Yuri Viktorovich Shcherbatykh Psychology of Stress and Methods of Correction. Stress as a biological and psychological category

Yu.V. Shcherbatykh

Sh61 Psychology of stress and methods of correction. - SPb .: Peter, 2006 .-- 256 p .: ill. - (Series "Tutorial").

ISBN 5-469-01517-3

This tutorial complies with the main provisions of the State Standard for Psychology. The book presents a systematic approach to the concept of stress, integrating modern knowledge about the nature of stress, obtained by psychology, physiology and medicine. The structure of the textbook includes theoretical sections, questions for self-examination and test tasks, approximate topics of seminars and abstracts, exercises and practical tasks, psychological tests, a list of recommended literature and an approximate course program.

For students, teachers and graduate students of psychological faculties of higher educational institutions, practicing psychologists who organize seminars and trainings on stress management, as well as for all those interested in psychology.

BBK 88.352 UDC 159.942.5

13VM 5-469-01517-3

Introduction ................................................. ................................. 7

List of abbreviations ................................................ .................. ten

CHAPTER 1. Stress as a biological and psychological category

1.1. The problem of stress in biology and medicine ..................... 12

1.1.1. The classic concept of stress .............................. 12

1.1.2. Physiological manifestations of stress ..................... 15

1.2. Psychological stress ................................................ .. 20

(emotional) stress ......................................... 20

1.2.2. Features of psychological stress ............... 24

1.2.3. Differentiation of stress and other conditions ... 28

Questions and tasks to test the assimilation of knowledge .............. 31

Literature................................................. ............................ 32

CHAPTER 2. Forms of stress manifestation and criteria for its assessment

2.1. Forms of stress manifestation ............................................ 35

2.1.1. Changes in behavioral responses to stress ... 35

2.1.2. Change in intelligent processes

under stress ................................................ .............. 39

2.1.3. Change in physiological processes

under stress ................................................ .............. 41

2.1.4. Emotional manifestations of stress ........................ 43

2.2. Assessment of stress level ............................................... ..... 44

2.2.1. Objective methods for assessing the level of stress .......... 44

2.2.2. Subjective methods for assessing the level of stress ........ 53

2.2.3. Stress level forecast ............................................ 59

Questions and tasks to test the assimilation of knowledge ............... 64

Literature................................................. ............................... 65

CHAPTER 3. Dynamics of stress conditions

3.1. General patterns of stress development .................... 68

3.1.1. Classical dynamics of stress development ............ 68

3.1.2. Influence of stressor characteristics on level

stress ................................................. ..................... 73

3.1.3. The development of psychological stress by example
development of exam stress ......................... 76

3.2. Factors influencing the development of stress ......................... 78

3.2.1. Congenital features of the body and early

childhood experience ................................................ .............. 78

3.2.2. Parent Scripts ............................................. 80

3.2.3. Personal characteristics ....................................... 81

3.2.4. Factors of the social environment .................................... 86

3.2.5. Cognitive factors ............................................... 87

3.3. The negative effects of prolonged stress ................. 89

3.3.1. Psychosomatic illness and stress .............. 89

3.3.2. Post-traumatic syndrome ............................... 93

Questions and tasks to test the assimilation of knowledge ............... 96

Literature................................................. ............................... 98

CHAPTER 4. Causes of psychological stress

4.1. Subjective causes of psychological
stress ................................................. ............................. 101

4.1.1. Inconsistency of genetic programs with modern
conditions ................................................. .................. 101

4.1.2. The stress of realizing negative parenting
programs ................................................. ................. 103

4.1.3. Cognitive dissonance stress

and mechanisms of psychological defense .................. 103

4.1.4. Stress associated with inadequate attitudes

and beliefs of the individual ..................................... 105

4.1.5. Impossibility to implement actual

needs .............................. ................... ........ 109

4.1.6. Stress associated with wrong

communication ................................................. .... 111

4.1.7. Stress from inadequate implementation of conditional
reflexes ................................................. .............. 113

4.1.8. Inability to handle time

(stress and time) ............................................. .......... 114

4.2. Objective reasons for the emergence of psychological
stress ................................................. ............................. 117

4.2.1. Living and working conditions (permanent components
existence) ................................................ ..... 118

4.2.2. Interaction with other people ....................... 119

4.2.3. Political and economic factors ............... 120

4.2.4. Extraordinary circumstances .............................. 121

4.3. Causal classification of stressors ........................... 122

4.3.1. The degree of stressor control ................... 122

4.3.2. Localization of stressor ........................................... 124

4.3.3. Ways to overcome different types of stressors ... 126

Questions and tasks to test the assimilation of knowledge ............ 128

Literature................................................. ............................. 130

CHAPTER 5. Feature of occupational stress

5.1. General patterns of occupational stress ... 132

5.1.1. Occupational stress ................................... 132

5.1.2. The phenomenon of professional burnout ............ 138

5.2. Examples of occupational stress ......................... 139

5.2.1. Study stress ................................................ ....... 139

5.2.2. Sports stress ............................................... 143

5.2.3. Stress of healthcare workers ............................ 146

5.2.4. Leader stress ............................................... 147

Questions and tasks to test the assimilation of knowledge .............. 149

Literature................................................. ............................. 151

HAAVA 6. Methods to optimize stress levels

6.1. General approaches to stress management ................... 154

6.2. Methods for self-regulation of the psychological state

during stress ............................................... ............... 161

6.2.1. Autogenic training ......................................... 161

6.2.2. Biofeedback method ................ 167

6.2.3. Breathing techniques ............................................ 170

6.2.4. Muscle relaxation .......................................... 171

6.2.5. Rational psychotherapy .................................... 174

6.2.6. Dissociation from stress ................................... 176

6.2.7. Using positive imagery
(visualization)............................................... .......... 177

6.2.8. Neuro-linguistic programming ........... 178

6.2.9. Physical exercise .......................................... 182

6.2.10. Religion as a way to deal with stress ........... 183

6.2.11. Meditation................................................. .......... 185

6.3. Time-Based Stress Management Tactics

its offensive ................................................ ............... 186

6.4. Eliminating Causes of Stress Through Improvement
behavioral skills ................................................ .... 188

6.4.1. Communication skills ..................................... 188

6.4.2. Confident behavior .............................................. 189

6.4.3. Effective goal setting as a method

prevention of stress .............................................. 193

Questions and tasks to test the assimilation of knowledge .................. 195

Literature................................................. ............................... 196

Conclusion ................................................. ............................ 199

ANNEXES

Appendix 1. Tests .............................................. ................ 200

Appendix 2. Answers to test tasks ........................... 231

Appendix 3. Thematic plans, program, questions

for the exam ................................................ ......... 232

Appendix 4. The program of seminars and topics of essays on the topics of the course "Psychology

stress and methods of its correction "....................... 240

Appendix 5. Exercises and practical exercises

in the course "Psychology of Stress and Methods

its correction "............................................... ... 244

Subject index................................................ ............... 254

Introduction

The phenomenon of stress, discovered by Hans Selye, is one of the fundamental manifestations of life, since it allows organisms to adapt to various environmental factors due to a universal complex of neurohumoral reactions. This term became one of the symbols of medicine of the XX century, and then went beyond the boundaries of this science into related fields of biology, psychology, sociology, and just ordinary consciousness, becoming fashionable, common and ambiguous. This was facilitated by a real increase in the amount of stress in people due to urbanization, an increase in the pace of life, an increase in the number of interpersonal interactions (including conflict ones), as well as an increasingly obvious discrepancy between the biological nature of a person and the conditions of his social existence.

If the founder of the theory of stress initially considered its hormonal and biochemical aspects, then later more and more researchers began to pay attention to the psychological component of stress. It turned out that an extremely complex and sensitive human psyche is capable of seriously modifying the nature of the "classic" stress described in the works of G. Selye. It became clear that without understanding the neurophysiological features of the functioning of the human brain, as well as emotional and cognitive processes, moral attitudes and personality values, it is impossible to predict and manage stressful reactions of a person. Thus, the increasing role of theoretical and practical psychology in the creation of a unified interdisciplinary concept of stress becomes evident.

As the Russian psychophysiologist Yu. I. Aleksandrov writes, “stress has become one of the most fashionable medical and psychological diagnoses. This diagnosis is made to a person when he has any problems in his personal life, at home or at work that lead to a deterioration in his mental and physical health ”1.

1 Psychophysiology: Textbook for universities / Ed. Yu. I. Alexandrova. SPb., 2006, p. 326.

8 Introduction

Introduction 9

it is desirable to be able to identify not only psychological, but also physiological, behavioral and other signs of stress in order to correctly assess the severity of the situation and help people cope with their problems. Therefore, this study guide is built on an interdisciplinary basis, allowing psychology students to take a holistic view of such a complex phenomenon as stress. In this matter, it is very important to strike an optimal balance between a narrow specialization and a broad view of the problem. On the one hand, a practical psychologist should focus on his research subject and, first of all, identify the psychological causes of stress and changes in the human psyche, and if the situation goes beyond his sphere of competence, transfer his client to another specialist (psychiatrist or general practitioner). On the other hand, the psychologist himself must have that minimum knowledge of physiology, medicine and biochemistry of stress, which will allow him to determine the criteria for going beyond the area of \u200b\u200bhis professional capabilities. For this, in this textbook, much attention is paid to the physiological and medical aspects of stress, which seems to be quite justified, because by the fourth year, psychology students have already completed the study of such subjects as "Anatomy of the Central nervous system", "Physiology of the central nervous system", "Physiology of VND and sensory systems" and "Psychophysiology". The author of the manual took into account the fact that the concept of "stress" is briefly understood in other training courses included in Gosstandart - in General Psychology, in Labor Psychology, in Health Psychology, etc. Therefore, the task of this special subject is to combine together the knowledge about stress received by students over three years within the framework of a single concept based on the principle of nervousism, traditional for the Russian scientific school.

In the course of studying such a course as Psychology of Stress, students learn the basic concepts on which the science of stress is based, study the various forms of stress manifestations, learn about modern methods of assessing the level of stress and acquire the ability to adequately assess its severity.

course, with their other knowledge and skills, students master the most effective methods of optimizing the level of stress: various methods of self-regulation and techniques used in psychotherapy.

The structure of the textbook includes theoretical sections, questions and tasks to test the assimilation of knowledge, cited and recommended literature for each section. Approximate topics of seminars and essays, exercises and practical tasks, corresponding psychological tests and answers to test tasks are included in the appendices. There is also given methodological material for teachers: approximate thematic plans for the course, program and questions for the exam.

List of abbreviations

BP is blood pressure.

ADS - systolic blood pressure.

BPP - diastolic blood pressure.

ACTH is an adrenocorticotropic hormone of the pituitary gland.

AT - autogenous training.

VIC is Kerdo's vegetative index.

VND - higher nervous activity.

ANS - Autonomic Nervous System.

HRV - heart rate variability.

IN is an index of the tension of regulatory systems.

And PS is an integral indicator of fears.

NLP - Neurolinguistic Programming.

NS - nervous system.

PTSD is post-traumatic stress disorder.

СМР - sensorimotor reaction.

HR is the heart rate.

CNS - Central Nervous System.

Chapter 1

STRESS AS A BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CATEGORY

1.1. The problem of stress in biology and media

1.1.1. The classic concept of stress

1.1.2. Physiological manifestations of stress

1.2. Psychological stress

1.2.1. Introduction of the concept of psychological
(emotional) stress

1.2.2. Features of psychological stress

1.2.3. Differentiation of stress and other conditions

1 2 Chapter 1. Stress as a biological and psychological category

1.1. The problem of stress in biology and media 1 3

Introduction

List of abbreviations

BP is blood pressure.

AT - autogenous training.

NS - nervous system.

СМР - sensorimotor reaction.

Psychological stress

Chapter 2

Forms of stress

Psychological stress can manifest itself in changes in various functional systems of the body, and the intensity of the disturbances can vary from a slight change in emotional mood to such serious diseases as a stomach ulcer or myocardial infarction. There are several ways to classify stress reactions, but for psychologists, the most promising is to divide them into behavioral, intellectual, emotional and physiological manifestations of stress (in this case, biochemical and hormonal processes are also conventionally referred to physiological manifestations). Previously, a similar classification of the body's reactions was applied in the study of the state of anxiety, which often accompanies psychological stress. So, Mia V. ]. identifies four components that play an important role in the formation of the state of anxiety:

Mood (eg, excitement);

Cognitive sphere (unpleasant memories, building negative predictions);

Physiological manifestations (tachycardia, sweating, tremor); + behavioral reactions.

In accordance with this approach, we will also separately consider the behavioral, intellectual, emotional and physiological manifestations of stress, naturally, realizing that there are close objective relationships between these forms of stress manifestations.

Assessment of stress level

Stress level forecast

Prediction of stress reactions is of great scientific and applied, practical importance in various fields of human activity. In particular, it allows for the early identification of persons who may have a violation of the functional state during extreme situations, and carry out appropriate work with them in terms of psycho-prevention of stress. Specialists in the field of labor physiology note that various types of unfavorable functional states (fatigue, monotony, inadequate reactions during stress, etc.) not only significantly reduce the success and quality of work, but also force a person to pay an "ultra-high psychophysiological price" for the performed work. Therefore, a timely forecast of possible deviations in the normal functional state of individuals and the timely implementation of corrective measures would not only help these people to maintain their health, but also by optimizing their functional state to increase the efficiency of their activities.

Currently, there are various methods for predicting a person's reactions to stress. Their main task is to take into account the individual mental and physiological characteristics of the subject and extrapolate the data obtained to similar situations in the future. These methods include:

1) use of identical stressors (for example, the study of the psychological and autonomic reactions of a student in one exam makes it possible to predict the nature and level of stress he is experiencing in another);

2) use of metered test stresses in laboratory conditions (exposure to strong visual, sound and tactile stimuli);

3) mental modeling of stressful situations (in particular, using the method of neurolinguistic programming);

4) predictions based on psychological tests and questionnaires ",

5) mathematical models (simple, multiple regression, etc.);

6) creation of a model stress situation using various devices, which in its parameters would be close enough to the real situation.

Psychophysiology: Textbook for universities / Ed. Yu. I. Alexandrova. SPb., 2006, p. 326.

A stressor is a stressor.

From the English. & gegz - tension.

Immobilization is forced immobilization.

Psychophysiology: Textbook for universities / Ed. Yu. I. Alexandrova. SPb., 2006, p. 331.

Nemov R.S. Psychology. Book. 1. General foundations of psychology. M., 1999, p. 442.

Ibid, p. 680.

Maklakov A.G. General psychology. SPb., 2002, p. 456.

Ibid, p. 457.

For example: Sviderskaya NE et al. Features of EEG signs of anxiety in humans // VID Journal. 2001. T. 51, No. 2, p. 158-165.

Shcherbatykh Yu. V. To what extent does Luscher's method of color choices measure the vegetative component of anxiety? // Applied information aspects of medicine. 2003. T. 5. No. 1-2, p. 108-113.

Introduction

If the founder of the theory of stress initially considered its hormonal and biochemical aspects, then later more and more researchers began to pay attention to the psychological component of stress. It turned out that an extremely complex and sensitive human psyche is capable of seriously modifying the nature of the "classic" stress described in the works of G. Selye. It became clear that without understanding the neurophysiological features of the functioning of the human brain, as well as emotional and cognitive processes, moral attitudes and values \u200b\u200bof the individual, it is impossible to predict and manage stressful reactions of a person. Thus, the increasing role of theoretical and practical psychology in the creation of a unified interdisciplinary concept of stress becomes evident.

At the same time, doctors, physiologists, psychologists and social workers often put completely different content in the concept of stress, which can lead to people having an incorrect, distorted idea of \u200b\u200bthis phenomenon. For a practical psychologist, it is desirable to be able to identify not only psychological, but also physiological, behavioral and other signs of stress in order to correctly assess the severity of the situation and help people cope with their problems. Therefore, this study guide is built on an interdisciplinary basis, allowing psychology students to take a holistic view of such a complex phenomenon as stress. In this matter, it is very important to strike an optimal balance between a narrow specialization and a broad view of the problem. On the one hand, a practical psychologist should focus on his research subject and, first of all, identify the psychological causes of stress and changes in the human psyche, and if the situation goes beyond his sphere of competence, transfer his client to another specialist (psychiatrist or general practitioner). On the other hand, the psychologist himself must have that minimum knowledge of physiology, medicine and biochemistry of stress, which will allow him to determine the criteria for going beyond the area of \u200b\u200bhis professional capabilities. For this, in this textbook, much attention is paid to the physiological and medical aspects of stress, which seems to be quite justified, because by the fourth year, psychology students have already completed the study of such subjects as "Anatomy of the Central nervous system", "Physiology of the central nervous system", "Physiology of VND and sensory systems" and "Psychophysiology". The author of the manual took into account the fact that the concept of "stress" is briefly understood in other training courses included in the State Standard - in "General Psychology", "Psychology of Labor", "Psychology of Health", etc. Therefore, the task of this special subject is to combine together the knowledge about stress received by students over three years within the framework of a single concept based on the principle of nervousism, which is traditional for the Russian scientific school.

As they study the course, students also establish the main causes of stress (primarily psychological) and factors that affect the dynamics of the development of stressful processes. For their future work, psychologists must know not only the general patterns of professional stress, but also their main types. By integrating the information gained from this course with their other knowledge and skills, students master the most effective methods of optimizing stress levels: various methods of self-regulation and techniques used in psychotherapy.

List of abbreviations

BP is blood pressure.

ADS - systolic blood pressure.

BPP - diastolic blood pressure.

ACTH is an adrenocorticotropic hormone of the pituitary gland.

AT - autogenous training.

VIC is Kerdo's vegetative index.

VND - higher nervous activity.

ANS - Autonomic Nervous System.

HRV - heart rate variability.

IN is an index of the tension of regulatory systems.

And PS is an integral indicator of fears.

NLP - Neurolinguistic Programming.

NS - nervous system.

PTSD is post-traumatic stress disorder.

СМР - sensorimotor reaction.

HR is the heart rate.

CNS - Central Nervous System.

Chapter 1 STRESS AS A BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CATEGORY

“I'm afraid to injure the little one. She is already a year and 9 months old. She's already so used to it. I am afraid of doing harm with alterations, ”- such concerns I hear from many mothers who doubt whether it is possible to make the work of correcting sleep safe for the baby. Always in such phrases one or another form of the word trauma sounds. And this, let me remind you, from a mother who is already on the verge of fatigue herself, and sees that the baby in the current conditions also suffers from a lack of rest - no one from a good life is engaged in improving sleep.

INJURY. What a powerful word. And it is very manipulative on the modern Internet, where there are tons of articles that any wrong step of the parents will immediately lead to the injury of the baby. Fortunately, any child psychologist will tell you with confidence that true trauma is inflicted on children only through very serious misconduct of adults: constant long-term violence (both physical and emotional); regularly ignoring the needs of the baby (for example, by a mother in a state of deep depression or under the influence of drugs); lack of stable living conditions (for babies who are transferred from one orphanage to another); long-term stress caused by difficult living conditions in the family (the family lives below the poverty line or in conditions of war). Such families do not turn to me, on the contrary, my clients are caring, educated mothers who spend the whole day with their baby laughing, hugging, finger games, books, songs, sandpit, and ... shuddering before each upcoming bedtime.

And here two feelings begin to gnaw at my mother - guilt for being tired and wanting to sleep, and fear for what could harm her "alterations". Only occasionally does such a mother modestly notice that yes, and the baby does not get enough sleep, is capricious and walks with bruises under her eyes, but she still thinks that it is SHE who wants to get enough sleep (and who can blame her for that?). Good neighbors generously share their discoveries from the Internet that prolonged stress can be toxic to the baby's brain, that it leads to serious changes in the architecture of neural connections (which, by the way, is true), and that these changes lead to consequences for the whole life of this little man ... It remains only to decide what is “long-term stress” that can be toxic?

The Center for the Study of Child Development at Harvard University (USA) introduced the classification of stress, which was adopted by the American Association of Pediatricians. According to this classification, stress can be roughly divided into three levels: positive, tolerant and toxic:

Positive stress - A normal and important part of healthy development, characterized by a brief increase in heart rate and a slight increase in stress hormone levels. Examples of situations that can trigger positive stress include the first day with a new nanny or getting a shot. This kind of stress is part of a child's normal life and the ability to adapt to change becomes a key aspect of a child's healthy development. Hostile events that trigger positive stress help children learn to control and manage these events - with the help of caring adults, and in a generally calm, protected, and warm relationship.

Tolerable stress - triggers increased work of the body's stress-regulating systems in response to more serious and prolonged events, such as the loss of a loved one, natural disaster, or serious injury. If the triggering of these systems is temporary and amortized by relationships with adults that support the baby and help him adapt, the baby's brain and other organs cope with reactions that might otherwise be traumatic.

Toxic stress - formed when a child is under prolonged, serious and / or frequent pressure from hostile factors. The list of such factors can include physical and emotional abuse, chronic neglect of the child's needs, abuse of alcohol or drugs, exposure of the child to violence, accumulated difficulties associated with the difficult economic situation in the family without adequate support from adults. Such long-term activation of mechanisms in response to stress can disrupt the formation of the architecture of neural connections and other systems, as well as increase the risk of developing stress-related diseases, limit cognitive development, and may have an effect up to adulthood.

Now let's get back to the topic of sleep correction. Not a single, even the most direct method, implies ignoring the needs of the baby, excluding warm and really strong relationships with the baby throughout the entire time of the implementation of the process. Think about it: How can you compare the stress of learning to fall asleep on your own with the stress of losing a family member, such as (tolerable stress)? All existing methods that have passed multiple studies for safety and effectiveness create conditions in which the child learns to manage and cope with new circumstances (the need to fall asleep without relying on external factors). At the same time, falling asleep itself, even in the most difficult cases, does not last day and night, and during periods of wakefulness, parents have the opportunity to strengthen the connection with the baby, support him, demonstrate warmth, care, affection, which is precisely the shock-absorbing factor for any negative aspects associated with with stress. Moreover, today there are several very gentle techniques that allow parents to be with their baby during the entire learning process. The presence of a parent who encourages, demonstrates calmness and faith in the child is often enough for the toddler to stop being nervous, relax and begin to effectively seek alternative tools for change without an extremely increased stress response to the changed conditions.

Our children can cope with the stress of everyday life - it is a life skill that allows them to be flexible and adapt to ever-changing living conditions. Remember how the baby met the first shower in the shower, putting on hats in cold weather, the need to buckle up in the car seat, massage? Most likely, the kid was not happy, but did it last forever? Most likely not - the child learned to cope with this situation, and it did not harm his body, although it may have taken him ten massage sessions to get used to it or a couple of months of putting on a hat to stop noticing it. And your support and attitude have become key factors in making it easier for the child to adapt. Learning to fall asleep on its own never lasts for months, and certainly does not involve a child crying for days or weeks. Yes, of course, like any change in a child's life, it is stress, but it is positive, it leads to the development of a new and valuable skill. Believe in your child, he (s) has much greater abilities than you are often willing to admit, and our task, as responsible parents, is to give these abilities the opportunity to unfold to their full potential, providing their shoulder and heart in order to support, guide, hug, kiss and give a wonderful feeling "I can!".

www.sleep-expert.ru

Stress categories;

Organizational and personal factors

Another group of stress-generating factors could be called organizational-personal, since they express a person's subjectively anxious attitude to their professional activities. German psychologists W. Siegert and L. Lang distinguish several typical "fears" of workers:

Fear of not being able to do the job;

Fear of making a mistake;

Fear of being left out by others;

Fear of losing your job;

Fear of losing your own self.

Stressogens are also an unfavorable moral and climatic climate in the team, unresolved conflicts, lack of social support, etc.

To this "bouquet" of stressors of an organizational and production nature can be added by the problems of a person's personal life, which provide a lot of grounds for favorable emotions. Family problems, health problems, "midlife crisis" and other similar stimuli are usually acutely experienced by a person and cause significant damage to his stress resistance.

Thus, the causes of stress are not a special secret. The problem is how to prevent stress by acting on the causes that cause it. The basic rule here suggests itself: it is necessary to clearly distinguish between stressful events that we can somehow influence from those that are clearly not in our control. It is clear that an individual person, if he can influence the crisis situation in the country or in the world, at the inevitably approaching retirement age, is very insignificant. Therefore, such events should be left alone and focus on those stress factors that can be really changed by us.

K. Cooper and J. Marshall proposed 6 main categories of stresses characteristic of the activities of "white collars" - specialists in managerial work:

1. Factors associated with work.These include working conditions (severity, tempo characteristics, duration or inconvenience of the working regime) and work overloads, qualitative or quantitative. Unfortunately, many managers react to overload by increasing the duration of work: work on weekends, in the evenings, without holidays, which in the future can lead to psychosomatic illnesses.

2. Role in the organization. This category of stress includes role uncertainty (the employee does not have enough information about his professional duties, working conditions, colleagues' expectations), role conflict (the employee believes that he is performing functions unusual for him), excessive responsibility (the presence of little real power with a high level of responsibility. There is a certain dependence: people of mental work are more susceptible to stress from role conflicts, the less physical activity they have.

3. Relationships at work. In this category, it is necessary to highlight the relationship with the leadership - a bad attitude on the part of the leadership causes a feeling of tension; relations with subordinates - refusal of subordinates to follow the instructions of the head due to the lack of means of pressure; relationships with colleagues - rivalry, lack of adequate social support in difficult situations.

4. Career development. This factor includes “fear of early retirement” due to real or perceived professional failure and inadequacy of status (slow or too fast progress).

5. Organizational structure and psychological climate... Participation in an organization itself is a kind of threat to individual freedom, autonomy and status. Stressors can be lack of or little participation in decision-making processes, lack of a sense of belonging to the organization, inability to receive qualified help, lack of appreciation of good work or excessive control, intrigue.

6. Non-operational sources of stress... This is the largest and most varied range of influences. First of all, this should include family problems (lack of time for a family and vice versa), financial problems, age crises, conflicts of personal values \u200b\u200bwith the values \u200b\u200bdeclared in the organization, personal characteristics.

General concepts and categories of stress

Factors causing stress and non-specific ways of dealing with them, the intensity of the body's need for adaptation. Unpleasant emotional arousal, accompanied by an increase in physiological stress, negative reflexive sensations of a person.

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The main types of stress - studying the enemy, winning the battle

The desire for peace is characteristic not only of any body in the universe, but also of the nervous system. Any external influence on the body triggers an adaptive response - stress. What are the basic types of stress? There are four main groups: eustress, distress, physiological and psychological forms. The classification of stress takes into account the degree of harmful influence of stimuli, the ability to cope with the load on its own, and the rate at which the stability of the nervous system is restored.

What are the types of stress?

In psychology, it is customary to divide such a load into two main categories:

"Good" form (eustress);
"Bad" form (distress).

The mechanism for triggering stress is necessary for a person to survive, since it is a form of adaptation to a changing world. Short-term stress tones up the body, releasing energy that allows a person to quickly mobilize internal resources. The excitable stage of eustress lasts a few minutes, so the nervous system quickly regains its stability and the negative aspects do not have time to manifest.

"Bad" stress in psychology is called an impact with which the body is not able to cope on its own. We are talking about long-term stressful effects, when the mental resources are not enough for adaptation, or we are talking about a violation of physical health. Distress implies a detrimental effect on the body - in critical cases, a person completely loses his ability to work without proper treatment. Prolonged stress depletes the immune system, which in turn leads to a number of chronic or acute diseases.

Physiological stress is an elementary form of adaptation

The classification of stresses is also based on the way in which adaptation processes are triggered. Categories of "simple" stress take into account the minimum set of impacts - environmental factors, physical overload. The result is physiological stress.

This form implies an acute reaction of the body to the aggressive influence of the surrounding world. A sharp change in temperature, excessive moisture, prolonged absence of food or drinking water, piercing wind, excessive heat or cold - any such factor requires excessive mobilization. The triggers of physiological stress should also include excessive physical exertion, characteristic of athletes, as well as nutritional abnormalities provoked by excessive or insufficient nutrition (gluttony or starvation).

In popular psychology, a special, food form of stress is distinguished, which is provoked by improper nutrition (violation of the regime, inadequate selection of foods, excessive absorption of food or refusal from it).

Under normal circumstances, the physiological form passes without a trace due to the high endurance of the human body. However, in the case when a person is in an uncomfortable state for a long time, his body ceases to adapt correctly and a failure occurs at the physical level - a disease arises.

Psychological stress

Psychological stress is the scourge of our time. This form has become a characteristic feature of the era, since it is directly related to the adequacy of human interaction with society. If at the physical level adaptation is the primary guarantee of survival and is facilitated by a powerful mechanism of instinctive reactions, then psychological stress can unsettle a person for a long time.

Characteristics of the psychological form of stress

The "undermined" psyche is the result of an extreme reaction to two types of influence - informational or emotional factors.

Psychological stress, in contrast to the biological stress described in the classical works of G. Selye, has a number of specific features, among which several important * features can be distinguished. In particular, this type of stress can be triggered not only by actually acting, but also by probabilistic events that have not yet occurred, but the occurrence of which the subject is afraid of.

1 A.G. MaklakovGeneral psychology. SPb., 2002, p. 456.

2 Ibid, p. 457.

Unlike animals, a person reacts not only to a real physical danger, but also to a threat or a reminder of it. As a result, it happens that in a poorly performing student, mere thoughts about a probable unsatisfactory grade sometimes cause stronger autonomic reactions than getting it on an exam. This determines the specificity of human psychoemotional stress, to which the patterns of its course, described in detail in experiments on laboratory animals, are not always applicable.

Another feature of psychological stress is the essential importance of a person's assessment of the degree of their participation in actively influencing a problem situation in order to neutralize it. It has been shown that an active life position or at least awareness of the possibility of influencing the stress factor leads to the activation of the predominantly sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system, while the passive role of the subject in this situation determines the predominance of parasympathetic reactions.

The main differences between biological and psychological stress are reflected in table. one.

A security question to differentiate between types of stress is: "Does the stressor cause obvious damage to the body?"If the answer is "Yes" it is biological stress, if "No" it is psychological.

Table 1. Differences between biological and psychological stress

Continuation

1.2. Psychological stress 27

Table 1. (The ending)

Parameter	Biological stress	Psychological stress
The nature of emotional experiences	"Primary" biological emotions - fear, pain, fear, anger	"Secondary" emotional reactions combined with a cognitive component - anxiety, anxiety, melancholy, depression, jealousy, envy, irritability, etc.
Time boundaries of the subject of stress	Specific, limited to the present or near future	Blurred (past, distant future, uncertain time)
Influence of personality traits	Minor	Very significant
Examples of	f Hypothermia caused by long bathing f Burn with hot steam f Intoxication caused by alcohol consumption f Viral infection f Exacerbation of gastritis after taking acute food f Trauma (bruise, fracture)	f A reprimand from the boss f Raising the rent f Fear of flying on airplanes f Family conflict f Worry about the health of close relatives f Unhappy love f Worry about the future

The mechanism of development of psychological stress can be demonstrated on the example of a student preparing to defend a thesis project. The severity of the signs of stress will depend on a number of factors: his expectations, motivation, attitudes, past experience, etc. The expected forecast of the development of events is modified in accordance with the already available information and attitudes, after which the final assessment of the situation takes place. If the consciousness (or subconsciousness) assesses the situation as dangerous, then stress develops. In parallel to this process, an emotional assessment of the event takes place. The initial triggering of an emotional reaction develops on a subconscious level, and then an emotional reaction is added to it, made on the basis of rational analysis.

In this example (waiting for the defense of the diploma), the developing psychological stress will be modified in the direction of increasing

lazyvanie or decrease in intensity, depending on the following internal factors (table. 2).

Table 2.Subjectivefactors, affecting stress levels

Subjective factors	Increased stress levels	Reducing stress levels
Memory of the past	Having failed performances in the past, failed public speaking	Experience of successful speeches, presentations, public reports
Motivation	"For me, it is very important for me to perform well in defense and get the highest mark"	"I don't care how I perform and what grade I get"
Installations	f "Everything depends on me" f "During public speeches, everyone is worried, and I especially"	4 “You can't get away from fate” f “think, the diploma is sewn up. This is just a formality, not worth the trouble. "
Expectations	Uncertainty of the situation, incomprehensible attitude of the members of the commission	The certainty of the situation (expectation of a benevolent attitude of the members of the commission)

This process can be expressed as the following diagram (Fig. 4).

Chapter 1. Stress as a biological and psychological category

1.2. Psychological stress 29

Content
BLOCK 1.
1. Stress as a biological and psychological category
The role of the autonomic nervous system in the adaptation of the human body to environmental factors …………………………………………………… 3
2. Forms of stress manifestation and criteria for its assessment
Methods for assessing the state of the cardiovascular system and the autonomic nervous system under stress ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ..4
3. Dynamics of stress conditions
Classical dynamics of stress development in the concept of G. Selye ……… 5
4. Causes of psychological stress
Causal classification of stress occurrence …………………… ..6
5. Feature of occupational stress
Learning stress and its forms ……………………………………………. .7
6. Methods to optimize stress levels
Classification of methods for neutralizing stress ......................................................................... 10

BLOCK 2 ……………………………………………………………………. 12
BLOCK 3 ………………………………………………………………………. 16
References …………………………………………………………… .24

BLOCK 1.
Topic 1. Stress as a biological and psychological category
The role of the autonomic nervous system in the adaptation of the human body to environmental factors.
Higher nervous activity ensures the individual adaptation of the organism to the changing conditions of the external and internal environment. It is determined (determined) by the combined action of many factors. These include, on the one hand, afferent impulses that enter the central nervous system from receptors that perceive endogenous and exogenous stimuli, i.e., irritations from the internal and external environment, on the other hand, trace phenomena from the previous activity of the nervous system, i.e. e. memory. An important role in afferent impulses belongs to sensory corrections (feedbacks), which transmit signals through internal and external analyzers about the nature and effectiveness of the body's reactions (in sports, for example, about the movements of body parts, the trajectory of moving projectiles during throwing).
Based on the analysis and synthesis of afferent impulses (including sensory corrections) and trace processes, new reflex acts and integral behavior of the organism are formed. Higher nervous activity is of great importance in the process of acquiring new motor skills and adapting to various physical exercises.
The mechanisms of higher nervous activity in higher animals and humans are associated with the activity of a number of parts of the brain. The main role in these mechanisms belongs to the cerebral cortex (I.P. Pavlov). It has been shown experimentally that in the higher representatives of the animal world, after complete operative removal of the cortex, the higher nervous activity deteriorates sharply. They lose the ability to subtly adapt to the external environment and to exist independently in it.
The lack of active food-procuring reflexes and defense reactions to distant (distance) stimuli can lead to death from hunger or biological enemies.
In humans, the cerebral cortex plays the role of "manager and distributor" of all vital functions (IP Pavlov). This is due to the fact that in the course of phylogenetic development, a process of corticalization of functions occurs. It is expressed in the increasing subordination of the somatic and autonomic functions of the body to the regulatory influences of the cerebral cortex. In the case of the death of nerve cells in a significant part of the cerebral cortex, a person turns out to be unviable and quickly dies with a noticeable violation of the homeostasis of the most important autonomic functions.
Topic 2. Forms of stress manifestation and criteria for its assessment
Methods for assessing the state of the cardiovascular system and the autonomic nervous system under stress.
According to the results of numerous clinical observations and experimental studies, the cardiovascular system primarily responds to stress, and also becomes one of the first targets of stress. According to most researchers, the leading pathogenic factor in relation to the cardiovascular system under stress is the activation of the catecholamine and adrenocordicoid mechanisms, which, through a violation of the permeability of the membranes of cardiac cells, lead to disorders of their metabolism and hypoxia. At the same time, researchers emphasize the two-way relationship between stress and ischemia of the heart muscle: on the one hand, ischemia often occurs as a result of a stress reaction that causes spasm and thrombosis of the coronary vessels, and on the other hand, ischemia caused by any cause causes pain, fear of death, and as a result, expressed emotional stress.

Topic 3 Dynamics of stress conditions
Classical dynamics of stress development in the concept of G. Selye.
It should be noted that Hans Selye received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of this very aspect of stress reactions - the activation of the adrenal cortex, which helps the human and animal body to overcome various difficulties with the help of special anti-stress hormones. This reaction is also triggered by the hypothalamus, but differs significantly from the previous one. Under the influence of hormones of the adrenal cortex (glucocorticoids), all metabolic processes are enhanced, more glucose appears in the blood, inflammatory processes are suppressed, the body becomes less sensitive to pain - as a result, the degree of adaptation to the increased demands of the environment increases.
The further development of events depends on how quickly the body manages to cope with stress, which successively goes through the stages of anxiety, adaptation and exhaustion.
If the stress factor continues to affect the body, then adaptation occurs - the stage of balance between the stressor and defense mechanisms, at which the body manages to more or less compensate for the damage from the negative impact. This stage can be experienced by an athlete in the middle of a long distance, a company manager during a responsible project, a student in the first half of an examination session.
However, being in a state of stress cannot last indefinitely, since the reserves of adaptive energy, according to Selye's teachings, are limited. Therefore, if the stress factor continues to affect the body, physiological stress is replaced by pathological, in other words, the person becomes ill. Such psychosomatic diseases as arterial hypertension, nonspecific colitis, gastric ulcer and a number of other diseases are frequent complications of prolonged psychological stress.
Topic 4. Causes of psychological stress
Causal classification of stress occurrence.
The list of causes of stress is huge. International conflicts, instability of the political situation in the country, and socio-economic crises can act as stressors. In addition, the cause of stress can be: overload of an employee in the workplace, underutilization of an employee, conflict of roles and other factors.
The factors that influence the occurrence of personality stress in the organization can be divided into organizational, non-organizational and personal.
Organizational factors include:
- insufficient workload of the employee, in which he is not given the opportunity to demonstrate his qualifications in full. Such a situation is often encountered, for example, in many domestic organizations that have switched to a reduced mode of operation or are forced to reduce the volume of work due to non-payments by customers;
- insufficiently clear understanding by the employee of his role and place in the production process, the team. This situation is usually caused by the lack of clearly defined rights and obligations of a specialist, unclear assignment, lack of growth prospects;
Non-organizational factors include:
- lack of work or long-term search for it;
- competition in the labor market;
- the crisis state of the country's economy in general and the region in particular;
- family difficulties.
The consequences of exposure to stressful situations are very diverse and largely depend on the nature of the situation and the individual characteristics of the stressed employees. These consequences can be as follows:
- subjective, in which the workers develop feelings of guilt, increased anxiety, fatigue, frustration;
- behavioral - the occurrence of gossip, increased risk of incidents;
- physiological - deterioration of the health of employees, the occurrence of coronary diseases in them, fluctuations in blood pressure, etc.
- organizational - an increase in staff turnover, an increase in the number of absenteeism, an increase in employee dissatisfaction with the work performed.

Topic 5. Feature of occupational stress
Educational stress and its forms.
Stress in a student's life
Student life is full of emergencies and stressful situations, so students often experience stress and mental stress. Basically, students develop stress due to the large flow of information, due to the lack of systematic work in the semester and, as a rule, stress during the session.
Emotional stress in students begins at least 3-4 days before the start of the session and persists throughout its duration even on the quietest days. The presence of emotional stress during the inter-examination days is evidence that the examination session is accompanied by continuous, chronic stress. The consequence of such stress can be neurosis, i.e. functional disease of the nervous system. Then, first of all, the nervous system suffers, its resources are depleted, forcing the body to work at the limit. What shakes the nervous system, leads it to a breakdown and the onset of illness? It is generally accepted that neurosis occurs when a person is under stress for a long time. Neurosis is not a disease, but a kind of "normal" personality reactions in unusual stressful conditions. In turn, quarrels, failures and other life events, which psychiatrists refer to as mental trauma, lead to stress. The period of study has a significant impact on the formation of personality, therefore, the problems of mental health of students are very relevant.
The level of neurotic disorders increases with each year of study. Students with neurotic disorders do not know how to organize their regime, and this aggravates their asthenization (i.e., reduces the functional capabilities of the central nervous system, manifested in a deterioration in working capacity, mental fatigue, deterioration of attention, memory, increased reactivity with irritable weakness). Students with neurotic disorders do not sleep enough, some of them do not use weekends for rest. Diseases of neurosis lead to a significant decrease in academic performance. Among the students at risk, the majority drank alcohol in order to facilitate communication, improve mood and in difficult life situations.
The problem of stress is complex and multifaceted. Learning stress needs to be managed. This is the task of the students themselves and their teachers, social educators, psychologists. Perhaps the ways to solve it lie in the professional motivation of students and in the introduction of the foundations of a healthy lifestyle, training courses, health-saving technologies into the educational process.
Stress is a kind of human reaction to mental or physical stress, which is a physiological unconditioned reflex. Stress is a part of our daily life. It affects us from the morning turmoil to late evening and even during sleep. Stress can be both beneficial and destructive: a useful one adds energy, and a destructive one manifests itself in the form of headaches, hypertension, stomach ulcers, chronic insomnia, mental disorders, or other illnesses.
For the modern student, as for any person in general, stress is not a supernatural phenomenon, but rather a reaction to accumulated problems, to the endless process of dealing with everyday difficulties. Stress can be caused by factors related to the work and activities of the organization or events in a person's personal life.
For a university student, problems and difficulties can be the following:

Personality factors should also not be disregarded. This can include the illness of a family member, a change in the number of friends, conflicts with classmates and loved ones, relocation, significant personal achievements, changes in financial situation, and other factors.
Topic. 6 Methods to optimize stress levels
Classification of methods for neutralizing stress.
The sooner you can stop the chain reaction of stress, the better you will be at managing stress in your life. You might think that if you eliminate all stressors from your life, then you will never experience stress and therefore never get sick under its influence. Since this goal is both impossible and undesirable, your attempt to manage stress at the highest level of the model (life situation) will have to eliminate as much stress as possible.
There are many methods for dealing with stress. Consider some of the options that any modern person can resort to.
1. When allocating time, keeping the situation under control is just as important as managing stress. Feeling in control of a situation is probably the most important and fundamental attitude you need to cope with stress.
2. To protect yourself from stress, you can resort to imagination. It is used for mental relaxation.
3. Short walks in the fresh air.
4. Visiting cultural and cultural and entertainment institutions (theater, museum, exhibition, cinema, etc.)
5. Chatting with friends or other pleasant company.
6. Laughter is a good cure for stress. It trains many muscles, relieves headaches, lowers blood pressure, normalizes breathing and sleep. At the same time, the so-called anti-stress hormones enter the bloodstream. During stress, the body also produces hormones, only stressful ones: adrenaline and cortisol.
7. Massage. You can also resort to self-massage.
8. Sports activities (jogging, swimming, sports games, etc.). Any physical exercise removes stress hormones.
9. There are a number of stress management exercises. These include 3 types of exercises:

So, stress is an integral part of everyone's daily life. The response to stress, as well as the beginning of a working day, diet, physical activity, quality of rest and sleep, relationships with others, are integral parts of the lifestyle. It depends on the person himself what his lifestyle will be - healthy, active or unhealthy, passive, and, therefore, how often and for how long he will be in a stressful state.

BLOCK 2.
1. S.N. Gurbatov, A.I. Saichev, S.F. Shandarin “Large-scale structure of the Universe. Zeldovich approximation and sticking model "/ S.N. Gurbatov a, A.I. Saichev a, S.F. Shandarin. - Nizhny Novgorod State University named after I.I. N.I. Lobachevsky, Faculty of Radiophysics, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia // Advances in Physiological Sciences. - 2012. –T. 182. - No. 3. - p.232-262
Subject headings: Universe - structure - models of the universe.
Key words: model - Universe - Zeldovich - model of adhesion - gravitational equations - Burger - Turbulence.
The article refers to the problems of space and astronomy.
The article has a complex structure. It consists of an introduction, six chapters of the conclusion and a bibliography.
The introduction substantiates the relevance of the issue raised in the article and analyzes the background of this topic.
This article discusses a semi-analytical model of the formation of a large-scale structure of the Universe on scales from several megaparsecs to several hundred megaparsecs. The model serves as a natural generalization of the Zeldovich approximation proposed in 1970.
The Zeldovich effect is a change in the intensity of radio emission from the relict background due to the inverse Compton effect on hot electrons of the interstellar and intergalactic gas.
The mathematical basis of the model is the Burgers equation with a small or even vanishingly small coefficient of viscosity. The model provides a natural explanation for the observed distribution of galaxies on scales from a few megaparsecs to several hundred megaparsecs, reminiscent of a three-dimensional mosaic or a giant cosmic web. Many of the model's predictions have been confirmed by modern observations. New theoretical and mathematical results related to the Burgers model and their applications to cosmology are discussed.
2. Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. I. P. Pavlov

Chief Editor:
I. A. Shevelev

Magazine topics:
The journal publishes the results of original theoretical and experimental studies on the physiology and pathophysiology of higher nervous activity, as well as the general physiology of the brain and analyzers.
The purpose of the journal is also to highlight the connection between Pavlov's doctrine of higher nervous activity and philosophy, psychology, pedagogy, and biology.
The journal contains works of a review and critical nature, reviews, reports on scientific sessions and conferences.
The journal is intended for a wide range of scientific workers, graduate students, teaching staff of higher institutions, senior students of philosophical, biological and medical faculties of institutes, as well as doctors and teachers.

The journal is published in Russian. Founded in January 1951. Published 6 times a year.

3. Biophysics.

Chief Editor:
HER. Fesenko

Magazine topics:
The journal Biophysics covers a wide range of problems related to the basic physical mechanisms of processes occurring at various levels of the organization of biosystems. In particular, these are the problems of the structure and dynamics of macromolecules, cells and tissues; environmental impact problems; transformation and transfer of energy; thermodynamics; biological motility; population dynamics and modeling of cell differentiation; problems of biomechanics and tissue rheology; nonlinear phenomena; problems of mathematical and cybernetic modeling of complex systems; computational biology.
The journal Biophysics practices an interdisciplinary approach and provides a complete picture of the significant baseline research conducted in the countries of the former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries. General problems are covered in reviews and mini-reviews. The size of the articles is not limited.

4. Sensory systems.

Chief Editor:
M. A. Ostrovsky

Magazine topics:
The journal Sensory Systems should be viewed as a continuation of the collections published by the Russian Academy of Sciences for forty-five years. We are talking about the well-known editions "Problems of Physiological Optics" and "Problems of Physiological Acoustics", published in 1941-1971, and about the Yearbooks "Sensory Systems" (1977-1987).
The physiology of the sense organs or, in the modern, broader sense, the physiology of sensory systems has always been characterized by a complex interdisciplinary approach.
Articles are published on the main areas of fundamental research of sensor systems. The journal aims to reflect the progress of diverse research in the field of sensory physiology, to facilitate the coordination and unification of efforts of teams of different profiles and to stimulate interest in one of the most exciting and challenging areas of brain science.

The journal is published only in Russian. Founded in January 1987, 4 issues per year.

5. Advances in modern biology.

BLOCK 3.
1. Spielberger-Hanin test
The Spielberger-Hanin test is one of the methods that investigate the psychological phenomenon of anxiety. This questionnaire consists of 20 statements related to anxiety as a state (state of anxiety, reactive or situational anxiety) and 20 statements to define anxiety as a disposition, personality trait (anxiety property). What Spielberger understands by both measures of anxiety can be seen from the following quote: "The state of anxiety is characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of threat and tension, accompanied or associated with the activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system." Anxiety as a personality trait, apparently, means a motive or acquired behavioral disposition, which obliges the individual to perceive a wide range of objectively safe circumstances as containing a threat, prompting him to react to them with states of anxiety, the intensity of which does not correspond to the magnitude of the real danger. The Spielberger Reactive and Personal Anxiety Scale is the only technique that allows you to differentially measure anxiety both as a personal property and as a state. In our country, it is used in the modification of Yu.L. Khanina (1976), which he also adapted to the Russian language.
Reactive (situational) anxiety is the state of the subject at a given moment in time, which is characterized by subjectively experienced emotions: tension, anxiety, concern, nervousness in a given specific situation. This state arises as an emotional reaction to an extreme or stressful situation, it can be different in intensity and dynamic over time.

Instructions for the situational anxiety test.
The examinee is invited to - “Read carefully each of the above sentences and cross out the corresponding number on the right, depending on how you feel at the moment. Do not hesitate over questions for a long time. Usually the first answer that comes to mind is the most correct one, adequate to your condition. "
Testing is carried out using a questionnaire form:
Situational anxiety questionnaire form (Spielberger-Khanin)

"SITUATION"
1	I AM CALM	1	2	3	4
2	Nothing threatens me	1	2	3	4
3	I’m STRESSED	1	2	3	4
4	I feel sorry	1	2	3	4
5	I FEEL FREE	1	2	3	4
6	I'M SAD	1	2	3	4
7	I AM EXCITED BY POSSIBLE FAILURES	1	2	3	4
8	I FEEL REST	1	2	3	4
9	I'm alarmed	1	2	3	4
10	I FEEL INNER SATISFACTION	1	2	3	4
11	I AM SURE IN MYSELF	1	2	3	4
12	I'm nervous	1	2	3	4
13	I DON'T FIND A PLACE FOR MYSELF	1	2	3	4
14	I'm screwed	1	2	3	4
15	I DON'T FEEL SHIFT	1	2	3	4
16	I'm satisfied	1	2	3	4
17	I'm worried	1	2	3	4
18	I AM TOO EXCITED AND I DO NOT OWN MYSELF	1	2	3	4
19	I am glad	1	2	3	4
20	I AM PLEASED TO	1	2	3	4

The indicator of situational (reactive) anxiety is calculated using the formula:
where
- the sum of the strikethrough figures on the points of the scale 3,4,6,7,9,12,13,14,17,18
- the sum of the strikethrough figures on the points of the scale 1,2,5,8,10,11,15,16,19,20
If the PT does not exceed 30, then, consequently, the subject does not feel any particular anxiety, i.e. he currently has low anxiety. If the amount is in the range of 31–45, then this means moderate anxiety. At 46 or more, anxiety is high.
Very high anxiety (\u003e 46) directly correlates with the presence of a neurotic conflict, with emotional and neurotic breakdowns, and with psychosomatic diseases.
Low anxiety (<12), наоборот, характеризует состояние как депрессивное, ареактивное, с низким уровнем мотиваций. Но иногда очень низкая тревожность в показателях теста является результатом активного вытеснения личностью высокой тревоги с целью показать себя в «лучшем свете».
When is the Spielberg test used?
2. Stressor.
Stressor (stress factor, stress situation) is an emergency or pathological stimulus, significant in strength and duration, adverse effects that cause stress. An irritant becomes a stressor either by virtue of the value attributed to it by a person (cognitive interpretation), or through the lower cerebral sensory mechanisms, through the mechanisms of digestion and metabolism. There are various classifications of stressors. In the most general form, there are physiological stressors (excessive pain and noise, exposure to extreme temperatures, taking a number of medications, such as caffeine or amvetamines) and psychological (information overload, competition, threat to social status, self-esteem.
When does an irritant become a stressor?
3. Psychological stress.

1.2. Psychological stress

The mental manifestations of the syndrome described by G. Selye were named psychological stress. R. Lazarus and R. Lanier in their works defined it as a person's reaction to the peculiarities of the interaction between the individual and the world around him. Later, this definition was clarified: psychological stress began to be interpreted not only as a reaction, but as a process in which the requirements of the environment are considered by the individual, based on his resources and the likelihood of resolving the emerging problem situation, which determines individual differences in reaction to a stressful situation.
In addition to the term "psychological stress", the literature also uses the term "emotional stress" and "psychoemotional stress". Various researchers (sociologists, psychologists, physiologists, psychiatrists) put their own meaning in this term, which, of course, makes it difficult to create a unified concept of psychoemotional stress. Some researchers note that the emergence of this term emphasizes the inextricable link between stress and emotion, and even the primacy of emotions in a complex response.
The content of this term includes both the primary emotional and behavioral reactions to extreme influences of the biological or social environment, and the physiological mechanisms underlying them. Most often, emotional stress was understood as negative affective experiences that accompany stress and lead to adverse changes in the human body. Subsequently, it was found that unexpected and strong beneficial changes can also cause typical signs of stress in the body. Accordingly, emotional stress began to be understood as a wide range of mental phenomena, both negative and positive. G. Selye himself wrote in one of his later works:
The relevance of research into the mechanisms and consequences of emotional stress is emphasized by almost all leading experts working in this field, regardless of the scientific direction (psychiatrists, psychologists, physiologists).
So, A. M. Wayne wrote more than two decades ago that "the main chronic current diseases of our time arise against the background of emotional distress, acute or chronic emotional stress."
In one of the monographs devoted to individual resistance to stress, K.V. Sudakov noted that psychosomatic diseases are formed on the basis of emotional stresses: neuroses, cardiac dysfunction, arterial hypertension, ulcerative lesions of the gastrointestinal tract, immunodeficiencies, endocrinopathies, and even tumor diseases. ...
Some Western experts estimate that 70% of illnesses are associated with emotional stress. In Europe, more than a million people die every year due to stress-related disorders of the cardiovascular system. The main causes of these disorders are emotional stress, interpersonal conflicts in the family and tense industrial relations, etc. These factors disrupt the function of the mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis formed in the process of evolution. If a person finds himself in social conditions when his position seems hopeless to him ("No Future" Syndrom), then anxiety, fear, neuroses, etc. may develop. Recently, it has been shown that emotional problems are the most important cause of disability compared to physical problems.
Despite the closeness of the concepts of "psychological" and "emotional" stress, it makes sense to more accurately define their content in connection with the following circumstances:

At the same time, both of these types of stress have a common pattern of development, include similar neurohumoral mechanisms of adaptive responses, and in their development, as a rule, go through three "classic" stages - anxiety, adaptation and exhaustion. Nevertheless, taking into account the specifics of the subject of the course, as well as the leading role of the psyche in the formation of stressful reactions of a person, in the future we will mainly use the term "psychological stress", keeping the term "emotional stress" only when citing other authors.
It should be noted that the authors of many basic textbooks on various branches of psychology often give rather vague and arbitrary definitions of stress, mixing the concepts of biological, psychological and emotional stress. So, the author of a three-volume textbook on psychology, RS Nemov, combines the concepts of "stress" and "affect", which are fundamentally different both in strength and in duration. As you know, the duration of affects is seconds or minutes, while the development of stress takes weeks, days or, in acute cases, hours.
Stress is a state of mental (emotional) and behavioral disorder associated with the inability of a person to act expediently and reasonably in a given situation.
In terms of the discussion of this definition, it can be noted that this definition is more likely to fit the concept of "distress", since under certain types of stress, the productivity of activity, on the contrary, increases. The author of another textbook on general psychology, A.G. Maklakov, refers stress to one of the types of emotional state, and one
etc.................

Yuri Viktorovich Shcherbatykh Psychology of Stress and Methods of Correction. Stress as a biological and psychological category

Stress categories;

General concepts and categories of stress

Factors causing stress and non-specific ways of dealing with them, the intensity of the body's need for adaptation. Unpleasant emotional arousal, accompanied by an increase in physiological stress, negative reflexive sensations of a person.

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