspirations, passions, weaknesses, traditions, dreams, aroused, as they still are, of considerable interest. At one time, the well-known theoretician of socialist culture A.V. Lunacharsky saw significant artistic, historical and social value in the novel and recommended that it be republished, but this was not fully realized - in 1928 only the first part was published.

Can the novel be considered autobiographical? Of course not. The author does not identify himself with any of the characters in the novel, does not strive for any complete correspondence between the life collisions of his heroes and specific people close to him. Nevertheless, the prototypes of the "Cursed Family" are the author's family, three generations of Nizhny Novgorod merchants Rukavishnikovs, so the reader should at least in general terms have an idea about this family, which was one of the ten richest merchant clans in Nizhny Novgorod.

In the novel, the progenitor of the "accursed family" is the "iron old man", in whose image Mikhail Grigorievich Rukavishnikov is depicted. Perhaps the author knew too little about his more distant ancestor, or maybe he deliberately did not include the first of the Rukavishnikov merchants, Grigory Mikhailovich, into the framework of his novel. The first information about his activities in Nizhny Novgorod refers to early XIX century. In the very first year of the transfer of the fair from Makariev to Nizhny, he bought three shops there, later there were many more, then he built an iron plant, bought land on the high Volga bank, known as the Slope, and built a stone two-story house here. In 1836, for his activities, he already received a medal from the Department of Manufactures and Internal Trade. This is where the roots of Mikhail Grigorievich, the “iron old man,” are, this is the source of the subsequent, ever-growing wealth.

Under Mikhail Grigorievich (1811-1874), whom his father attracted early to entrepreneurship, the Rukavishnikovs' business reached its full bloom. Steel production is growing, at the fair Rukavishnikov is among the main dealers of iron; he was also a successful borrower. Here is how the Nizhny Novgorod ethnographer DN Smirnov writes about this: “Under the sly, looking around, he lent large sums to trustworthy Nizhny Novgorod merchants. Mikhail Rukavishnikov was considered the largest and most famous usurer in the entire Volga region. " Mikhail Grigorievich became a well-known and respected person in Nizhny Novgorod - a hereditary honorary citizen, a merchant of the first guild, a manufacturing advisor, a member of the provincial committee of guardians of prisons. He left a huge fortune to the family, which at the time of his death consisted of a wife, seven sons, two daughters and a sister. His wife, Lyubov Alexandrovna, built an almshouse and a children's hospital in memory of her husband, and the House of Diligence, built later by the Rukavishnikovs, was named after Mikhail and Lyubov Rukavishnikovs.

The firm of the "iron old man" after his death began to be called "The Heirs of MG Rukavishnikov." The business stopped growing, but did not decline, and this was the great merit of the eldest son - Ivan Mikhailovich, the main successor of the Rukavishnikov entrepreneurial traditions. The steel plant ceased to exist in 1901, but the Rukavishnikovs' positions in the iron trade were still stable. Among the leaders of the iron trade, Ivan Mikhailovich welcomes Emperor Nicholas II, who visited the All-Russian Exhibition in 1896, and presents the emperor with bread and salt on a luxurious silver dish with a relief image of the Iron Row of the Nizhny Novgorod Fair. Ivan Mikhailovich was one of the most famous public figures of Nizhny Novgorod: a public official of the City Duma, an honorary magistrate, a full member of the Nizhny Novgorod Society for Encouragement higher education and the Nizhny Novgorod Society of Art Lovers - this is not a complete list of his social "loads" that demanded from him not only time, but also significant material resources. He donated a lot.

The second son of the "iron old man" Sergei Mikhailovich (1852-1914), as the heir to his father's business, showed himself little, but he was known throughout the city for the construction of buildings that still adorn Nizhny Novgorod. For this he spent the lion's share of the income he received from the common business of the Rukavishnikovs. First of all, this is a house-palace on the Slope - luxurious, pompous, but unsuitable for living. But later it turned out to be very good for the city art and history museum located in it in 1918. In 1879, Sergei Mikhailovich acquired the Podvyazye estate near Bogorodsk and rebuilt it, intending to organize exemplary agriculture. In 1908, he builds a tenement house on Rozhdestvenskaya Street, where he puts a sculpture of a worker and a peasant woman by Konenkov at the entrance.

The youngest son of the "iron old man" - the "last son", as he was called, Mitrofan Mikhailovich (1864-1911), enjoyed scandalous fame in Nizhny. Being an invalid, painfully experiencing his ugliness, he was proud and vain. The poet Boris Sadovskaya in his memoirs paints his portrait with the most impartial colors: “The younger brother, an ugly alcoholic hunchback, loved to be foolish and break down. Giving away a gold watch and his portraits in rich frames ... he collected bad pictures and died on the eve of his production as actual state councilors. " This is how people saw him. But about the "bad pictures": some of them, such as "The Flying Carpet" by Vasnetsov, "The Lady under the Umbrella" by Kramskoy and others, now adorn the halls of our art museum. And Mitrofan Mikhailovich chanted more than all the Rukavishnikovs. He did a lot for the Annunciation Monastery, the Trinity Verkhneposadskaya Church, and the Cathedral. Between Alekseevskaya and Osharskaya streets, the building of the Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood was built at his expense, the chairman of which he was for several years, the construction of the Red Cross hospital, etc. The city saw off Mitrofan Mikhailovich on his last journey, as he wished, with great honors in the presence of the governor, the provincial leader of the nobility, the mayor.

Known in the city and Rukavishnikov Vladimir Mikhailovich, on whose funds there was a choir known outside the city. Varvara Mikhailovna Burmistrova, the daughter of an old iron man, also left a memory of herself by buying land for the city cemetery, erecting a church and service buildings there, and enclosing the Nizhny Novgorod necropolis with a fence with turrets and gates. She lived in a wonderful mansion on Zhukovskaya Street (now Minin) - today the A.M. Gorky Literary Museum is located here. Here is what is known in brief about the direct descendants of the "iron old man". His grandchildren grew up and were brought up on the threshold of the new century. They were far from entrepreneurial activity, the fates of some were tragic, others are unknown. The glory of the Rukavishnikov family was supported and continued, but only in the cultural sphere, by the children of Sergei Mikhailovich Ivan and Mitrofan.

Mitrofan Sergeevich (1887-1946), having graduated from the Nizhny Novgorod Noble Institute in 1907, received his art education in private studios in Moscow and Rome and quickly became a famous sculptor. In 1918, like his older brother Ivan, he ended up in Nizhny Novgorod and got involved in the preservation and popularization of the artistic heritage. With his participation in 1919, the "Nizhny Novgorod State Higher Art Workshops" were opened. In the same year, he left for Moscow, where his fate was very successful. He occupied a prominent place in Russian art, worked a lot for museums, and created a gallery of portraits of prominent historical figures. And most importantly, he became the founder of a new branch for the Rukavishnikov family: a dynasty of sculptors - his son Julian, grandson Alexander, great-grandson Philip followed in his footsteps. In 1993, the exhibition “Three generations of sculptors Rukavishnikovs” was organized in the halls of the Academy of Arts - evidence of the high appreciation of the work of this talented family.

A famous poet at the beginning of the century was Ivan Sergeevich Rukavishnikov (1877-1930), the author of this novel. He was born in the year when his father removed the forests from the newly built palace-house on the Nizhny Novgorod Slope. Here he spent his childhood and adolescence, which allowed him to say in his autobiography: "Golden apples grew in the garden of my youth."

Ivan Sergeevich studied at the Institute of Nobility, then at a real school, he passed the exam for the gymnasium course as an external student. At the same time, he studied with great enthusiasm at the art school of the Nizhny Novgorod photographer-artist AO Karelin and considered painting his main vocation, although he had already written poetry and even published them in Nizhegorodsky leaf and other Volga newspapers. He was ranked among the decadents and scolded for his poetry. AM Gorky was one of the first to do this, inviting him to his place.

Ivan Rukavishnikov left memories of this meeting, which took place in 1896. Critically speaking about poetry, Gorky approved prose - the story "The Seed Pecked by Birds." The conversation was casual. “It is interesting,” writes Ivan Sergeevich, “that Alexey Maksimovich did not touch upon my home situation in the conversation. That is, he did not speak about it in words. But this theme was felt in the air. We both carefully hinted at this. I was a white raven, or rather a raven. Gorky was the same white raven, only from a different flock. Society did not expect writers from the environment where fate had thrown me, and from the environment where Gorky had thrown me, and for many years later I could hear behind my back: - This is the one whose father ... This is the one whose grandfather ... This is the one whose house ... ".

Gorky favored Ivan for some time, as evidenced by Alexei Maksimovich's letter to the editor of the Journal for All, V. S. Mirolyubov, in April 1898, where he recommends Rukavishnikov: “His first story is a very sincere piece! I will send it to you. The author does not need money, because his dad is a millionaire. "

By the end of the 90s, Ivan Rukavishnikov left for St. Petersburg, where he studied at the Archaeological Institute and was engaged in literary activities. Among his acquaintances are Korolenko, Balmont, Sologub, Tsvetaeva. His books do not escape Valery Bryusov's attentive critical glance. Alexander Blok in private letters invites Rukavishnikov to participate in poetry evenings. From the first year of the existence of the Union of Writers, Ivan Sergeevich was elected there. He has been abroad several times: both in Europe and in the East. He wrote a lot, published a lot. In total, he published more than twenty books, although some of them were no more than 20 pages and most of them were scanty circulations, as, indeed, many poets of those years.

October 1917 found Ivan Sergeevich in Nizhny Novgorod. In the spring of 1918, together with his brother Mitrofan, he was actively involved in the creation of a city museum in their former house on the Slope, which, by order of the executive committee of the Nizhny Novgorod council, was transferred to a museum. Together with his brother, he is included in the artistic commission for its organization, then in the sub-department of arts created at the provincial GUBONO.

At the same time, the Rukavishnikov brothers put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a Palace of Arts in Nizhny Novgorod, but it was recognized as untimely. Ivan Sergeevich nevertheless organized and headed the Palace of Arts, but ... in Moscow, and was in charge of it until its closure in 1921. From 1921 to 1924 he taught poetry at the VLHI im. Bryusov, and later at the Higher government courses. He passed away in 1930.

The most famous novel brought him the novel "The Cursed Family", which began to be published by the magazine "Contemporary World" from the first issue of 1911. In the next seven issues two parts were printed: "The Iron Old Man's Family" and "Makarovichi". According to the testimony of the writer N. Krandievskaya-Tolstoy, the novel was greeted with hostility by the readers, so its publication was interrupted, although from her point of view it was a talented thing with “all its confusion”. The following year, the St. Petersburg firm Osvobozhdeniye published the novel in its entirety with the addition of the third part, On the Paths of Death, and in 1914 the novel was republished in Moscow. In 1928, unfortunately, only the first part was published.

One of the first to criticize the novel was K.I. Chukovsky. He didn’t even wait for it to end, and in a literary review published in the September issue of the Rech newspaper under the title “The Cursed Family”, he caustically ridiculed the novel's oversaturation with the fear of death. “Is it really true that all merchants in Nizhny Novgorod are busy only with indulging in mortal thrill? ... The definition of“ black ”-“ black hole of despair ”,“ black fear ”,“ black emptiness ”,“ black wing of a bird of fear ”has been mentioned dozens of times "," Black shadow "," black vortices "... Etc., etc. ...". He notes that "the chronicle, the story is broad and even, written neurasthenically, often almost in hysterics." However, he is forced to admit that "when you get used to the language of the novel, you learn not to notice it, images of such psychological significance will appear before you ..." And further: "The novel tells about the modern merchants and so, so to speak, fills the gap in our knowledge of Russia ...".

Critics took the novel ambiguously. Noting in it the bright colorful pictures of living modernity, the author was reproached with excessive stretching, pretentiousness and mannerism of presentation.

The modern reader of the novel does not know, since it has become inaccessible due to the persecution of literature that goes beyond the framework of socialist realism. It was withdrawn from libraries, it became a bibliographic rarity. And interest in him did not wane. After all, information about the life and work of the Rukavishnikov family was fed mainly by the memories of old residents of Nizhny Novgorod, as well as rumors and speculation. With such a lack of information, some researchers of the past have sinned by misusing the text of the novel, taking fictional fiction for real facts, without having sufficient grounds for that, and now it is difficult to distinguish one from the other without knowing the novel.

Many Rukavishnikovs are recognized in the novel. This is, first of all, Makar, the "iron old man". He dies at the beginning of the novel, but is invisibly present in its pages. "The old iron man gave birth to seven sons for consolation, for a great cause to support ..." and further: "If I erected not a small thing on the dust, how can the sons of the erected not save?" He, like a judge, appears to his sons half asleep, half delirious in the dramatic moments of their lives. So he, angry and condemning, comes to the prison cell to his son Vyacheslav, imprisoned for rape. Not seeing in the elder, Semyon, a worthy successor, he often comes to him and threatens: “Don't sleep! Do not sleep! Or is everything all right with you here? "

The eldest son Semyon, in whom the reader recognizes Ivan Mikhailovich Rukavishnikov, in the novel is colorless, uninteresting, often pathetic. Only in the office does he feel calm and comfortable. As a businessman he succeeded, but he remained a boring man. Even being seriously ill, he refuses to travel abroad for treatment, fearing that his departure would harm the business of the shaken company: “I will leave - what will they say? Run away, they will say. He fled abroad. Credit will fall. "

The smartest and most energetic among the sons of the "iron old man" is Makar, who is easily recognized as Sergei Mikhailovich. This is a dreamer-builder. As soon as he received freedom of action and money after his father's death, he decided to surprise his hometown with a palace that would cost a million rubles - no more, no less. Then he embarked on new construction enterprises and would have ruined the family, if it had not been rescued by the company, which was guarded by Semyon and Raisa, Makar's wife. At their disposal came by hook or by crook the capital of others, dying and perishing sons of the "iron old man".

Among the brothers, Kornut is the most recognizable (in life - Mitrofan Mikhailovich). His childhood dream of carrying numerous orders and medals at his magnificent funeral has come true. He prudently invested his money in various charity events, receiving awards, ranks and honors for this.

Understanding the background of his brother's charitable activities, Makar believes that with his construction he does more for people - he gives them work, and therefore prosperity. His reasoning is curious: “If I give them a school today, tomorrow a congress ... Then they’re children of bitches will be too lazy to hammer a nail with their own hands ... You don’t know our worthless people. After all, if you do something in an hour, or beg for a day for a neighbor to do, what will the Russian fool choose? Of course, he will stand a day without a hat, arching his back at someone else's porch. "

The Nizhny Novgorod land has many literary works reflecting its past in an artistic form. It's a whole library. Here is the world of the Old Believers in the famous novels of Melnikov-Pechersky, and the provincial province described by P. D. Boborykin, V. G. Korolenko, M. Gorky, and the historical books of Valentin Kostylev, and so on until the works of Nikolai Kochin about the twenties and thirties our century and to the pages of our today's writers ...

The novel by Ivan Rukavishnikov comes from the same shelf of "Nizhny Novgorod bygone" To understand the present day and ourselves, it is not at all superfluous to know the history of your land, the history of your ancestors. Hope this book helps you with that. The novel "The Cursed Family" is waiting for its readers and researchers.

Chief bibliographer of the Nizhny Novgorod region

state regional scientific

universal library

The relationship between the merchants and the nobility throughout russian history underwent a complex evolution from the unconditional domination of the nobility and the recognition of the merchants as a second-class estate to their almost complete equalization in rights.

To distinguish the merchants in a special class, the City Regulations of 1785. the institution of "eminent citizens" is introduced. This title was awarded to wholesalers, bankers, ship owners with capital over 50 thousand rubles. Such persons were not included in the guilds and were counted in section 5 of the philistine book.

In 1800 the title of Commerce Counselor was established for merchants as a sign of special distinction. This title gave its holders of the 8th grade full-time rights, i.e. these persons were given the opportunity to receive privileges close to those of the nobility.

In 1807, a manifesto "On new benefits, differences and advantages granted to the merchant and new ways to spread and strengthen commercial enterprises" was issued, which emphasized the difference between "real" merchants, who were here called "first-class" or merchants and ordinary contractors, tax farmers and shopkeepers. The first included only wholesalers.

In 1810. declared the Manifesto "On the ways for a better arrangement of cloth factories", which established the title of advisor manufactories for merchants. Members of the 1st guild for 12 years in a row and who produced more than 100,000 yards of cloth annually in their own factory. This title conferred the same rights as a commercial advisor. Those who received the title of commerce or manufactory advisor could pass into the category of honorary citizens, which was introduced in 1832. The title of hereditary and personal honorary citizen gave a number of rights: exemption from recruitment, capitation and corporal punishment ... Merchants of the 1st guild could also become honorary citizens after 10 years of stay in it. Honorary citizens enjoyed "the right to be titled, like nobles and your honor." Thus, honorary citizens were an intermediate layer between the nobility and the merchants and played a certain role in the formation of a layer of urban entrepreneurs.

In addition, merchants who traded with foreign countries for 5 years for at least 50 thousand rubles received the title of a merchant guest and in "honors" were equated to the 7th grade of regular service. These advantages extended to members of merchant families.

The presence of such privileges increased the social status of the merchants in the conditions of the estate system, facilitated the conduct of commercial activities, and created additional opportunities for capital accumulation.

As a manifestation of the impact on the consciousness and behavior of merchants of the feudal value system is considered in historical literature and the desire of representatives of large merchants to obtain the nobility. Some representatives of the large merchants sought to obtain ranks and nobility, guided not by commercial calculation, but by ambitious motives. Even charitable activities were considered by such merchants as: a way to obtain high ranks and titles. So, the Irkutsk merchant E.A. Kuznetsov in 1848 - 1849 donated over 1 million rubles to charitable purposes, for which he received the rank of state councilor. According to a contemporary memoirist, the dream of his life was "to be promoted to actual state councilors, so that he would be treated on an equal basis with the governor with the words:" Your Excellency ", which then had tremendous significance and constituted an almost unacceptable dream of the most inveterate ambitious." However, the importance of ambitious calculations among the motives that determined the desire of merchants for ranks and nobility, also weakened over time, since during the first half of the 19th century. for persons who were successfully engaged in industry and trade, the government introduced a number of honorary titles (eminent citizen, hereditary honorary citizen, commerce advisor, manufactory advisor), the owners of which received a social status comparable in many respects to the status of persons who had a noble title. Thus, the titles of Manufacturing Counselor and Commerce Counselor were equated to the VIII grade of the civil service, and their holders received the right to the title "Your Excellency."

And yet there is no need to talk about harmonious relationships. Since the beginning of the 19th century, the wealthy merchants en masse were fond of collecting paintings, patronized artists, theaters, charitable institutions, trying to raise their level of culture and respectability, and assert their class priority over the nobility. In his memoirs "The Artist in the Departed Russia" Prince Sergei Shcherbatov wrote: "The anger of the merchant class against the nobility was vividly expressed in the significant and unforgivably rude speech of the eldest of the Ryabushinsky brothers during the revolution, in which he celebrated with obvious gloating feast for the nobility, which has to be replaced merchants, "the salt of the Russian land." Everything that has been created by the Russian nobility over the centuries on this Russian land and for her has been forgotten or passed over in silence. "

The merchants had very good reasons to "dislike" the nobility: class prejudices, even at the end of the 19th century, severely limited the possibilities of the merchant class. So, for example, the “salt of the Russian land” was simply not admitted to the annual ball to the Moscow governor-general. Despite the enormous capital that the merchants owned, it was almost impossible for the most efficient, active and successful representatives of it to get a rank or title in order to be able to be in the public service.

At the beginning of the XX century. In Russia, the previously established division of society into class groups remained, which was largely facilitated by the state policy, which prevented the erosion of class boundaries. The law divided the population of the Russian Empire into 3 large groups: natural inhabitants (native citizens), foreigners (nomadic and other aboriginal groups) and foreigners. Natural inhabitants or subjects of the Russian crown, in turn, were divided into 4 classes: noblemen, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants.

The unprecedented economic boom that Russia experienced at the end of the 19th century brought about new strata of the population that are changing the usual picture of the estates. An entrepreneurial stratum is emerging, its own bourgeoisie, large and medium, whose numbers and political weight are constantly growing. The former division of the merchant class into guilds, with different rights for each, is becoming a thing of the past, and bourgeois affiliation is now determined by the "trade certificates" issued annually by the authorities. They indicate the amount of capital within which entrepreneurship is carried out and property liability occurs. A step remains until the final leveling of entrepreneurs and merchants, as well as the equalization of the rights of all classes. And Russia took this step in 1905.

Russian entrepreneurs declare themselves joining the liberal movement, opposition to the government is being formed, which requires participation in the management of the state.

russian merchants commercial education