State system of ancient China. Ancient China - History of the Great Empire
China's reforms in the 19th century became the result of a long and extremely painful process. The ideology established for many centuries, which was based on the principle of the deification of the emperor and the superiority of the Chinese in front of all the surrounding peoples, inevitably collapsed, breaking the life structure of representatives of all segments of the population.
New owners of the Middle Empire
Since in the middle of the XVII century, China has undergone a manchurian invasion, the life of its population has not changed fundamental changes. The rulers of the zinc kind came to change, who made Beijing the capital of the state, and all key posts in the government took the descendants of conquerors and those who supported them. Otherwise, everything remained still.
As the story has shown, the new owners of the country were launder, since in the 19th century, China entered a fairly developed agricultural country with established internal trade. In addition, their policy of expansions led to the fact that China's input (so called China's so-called) included 18 provinces, and a number of neighboring states paid it to her, while in Beijing, Gold and Silver from Vietnam, Korea, Nepal, Burma, as well as States Ryuku, Siam and Sikkim.
Son of the sky and his subjects
China's social structure in the 19th century was the likeness of the pyramid, at the top of which the Godman (Emperor), who used unlimited authorities, was recreated. Below him was the courtyard, completely consisting of the relatives of the lord. In his immediate submission were: the Supreme Chancellory, as well as the State and Military Tips. Their decisions were carried out to six executive agencies, whose competence included questions: judicial, military, ritual, tax, and, moreover, related to the assignment of the ranks and the execution of public works.
The internal policy of China in the 19th century was built on ideology, according to which the emperor (Bogdoyan) was the son of Heaven, who received the mandate of the mandate for the country. According to this concept, without exception, residents of the country were reducible to the level of his children, obliged to fully fulfill any commandment. It is involuntarily asking for an analogy with Russian monarchs-anointed women, the authorities of which also attached sacred character. The difference was only that the Chinese considered all foreigners by barbarians, obliged to tremble to their incomparable Lord of the world. In Russia, before that, fortunately, did not think.
Steps of social staircase
From the history of China, the 19th century it is known that the dominant position in the country belonged to the descendants of Manchurians-conquerors. Below in the steps of the hierarchical stairs were placed by ordinary Chinese (Hantians), as well as the Mongols, held in the service of the emperor. Next, the barbarians were followed (that is, not Chinese) who lived in the territory of the subway. These were the Kazakhs, Tibetans, Dungan and Uigur. The lower stage was occupied by the semi-tribes of the Juan and Miao tribes. As for the rest of the world's population, then, in accordance with the ideology of the Empire of the Qing, it was considered as the creation of external barbarians, unworthy of the attention of the Son of the Sky.
Army of China
Since in the 19th century focused mainly on the seizure and subordination of neighboring peoples, then a significant part of the state budget was spent on the content of a very numerous army. It consisted of infantry, cavalry, sapper parts, artillery and fleet. The core was the so-called eight-name troops who were formed from Manchus and Mongols.
Heirs of ancient culture
In the 19th century, China's culture was built on the rich heritage, which took place from the times of the rulers of the Ming dynasty and their predecessors. In particular, an ancient tradition was preserved, on the basis of which all applicants for this or that state position were obliged to pass a strict examination test of their knowledge. Thanks to this, a layer of highly educated officials was formed in the country, whose representatives were called "Shenney".
Representatives of the ruling class, the ethical and philosophical teachings of the Ancient Chinese sages of Kun Futsza (VI - V BB. BC), which is known today under the name of Confucius, was used by the equitable honor. Procedured in the XI - XII centuries, it formed the basis of their ideology. The main mass of China's population in the 19th century confessed Buddhism, Taoism, and in Western regions - Islam.
Closed political system
Showing a fairly wide religious tolerance, the rulers at the same time have made a lot of effort to preserve the internal political system. They were developed and issued a set of laws that determined the measure of punishment for political and criminal offenses, as well as a circular law system and total surveillance, which covered all segments of the population.
At the same time, China in the 19th century was a country closed for foreigners, and especially for those who sought to establish political and economic contacts with his government. So, the failure ended the attempts of Europeans not only to establish diplomatic relations with Beijing, but even to supply goods produced by them. The Chinese economy in the 19th century was so self-sufficient, which allowed him to protect him from any influence from the outside.
Folk uprisings in the early 19th century
However, despite the external well-being, the crisis was gradually crisis, caused by both political and economic reasons. First of all, it was provoked by the extreme unevenness of the economic development of the provinces. In addition, the social inequality and infringement of the rights of national minorities were an important factor. Already at the beginning of the 19th century, the mass disconnect was resulted in popular uprisings, headed by representatives of the secret societies "Heavenly Mind" and "Secret Lotus". All of them were cruelly suppressed by the government.
Defeat in the first opium war
In its economic development, China in the 19th century significantly lagged behind the leading Western countries in which this historical period was marked by a stormy industrial growth. In 1839, the British government tried to take advantage of this and the power to open its markets. The reason for the beginning of the hostilities, called the "first opium war" (there were two of them), served in the port of the city of Guangzhou a significant batch of drugs, illegally imported into the country from British India.
During the battles, it was clearly manifested with the extreme inability of Chinese troops to confront the most advanced at that time the army, which was located Britain. The sons of the Saves of the sky suffered one defeat after another and on land, and the sea. As a result, June 1842, the British were already met in Shanghai, and after some time they forced the government to sign the act of surrender to the propulsion. According to the agreement achieved, from now on, the British provided the right to free trade in the five port cities of the country, and Siangan Island Island Island (Hong Kong) was reached by the "eternal possession".
The results of the first opium war, very favorable for the British economy, were destructive for ordinary Chinese. The European goods fled down by the stream were supplanted from the markets of local producers, many of which were raised as a result. In addition, China has become a place of selling a huge number of drugs. They imported earlier, but after the opening of the national market for foreign imports, this disaster took a catastrophic scale.
Uprising Taipinov
The result of the intensive social tension was the next uprising, which swept the whole country in the middle of the 19th century. His leaders called on the people to build a happy future, which they called the "Heavenly State of Universal Benefensions." In Chinese, it sounds like Taipin Tiang. Hence the name of the participants of the uprising - Taipina. Their distinctive sign were red headclocks.
At a certain stage, the rebel managed to achieve significant success and even create a certain similarity of a socialist state on the captured territory. But very soon, their leaders were distracted from building a happy life and fully betrayed the struggle for power. The imperial troops took advantage of this circumstance and with the help of the same Britons defeated the rebels.
The second opium war
As a fee for their services, the British demanded the revision of the trade agreement concluded in 1842, and the provision of large benefits. Having received a refusal, the subjects of the British crown resorted to the previously proven tactics and again staged a provocation in one of the port cities. This time, the arrest of the ship "Arrow" was the pretext, on board who also found drugs. The conflict that broke out between the governments of both states led to the beginning of the second opium war.
This time, military actions had an even more disastrous consequences for the emperor than those who spent in the period 1839-1842, since the frenzy freshers were joined by the United Kingdoms. As a result of joint actions, the allies occupied a significant part of the country's territory and re-forced the emperor to sign an extremely unprofitable agreement.
The collapse of the dominant ideology
The defeat in the second opium war led to the fact that diplomatic representations of the winning countries opened in Beijing, whose citizens received the right to free movement and trade throughout the territory of the territory. However, troubles were not over. In May 1858, the son of the sky was forced to recognize the left bank of Amur with the territory of Russia, which finally undermined the reputation of the Qing dynasty in the eyes of his own people.
The crisis caused by the defeat in opium wars, and the weakening of the country as a result of popular uprisings led to the collapse of the state ideology, which was based on the principle - "China surrounded by the barbarians." Those states that, according to official propaganda, relied "tremble" to the empire, headed by the Son of the Sky, turned out to be much stronger than her. In addition, foreigners who freely visited China, told its inhabitants about a completely different world order, which is based on the principles that exclude the worship of the deified ruler.
Forced reforms
Extremely poorly for the country's leadership, there were cases related to finance. Most of the provinces that were previously Chinese danutants moved under the protectorate of stronger European states and stopped replenishing the imperial treasury. Moreover, at the end of the 19th century, China swept folk rebellion, as a result of which significant damage to European entrepreneurs who discovered their enterprises on its territory. After their suppression of the head of eight states demanded that the payments of large amounts were paid as compensation.
The government, headed by the Imperial Qing Dynasty, turned out to be on the verge of collapse, which prompted him to adopt the most non-realistic measures. They have become reforms, long-standing, but carried out only in the period of the 70s and 1980s. They led to the modernization of not only the economic structure of the state, but also to a change in both the political system, and all the dominant ideology.
Elite degradation: "The Secret Power of the Empire"
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Ancient and medieval China created an unsurpassed management system, which allowed the state to preserve for almost 6,000 years, this is the only people of human history, which preserved statehood, culture and self-identification for such a long period of time. The result is all the more striking the imagination, if we consider that the Chinese were initially a group of more than 200 (!) Different peoples, some defended each other further than the Russians from the British and Arabs. In the middle of the 11th millennium BC. e. The political map of the ancient China is changing radically: from two hundred states it remains "only" about thirty. Interestingly, so far the northern Chinese do not understand the southern, only hieroglyphs are a means of shared communication. This and even adjacent Great Stephaus explained the terrible wars, which thousands of years have tormented the empire. But the Chinese not only surrendered, they built a unique civilization, which again claims to position the superpower. This is the elite with a capital letter. It does not go to her in comparison, neither Alexander Macedonian or some Karl great, the affairs and empires were immediately collapsed by the auditory successors. The structure below the structure of the Chinese Empire is largely simplified, including in historical periods and kingdoms, so as not to distract the reader from understanding the essence.
The basics of social order and the state car were formally created in Qinsky China (1-thousand AD), but in fact came from 2 thousand BC. And even an earlier era and turned out to be so perfect that almost all changes were preserved before the revolution of 1911. All public administration in China was in the hands of professional official managers. Any free man could become an official by passing the appropriate exams. The higher the position, the more difficult exams. Philosophy, literature, mathematics, tests, top posts hand-to-hand fight, including a fight with heavy cold weapons - Sword, Alebard (in the late middle ages left only for military posts). What is a fight with a sword or alabard, it is necessary to know. Only a cold-blooded and a decisive person has a chance to win. In the learning process, many students are eliminated, including due to injuries and deaths, the remaining acquire the discipline of the Spirit. So the ruling elite of China was selected.
The empire existed a special department of rites - ideologies led by the Supreme Priest. The unified ritual was to serve as social cohesion, education in the spirit of patriotism, the inviolability and holiness of the existing orders. It is characteristic that the Supreme Priest carried out supervision of created in 124 BC. The imperial academy preparing high-ranking officials. He acted as a "Minister of Education". Attempts to save on the abolition of the "ceremonial departments" always ended the same type: after a short period of time and civil war, often accompanied by the decay of the state. After that, the wise rulers accounted for decades to combine the broken country.
The censor bodies were headed by the Supreme Censor and did not allow the influx of information in the mass "unnoticeable decent people. Officials of this department, trusted persons and personal representatives of the emperor stood on the guard of existing orders of both in the center and in the field, forming a complex mechanism of the interconnection and receipt of information. They were the "eyes and ears" of the emperor in each district, controlled the work of all officials, followed their relationship, investigated state crimes. The external and internal situation in the state leading continuous wars and constantly joining new territories inhabited by dissatisfied, was usually extremely unfavorable. There was a large number of spies and traitors who are ready for MZDU to contact the enemy. In general, the state structure has successfully coped with this task.
The head of the agriculture department was simultaneously a minister of finance responsible for income into the state treasury taxes and income from state monopolies on salt and iron. He also controlled the cost of the maintenance of the officialhood and army.
The community was a separate unit since ancient times. The leadership of the community was carried out by the elder and "elders fathers". The control system applied to local governments. The system of mutual responsibility operated at all levels: from the rural community, built on a circular order, to the highest officials responsible for violations of the order or the poor work of the subordinate officials. A very important point - for the bad work of the subordinate in China answered his boss.
The army played a huge role in ancient China, which was explained by frequent wars. The basis of military force was reservists who were part of army groups and placed in military settlements and camps. Military camps were distinguished by land, which made their economic database. The positions of the commanders of the Army Group were often inherited, but not always. Men from 23 to 56 years old were taken to the army, which were supposed to pass one year training, carry a garrison service during the year and a month to serve in the militia at the place of residence.
The search and detention of the robbers was the responsibility of the military department, where the Palace Protection was included. The head of the professional Imperial Guard occupied an important place in the state, being actually the head of the special services, which, as a separate unit, did not exist. The Chinese avoidped producing specialized divisions and bureaucratic services with a special purpose. Even the police and intelligence functions were attributed to the army. The purpose of this is "in order to avoid the formation of entities of themselves reproducing." That is, they very clearly understood the danger of education of bureaucratic structures, interested not in solving the task entrusted to them, but in justifying their existence and privileges. The Chinese emperors used the Taoist principle "it's easier to prevent, than to cure" when ensuring the security of the state. The structure of ensuring the state security of the Criminal Empire was integrated, that is, a single organism that ensures the safety of society at all levels and directions. Interestingly, in such a system (NKVD) was created by Stalin and proved its high efficiency even with the extremely unfavorable external and internal conditions for the state.
According to the same principle of preventing diseases, health care of the empire was built, which was the most advanced in the world for many millennia, which led to the colossal increase in China's population. Imperial doctors developed a complex complex of hygienic and sanitary and preventive measures, which are very important, since most of the territory of China is located in epidemically unfavorable areas with natural foci of plague, typhoid and other dangerous diseases.
The Judicial Office of China strictly followed the application of criminal laws. All things about the most serious crimes passed through his hands, especially cases related to the excess of power by officials, which traditionally related to particularly grave crimes. In China, almost all administrative authorities have a judicial authority. Suppressing the abuse of officials was also nailed to the representative of the Supreme Censor in the provinces. The provincial judge was simultaneously the head of the prison in the district in accordance with the "principle of inexplicity of entities". If in the county it was not allowed, it was directed to the provincial governor, which in case of its complexity could address the case. The highest authority was the emperor.
The continuity of traditions and the role of the knowledge accumulator in China was the "secret power" of the empire. The secret power in China, strictly speaking, has never been a secret, neither "power" in the generally accepted sense of the word, unlike Western "lies" and "clubs". And the highest official, and mafiosi from the "Triads", and the last village poor man knew and idolized wisdom carriers, without which the Chinese society could not exist for a long time, it was them that the mysterious wise men of the East created the basis of a unique Chinese device. We are talking about Dais. Appears from the mysterious sects who came from the West about 2 millennia BC. They played a colossal role in Chinese history and there is every reason to believe that they continue to play it. It was them, by the way, created the theory of Zharya, reflexotherapy, as well as a compass, dialectic, the art of espionage and much more.
Speaking about Daus as keepers of the knowledge of the empire, the author makes significant simplification to avoid the extremely complex picture of the public relationship of the subwayless empire, however, he believes that he managed to correctly convey the essence. The fact is that Daois of the Chinese tradition worked closely with Buddhist and Confucian sages, Buddhism in China is radically transformed under the influence of Taoism, breeding the branch of Chan (Zen) Buddhism, sharply different from the source. Often, such as in the case of the sage referred to below, the sage was and Daoom, and a Buddhist (and there was something else and the Confucian) at the same time, there was also a considerable number of other philosophical and scientific schools that were very similar in the basics. Simplification is done to avoid consideration of such difficulties that do not affect the essence of the material under consideration.
The wisest thing that a man who, who had a haunted Daoist sage could be made - to immediately impose on his hands. If he could run from the agents of the Imperial Guard, he had nowhere to hide from the "Triad" - Chinese mafia. It is not surprising that even the most desperate robber did not dare to insult a respected sage. "Having" an imperial house on Taois at the beginning of AD. It turned out into the terrible uprising of yellow bandages, depressed with tremendous labor. More emperors so "joke" did not dare. With the blessing of the Taoist wise men and, with their intellectual support, the uprising of Taipinov (and some others) began, and they, seeing the degeneration of the leaders of the uprising, refused their support in his most his peak, when it seemed to be handed to victory. A crushing defeat and Nanjing tragedy did not make himself wait long.
Real Daoists never lived in luxury, although rarely lived in poverty. The sage was strictly prohibited by politics. It is prohibited by tradition, if he violates it, it ceases to be an authority for the clan, and soon - and for society. I'm not sure that this is the result of the nobility, just these cakes do not like to eat their heads under the ax. Instead, they with a grin exhibited the Confucian priests, who had luxury and formal ideological power. However, in the event of an unsuccessful turn of the events of these poor, and you ordered thousands of people alive in the ground, Taoists usually turned out to be aside and soon they were demanded by the new government. If there was no need for them, then shrugged, they were removed into their huts and monasteries laboratories, "going along the path of happiness." After the next bloody shocks in the Middle Kingdom, it was usually it turned out that there is still a need for them. Taoists had no power outside the Chinese state, but were able to assist in the principle of small impact on the system in an unstable state. They greatly imagined their role in the empire. Smart officials - too. Usually no large public appointment took place without a council with a respected Patriarch. Most of the strength of the statesman went to gnawing, Routine and the struggle for power. The sage could afford the luxury of being out of it, spending his life for the knowledge of human nature and acquiring knowledge, giving them into the world as needed.
Taoism is formally considered a religion, but there is no God in it, although a number of directions of Taoism, mixed with folk beliefs Pantheon. "Vera in God is faith in his own impotence, the lack of understanding that there are top forces there are stupidity," says Taoist instruction. Strictly speaking, Taoov could well be called materialists.
Keepers of Knowledge of Ancient China, why did they name Daus ("Going along the way")? It was necessary to call them somehow. They had no formal rites or generally accepted centers of worship. Often they had a very remote attitude to the classic Taoism, but for knowledge is always the most direct. It was common that any Taoist school (clan) lost its authority and dissolved that it was not, if she acquired authority, it was revived from non-existence. They focused all their strength in search of truth and serving life, as they understood her. If the Chinese society according to their concepts corresponded to the right path, then for serving it they did not regret their own life. Free from the Soviets and the study of ancient knowledge of the time they devoted to the development of methods of treating and extending life and achieved considerable success for their time. In the Middle Ages, they were even called "immortal", which is quite understandable - with the average then life expectancy in 35 years, Taoists usually lived to 90-95 and even more.
It was just scientists of Chinese traditions. Mystic, which they loved to catch around themselves, turned out to be intense tricks to enhance spiritual power over the dark people. But knowledge in the field of medicine, psychology, management, mathematics, astronomy and even as can be said now, systemic analysis was quite real and most advanced for their time, although not so spectacular. It was for knowing that the emperors came to them. It was common when the order "deliver the wisdom to the palace" followed the answer that the sage old and would not transfer travel and let the emperor himself goes to him in the mountains. The scientific tradition of the Emperor remained sigh and gather on the road. Also ordinary was at the end of the far way to see the "weak" senior, carrying a log on his shoulder or working in the field. Chinese emperors were usually wise enough to swallow it, and it could get out sideways. The Chinese are convinced that if the Taoist Sage does not want to give advice or ask for something to do, do not insist on his own in any way, despite all the seeming wisdom, the consequences of the forced advice will be very bad. Obviously, it did not appear on scratch.
Interesting in this sense of the legend of Zhun Jense (in Russian sources - Chan-Chuna) - the Taoist Wise, with whom the Chingiz-Khan himself unexpectedly believed after the conquest of fragmented China. According to the official information of those years, the conversation was carried out on the extension of life and improving the health of the Vladyka. The conversation about the recovery and the extension of life with the Taoist sage is about the same thing that the diplomatic lunch is now. Everyone is well aware that the ambassador comes to the Foreign Ministry not at all to eat. In those days, in China, there were a lot of Taoist drugs, much more skillful in the treatment than Chan Chun, who was actually not in the Peterak, but Han wanted to see him. Perhaps the Great Khan pulled to get acquainted with Taoism? To do this, there was no need to call anyone, the nearest advisor of the great Khan was the sage Chu Tsai, who perfectly knew Buddhism and Taoism and had such a tremendous influence on him that he had violated the Mongolian generic law on his advice, leaving the throne not the older, and the 3rd son . The influence was, but the caliber is a talented self-taught, even with the experience of officials in the highest management structures of China, it was clearly not comparable to the keeper of the ancient Knowledge Chun Chang, the Patriarch of one of the most respected Taoist clans. He is Chu Tsai as the heir of one of the Chinese dynasties, knew who would need to seek advice.
After the conversation with the sage of the action of Genghis-Khan was very indicative. He freed the Taois from all taxes and duties and forbade them to offend with a promising wording: "He and his genus, who broke the decree of the Great Khan and his genus will be a great khan." For incomprehensible, I will explain: a few great grace was honored.
It was after the meeting with Zhun, the structure of the State Administration of Horde was radically reformed. There were no fundamental structures of public administration, subsequently, almost unchanged Muscovy: Yamchikotko-Messenger Service, the system of transferring a documented state power symbol - label and Piji, the system of mobile defense of the borders, encryption of messages, a unified tax collection system, support for the local clergy Conquered tribes and so on. Most of this embodied the undeservedly forgotten organizational genius - Ughedi, the son of Chingiz Khan, the one who left the throne on the council of Chu Quay. Although he was a genius, if he was invariably looked down by the figure of the wise Daus, which is attributed to the authorship of words: "To make a good bow, the master must be learn for many years, in order to learn from the state management, it is necessary to learn even more, the state must Manage decent masters. "
The legend states that when Chun Chan returned to his homeland, he began to blame him that he handed over to nomads that brought China so many troubles, important knowledge that could strengthen them. To which he answered with a grin that the empire of nomads thanks to these knowledge was aspiring and raising nomadic savages, and when she fell in 300 years, then part of her lands will calmly take the imperfect and thereby bother bloody wars and rebellious tribes. "Mongols will doubt them for us." "If the wisers are combined into a school, a tradition, then students of our students will be able to complete what teachers of our teachers have thought." Keepers of knowledge of the Middle Kingdom could afford plans for hundreds of years.
The Horde existed about 300 years, after which her elite was decomposed and the state collapsed, part of her lands really got China almost without war. Interestingly, the Romanov dynasty also existed about 300 years.
What was the tricky old man in a conversation with Great Khan? On the inevitability of degeneration of the elite? About precautionary measures? About something else, we are still unknown? What were the two Chinese sages behind the back of the Great Khan?
Driving on Taoov, as on the "religious" people, took place in Maoist China, but it was rather expulsion and temporary oblivion, very few people suffered from repression, and did not happen at all with Buddhist and Confucian priests declared "obscurants" they, What is called, "bubble in full." In the sixties, the new government began to reconcile with carriers of ancient knowledge, apparently when the feed realized that Marxism was not working, it had to go to bow for ancient wisdom.
The highest leaders of the "Red Crimestone Empire" have gained newly rebuilt monasteries laboratories for advice and rejuvenation. Sunny Mao lived for so long, despite the fact that he had a stormy, complete stress and deprivation of the life of a professional revolutionary. At about this time, the stupidity of the "big jump" ended and the real ascent of the new China began. What is interesting, rumors have been rumored that the "cultural revolution" with the direction of the village for the re-education of the new communist nobility began on the advice of the Taoist sages. Is it so? Quite possible. What is interesting was the official message that B. Helzin traveled to one of the Taoist monasteries.
How long will the order of knowledge keepers stand on guard of China? How long will the new Chinese elite of spiritual competitors? Will they point to the door, not yet fully agreed and, will it happen, as usual after that in history, the next collapse of China?
As one of the connoisseurs of Taoist traditions said: "Masons and European clans are blind puppies compared to Dais." Studying history, you come to the conclusion that it is. And again, the Masons serve to themselves, and Daoists, if they are Chinese - only China. And more truth.
The experience of the subwayless empire is very instructive, but in the literal sense, the borrowing of knowledge from the Chinese sages is unrealistic. It is doubtful that the Chinese wise men will share knowledge with foreign people, and if they share, will it not work as well as with the Horde? But, nevertheless, the experience of creating a network (without a single center) Order Guardians should not be taken into account. The clans of the wages were thereby repository of knowledge that the traditions conveyed between the collapsed and revived state, when the old or degraded elite degraded, was destroyed by the official apparatus and the traditions of management in the state were lost. Then the young elite "delivered" would seem to have lost knowledge necessary to manage from the "Library of Knowledge", and she could also receive teachers to prepare. The only thing that was impossible to the Keepers of Knowledge - to get up at the head of state, otherwise they would stop being themselves, and the tradition would be pretended. They also knew what could be done for many reasons for many reasons, one of which is their followers will be destroyed by future elites that will see dangerous competitors in them. They could not afford such a temptation, which the Egyptian priests were bought at one time, missed in gnawing for power.
The prize for it was the salvation and prosperity of the Chinese civilization, which is not in vain often compared with Phoenix.
There is reason to believe that it is this way that will be the decision would seem to be an insoluble eternal problem of the betrayal of the Russian elite. How will this "Order of the Swordsman" will be called, about which Stalin dreamed and in what form it will be born, will show the future if it comes to Russia.
It should be indicated, even though it is not directly related to the topic discussed in the article that the Taoist wise people were often in their views that now called "communists" - supporters of a fair society with equality of opportunities controlled by the community distribution, planning and planning and Voluntary refusal of citizens from uncontrolled consumption. There is an ancient Taoist prophecy, according to which "only when all people will live in one big family, then children and fathers will be completely happy." Alas there is another: "But it will come soon, because it is impossible to change the whole people with a time." It is believed that this is possible when people will become quite developed and perfect.
Some Taoist sects several times over the past two thousand years have attempted to embody ancient prophecies. They managed to build communities that existed centuries and millennia and even whole states of the communist type that existed many dozens of years. They helped to accumulate invaluable knowledge in the theory and practice of government and society.
"On this earth, a strong miserable is weak, but does not mean that it cannot be different."
According to one of their ancient prophecies, "happiness to people on Earth will bring a state, which comes on the path of truth according to the nature of things."
The only place where Keepers of Knowledge could have the power - the Taoist community, where their spiritual power was so great that it often had a priority on solutions of in-country democracy. Community's subordination was voluntary, but for non-complete authorities from the community could be expelled or automatically reduced in the rank, which was determined by the degree of respect for the community. However, the consideration of the Taoist communities is outside the topic under consideration.
The history of the great people of Asia leads its origin from the II thousand to n. e. The first early school societies emerged in the Pool r. Juanhe, a hieroglyphic writing appeared here - the main source of our knowledge about Ancient China. The first early-grade society with signs of statehood is the Shan (Yin). It died at the beginning of the XII century. BC. The following kingdoms were denoted by dynasties: Shan, Zhou, Qin, Han, and others.
The Chinese as ancient times their country called Zhongo - "Middle State", "The Podnebyst Empire". The Chinese people finally formed in the Qin Dynasty.
Ancient China in the era of the Zhou dynasties, Qin and Han on the form of the board was a typical Far Eastern monarchy. Qin borders extended from the upper rivers Juanhe to the Yellow Sea.
When moving from the generic system to class society (Shan Inj), the rulers and supreme priests were simultaneously military leaders and supreme priests. Their power relied on relatives, clergy, army. As in all Far Eastern despots, Van (king) was considered the Supreme Owner of the Earth. According to religious canons, he was announced by the "Son of Sky". The throne was inherited if extraordinary circumstances did not interfere. During the Zhou dynasty, the power of the kings began to deify.
The burial of the despot was accompanied by cruel customs. Together with him was buried alive by his slaves approximate. This rite was canceled only at the beginning of a new era.
The rule of the ruler was considered absolute, especially during hostilities. For the failure to comply with his order, the breath cut off his head, executed his wife and children. Vanya led almost permanent wars with neighboring nomadic tribes.
The tradition required regular sacrifices by mortgageing not only animals (bulls, pigs, lambs), but also people. They were held: daily - in memory of the Father of the ruler, monthly - in memory of the grandfather, annual - in honor of the sky and land. The same rites were performed during the meal in honor of the deceased ruler. Such rites were committed during a request for a crop, in honor of the birth of children, in honor of the Sun) of the mountains, etc. The priestly customer demanded the "bride" by the patron of the river. Religion inspired that the failure to fulfill such a rite can cause an anger of the patron woman, which will lead to a universal flood. The priests were looking for the most beautiful girl, "Swatali" her, cared for her, dressed in silk clothes. For her, a tent made of yellow and purple silk. The last 10 days it was fed with buffalo meat, rice, gave wine. Then it was put in the chair, taken to the Farwater River, where she was tone. Such sacrifices existed among the peoples of Decolumbovy America, only there were selected the most beautiful young man,
Tsar Wan had advisers from among the nobility. Tzai was the highest one, then she walked Nashi. The composition of close cogenners were included: a commander, judge, the head priest, a great fortuneteller. In the state of Wan, scribes were held: senior, or so on. "Left", who recorded the speeches of the monarch, the younger - "Right" - recorded its decrees, decisions on court cases. Officials were divided in ranks, had their hierarchical structure. The position of officials was considered hereditary. In the ground there were ruler of the district, part of their income they were Vanu was given. In the era of Zhou and Qin, the remains of community self-government were still preserved. In special, emergency cases, folk assemblies were convened. They made a decision on the exile of the king (842 BC), supported the ruler, injured (494, 474 . BC er). The community had the Council of Elders, merchants, artisans - their elder.
The tradition argued that the tops always ruled Nichi. 1Ano universal law. "Some strain your mind, others are their strength. He who manages people feeds at their account. " Vanu was obeyed by guns, or Dafa, and those, in turn, had their subjectable - Shi. The guns were devoted to offerings (probably at the expense of the treasury), the DFA was fed by the villages (land for the service?), Shi - Piax, CSAO and LCH - by performing work. In the mechanism of state there were police, prisons.
The administration of Vana has plagued by the state of Sogglyadayev, the diaspora, spies of different profiles. They were divided according to their functional duties: spies are local, internal, inverse (double), death and life. "The use of spies is the most essential ^," said in ancient inscription.
There is a mention of schools in which children knew known. The fee is in the downtime was meager -10 pieces of dried meat.
Wang, his apparatus of officials performed three important features: care for irrigation and irrigation, tax collection and wars (defensive and aggressive). In the book of legends (II century BC e ..) There is an inscription Wan: "I paved the bed of nine rivers to four seas, deepened ditch." The rulers of the Criminal Empire conducted long war for the statement of power over neighboring tribes. The period of fighting kingdoms lasted from 481 to 221 BC.
Strength, the stability of the power of Vanov depended on many factors: the ruin of communities, long war with neighboring nomadic tribes, civilians weakened the monarchy. Much depended on the personality of the ruler. The death of Western Zhou at the end of the IX century. He accelerated the lack of van himself, especially in the last years of his rule. "The king carried out tyranny, despotism, indulged by feasts. People of the state poured him. The chief adviser tried to exhort the king: the people are not able to fulfill your commands. " By order, Vana loosers of his reign were captured, executed. People silenced. But the fate of the ruler has already decided. Soon the rebels overthrew him from the throne, and the neighboring tribes, nomads strengthened on the Empire. Began to disintegrate.
From the era of the decay of Western Zhou, the competition "five hegemon" (VII-VI centuries) An important mark in the reorganization of management played the reformers of the kingdom of qi. The tax began to charge with regard to the quality of the Earth, the population census was conducted: farmers, artisans, merchants, scientists. The monopoly of the state on the salt, iron was introduced, the army was reorganized, trade was encouraged, craft. The reforms of Vani Qi strengthened his strength and made the leading state of the Empire.
The right of ancient China
The right knew the concept of ownership, possession and orders. Land, in Principle, was considered state ownership, but owned it a community. Knowing the land along with the conquered population. However, written certificates of transactions with the purchase and sale of land in private property are not preserved. Community ownership of land was the basis of economic life.
At the beginning of the Zhou dynasty, an important land reform was carried out. The king in his own interest introduced this than. The system of well fields, each community had nine fields, sites, squares. Eight fields were in the private use of peasants. The ninth, in the center, was processed together by all communities. Vintage from him walked. The reform ensured the timely and regular entry into the treasury of the main part of the natural grade of the community. It was not so burdensome for the peasants and less than the tithing. Later, in the era of Zhou, the position of the peasants worsened, as the major owners began to share the granted lands to the sections and hand over their bible lease conditions.
System t. N. "Cleaning fields", according to which it was charged in kind, over time ceased to satisfy the authorities. Instead of it gradually, a cash tax from the unit of the Earth Square is introduced. Later he was charged with each family. The new conclusion was not administered immediately, it took for several centuries (from vi to III centuries. BC). It undermined the foundations of community land tenure. The position of the peasants worsened. The emergence of money, usury, land sales meant the entry of Chinese society into a new stage of its development.
For the crimes of convicts sentenced to various types of punishment, including the death penalty. There was a redemption for punishment. It was possible to avoid branding, paying Wanno Huani (about 2 kilograms of copper) by foot, behind the nose -200 Juan, for insulting -600, for the death penalty - one thousand. Such a spill for punishment was in the interests of rich subjects. The death penalty was simple (behead) and qualified. The second one was burned, hanging, quarters, burning alive in the ground. Types of punishment: slicing of the nose, cutting off legs, hands, ears, eye sprinkling. Such punishments multiplied the number of persons with disabilities, but, apparently, the crime did not disappear. The punishment system knew the sheltering and preside. The guilty fell in half. Brutal and painful punishments corresponded to the legal concepts of all the ancient peoples: China was no exception.
The community was responsible for the offenses of their members, the rule of a circular order was operating. Small misconducts, disputes about the property considered the community authorities (the court was not yet separated from the administration).
New views on the role of the right to distributed Confucius (V c. BC) and his like-minded people. In their opinion, the division of people on the rulers and managed is laid in the very nature of a person, it is worn and unchanged. It is best to manage the people who are not through the law, but through the system of historically established norms of human behavior. Confucianism preached the preservation of ancient traditions: the subordination of the subjects to the authorities, the younger - senior, condemned excessive enrichment, demanded to take care of the poor from the authorities.
Shan-Yana reform
A major reformer of China's era of the Qin dynasty was Shan-Yang (390-338 BC. E.). His transformations were a consequence of the country's socio-economic development. The manufacture of iron guns in a broad scale increased labor productivity, hiring workers became used, private property became the lead. At the same time, slave labor was still a prominent place. A difficult situation required the creation of more centralized power.
Shang-Yana reforms touched on many parties to society's life: economic, socio-political, state-legal.
The core of his transformations was an agrarian reform. The Earth became the object of purchase and sale, mortgage. The size of land not limited. Land big families were subject to section. "If the family had two sons who did not share the property, then a double tax was charged with them." These measures have finally destroyed the former generic community.
Those who gave the treasury more grain, fabrics, surpassed others in hard work, could be freed from duties. Those who "sought to be beneficial through secondary classes", lazy, loafers could be addressed in state slaves. Probably it was about the outcasts that lost the source of existence. The people received the general, the universal title - "Chernogolovy".
The tax began to be charged taking into account the number of land, and not from the family, as before, -1 / 10 part of the crop. The treasury received regular income, drought losses, floods lay on the shoulders of the land owner. The tax was fixed, independent of the crop. Instead of the former militia, a permanent army was formed - the main support of the state.
The introduction of a nationwide weight system, length, volume was important. Residents united in tens and five families associated with a circular lie. They were responsible for misconducting their members. The subject of punishments was introduced. The prey of the criminal punishable by the death penalty. The compensation was supposed to be a reward.
The former division of residents in tribes, childbirth was canceled, introduced the territorial principle of the structure of the state. The remains of community self-government disappeared. Tsarist officials were headed at the head of counties: governors, inspector. The fragmentation of the country, separatism was replaced by more centralized control led by the emperor. Officials were prescribed not only to the will of the monarch, but also laws. Instead of the previous birth orders, the law began to dominate.
Shang-Yang reminded that there are different sources of law: customs, laws, decrees of the king. He did not hide a skeptical view of customs that could be interpreted differently in every terrain by each official for their benefit and spontaneous.
"The laws are intended to instruct the people to overcome the erroneous and false, to eliminate the harmful customs to encourage people to good." He regretted that the people and officials prefer to act on customs, and not according to the laws, deposits, decree. Disobedience laws is equivalent to an intentional crime. To verify compliance with the legality, the detachments of inspectors authorized, endowed with the right to dismiss officials, guilty of violation of legality, bring them to justice.
A good official was considered the one who knew the laws, decrees, putting, was competent, served well to the ruler, it was unlikely, honest, did not take bribes. Those who "not beware in the laws are not able to deal with the bad officials, do not care about serving their ruler, not energetic, talking, shameless, insults people, does not know the feelings of justice, seeks to self-exposure. Such people shook their eyes, squeeze the fists to show their power and strength, they chat with selflessness that they will take into the head, in order to show their ability to manage people. They usually tear their heads, look at the downstream with disdain. Such self-made, stupids cannot be considered good administrators and are subject to dismissal or punishment. " It was the first in the history of the certification of bureaucrats officials.
Shang-Yana's reform was another attempt to establish the perfect management apparatus. And how many such attempts were in the history of civilization! Reforms for some time improved the situation in the country. "Ten years have passed and the people of the Kingdom of Qin are filled with great joy. On the roads did not raise the obscured. The bloody revenge disappeared, crime decreased. Thieves and robbers disappeared in the mountains. "
Reform affected the army. Bronze weapons are replaced with iron. The experience of military equipment of nomads is taken into account. The shock force of the army was the cavalry, the ancient combat chariots were filmed with weapons. The soldiers shared on five and dozens, they also introduced a circular order, mutual responsibility.
Distinguished in the battle were assigned titles, they were 18. The degree was assigned to the head of the dead enemy. The calculation of the origin was taken into account, but personal courage in battle. "Rooded, not having military merit, can no longer be in the lists of nobility." But later the feats about the exploits became the subject of sale.
Shang-Yana reforms caused a strong blow to the former generic aristocracy, the estate of military and prosperous rich, new landowners came to first. An important step towards the development of a market economy, to feudalism, although slavery, as an institution, was still preserved not one century.
Shang-Yana decrees contain a maxim on the qualities of the wise ruler, about legality, justice. "The order in the state is achieved in three ways: the law, the trust of the people and the authorities." The law is what rulers and dignitaries are adhered to. Power is something that ruled the ruler. If the ruler and dignitaries are negotiated by law, they act on the basis of personal motives, unavoidable trouble. Sounds relevant!
The law should make a clear distinction between rights and obligations. Anyone who violates the law for mercenary purposes will not achieve a good rule. The wise ruler should rely on the law, do not abuse them in his personal interests, otherwise he will lose the confidence of the people.
The ruler should know the truth about the situation in the country, do not allow officials to deceive themselves, do not take the belongings to the pets, do not keep the Sanovnikov-Ltetz, slanders in the service. Everyone must comply with the laws. If the ruler acts under the laws, honest scientists will take a proper place in society. Reforms contain elements of a slave-owned state state, if there is a single, autocratic king.
Shang-Yang outlined his opinion on the equality of people before the law. An important means of establishing and maintaining such equality he saw in the unity of encouragement, rewards and punishment. "Anyone who disrupts the order of the king will violate the state ban, or oppose the ruler's order must be executed. It is impossible to show a condesception to him, whether he is the first adviser to the king, a commander, a dignitary or commoner. " Ranks of knowing are not saved by punishment.
Probably, this approach was due to the need to stop separatism, locality, corruption of officials, to create a centralized state.
In the second half of the IV century. The kingdom of Qin has become one of the powerful powers of China. But the Shang-Yana has known to know, he became a victim of the conspiracy and was executed. Such is the fate of many reformers who were ahead of their era. Transformations of the Great Worker could not stop the dissatisfaction of the people. The authorities with great difficulty suppressed the uprising of the "red-workers" supporters of the Green Forest, "yellow dressings" and others.
Free communities (NUNF) were endowed with land through the system of well fields. She, being associated with the peculiarities of the formation of the army, gave the possibility of strict accounting of the population and its income. The land was divided into square diets, limited by shafts and trees; Squares were divided into nine sections (wells) with an area of \u200b\u200bup to 8 hectares; Eight wells belonged to individual families on the rights of use and were processed by them, and the ninth was processed by the whole community, and the harvest was in favor of the local Mr.; Four wells were the city, four cities - the district, four districts - the area, four district - the area. Each district and the area should have been delivered by their master's defined number of warriors, chariots, horses, etc.
Slaves were in possession of both private individuals and the state. They did not have any family nor property. The main sources of slavery were captured, selling slavery for debts, appeal to slavery for certain types of crimes, receiving slaves from subordinate tribes in the form of Dani.
Ancient Chinese State of Zhou (XII century - 221 BC)
Empire Shang teased internal contradictions, so adjacent tribes in 1050 BC. She managed to smash. The Zhou dynasty period was the longest in China's history (about 800 years) and the first three centuries this state was relatively monolith. However, centrifugal trends gradually increased, which led to another change of dynasty.
During the period of Western Zhou, the emperor acquired the title of the Son of Heaven, the state became referred to as the middle (inseptive) kingdom, and all other nations were considered to be barbarians.
The emperor was the Supreme Commander. The power of the specific princes (Zhuhou), although it was essentially limited, but the basis was preserved, so many of them were called local vans and before the emperor appeared with a jade scepter, which was less than the imperial. The nucleus of the army was small personnel detachments, to which the militia was joined in the case of war.
In the VII century BC. Under the head of the barbarian tribes, the capital of the state was transferred to a new place - to the Eastern Zhou, which eventually became more and more to turn into a number of independent states, and Zhousse kings became the rulers of their small possessions.
The role of the emperor declined sharply, he remained only some ritual functions, and with permanent interne-free wars of the specific princes he could not do anything. However, the idea of \u200b\u200bunity even in these conditions did not leave the Chinese, because they considered themselves the chosen by the people, and the barbarians lived around their median kingdom. Therefore, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe union was constantly attended in Chinese mentality even during the rank of specific separatism. But for 242 years, there were about 500 military clashes between the principalities during 242 years, and with the Shangun Sun rule there were 11 wars in ten years.
Qin Empire (221-206 BC)
The kingdom of Qin appeared in the X century. BC. And originally depended on Zhou. But it was around the kingdom of Qin, the disparate Chinese kingdoms gradually began to unite.
The ideological basis of the unifying activities of the Qing rulers was the teachings of Legia, the substantiated thesis of the "Strong Kingdom and the weak people", which should be kept in obedience (Shang Yang, Han Fey). In the teachings of the Legiasis of Aristocracy, I saw ideological substantiation of our economic and political claims.
The embodiment of the Ideas of Legima, contributing to the tough centralization of the state, began the government official Shang Yang in the middle of the IV century. BC. (A single writing has been introduced, the weight and length measures are ordered, the free sale of the Earth with the cancellation of the system of well fields is allowed). As a result, the peasant community was destroyed, and double taxation was introduced to be separated. In the framework of administrative transformations, the entire territory of the Qing state was divided into several dozen counties, which were crushed into minor economic units under the control of government officials. Every five and ten families were binding to a circular place.
Emperor Qin Shihuangi in 221 BC Focused in his hands the powers of all authorities. He created a branched state apparatus, whose officials were strictly pursued for the slightest abuses, as, however, the rest of the population for any provinces (careless conversations, the slightest suspicion of disloyalty to power, etc.). Universally applied collective responsibility. Military reform, which was based on the introduction of military service for men from 23 to 56 years old, allowed the emperor to create a huge army, and to protect state borders to send non-payment debtors, stray merchants, punished criminals and guilty officials.
Kingdom Han (206 BC - 220.N.)
The uprising occurred in 207-206. BC, the regime of the Qing Empire was sideways, and the former rural headman Liu Bana proclaimed himself with the emperor Gao-Zeu. He became the founder of the Han dynasty.
The new emperor got an extremely decadent farm in economic terms - destroyed irrigation facilities, the lack of men mobilized into the army, fault, widespread hunger and poverty, who spread even to know, had to ride on the will. Liu Ban reduced the army and sent people to restore the system of irrigation channels, canceled the former cruel laws. However, the new laws did not differ in particular liberality. Soon the former agrarian legislation and the tax system were restored, as well as a previously lacking tax.
As part of the administrative reform, the country was divided into several major districts, and the number of lower territorial units (regions and counties) was increased in order to increase control by government officials. They also laid police and judicial functions.
Aristocracy was returned to the titles selected by the former emperor and some lands. However, the monarch tried to oppose her officials who endowed land and privileges. The public service was opened by the access of a doubtful part of the population, but a capable of paying the position and take it after passing special exams.
Such practice over time led to the formation of a layer of land magnates that ruined small owners. The wave of people's performances, which began with 15 AD, severely suppressed by the authorities (for example, the uprising of the "red eyebrows" 18 g.). Nevertheless, the administration had all had to go for some concessions. First of all, the peasant taxation was softened and some changes in the state apparatus were carried out.
At the Emperor, the Imperial Council was created with a deliberative voice, as well as various departments for the management of the country. Relatively stable has become economic development. This is a period of intensive construction of many public structures, roads and bridges. In general, despite social instability and numerous uprisings, the time of the kingdom of Han was a brilliant period in the history of China. The power of the Han emperors spread to a huge territory, up to the Caspian Sea. China has entered commercial relations with the Roman Empire.
However, powerful peasant performances and civil wars of the second half of the II century. AD (The uprising of the "yellow dressings" 184) led the Han dynasty to the crisis and decline. The doubt and suppression of the uprisings strengthened the role of military leaders. In 220, the Han Empire broke up into three independent kingdoms (three-daisies period).
Features of the right of ancient China
Sources of law
The main feature of the ancient Chinese law was that in the presence of ordinary law and case law, which caused the activities of numerous vessels, the law-conducting practice of state bodies was dominant. This activity has reached the greatest activity of the III-II centuries. BC. In the kingdom of Han.
Over the centuries in China, there was a rivalry of two diametrically opposite legal directions: Confucianism and Legiasis. Confucianism (VI century BC) was based on spiritual nobility, humanism, old customs, striving for self-improvement and virtue. Adherents of this teaching Public morality set up above right: in their opinion, the basis of human virtue is the moral beginning - whether. Legists (III century BC) believed that any law (FA), even absolutely unfair, should be strictly observed, it should not be evaluated nor discussing, and the best way to ensure its execution is to strengthen the rigidity of the policy of the bureaucratic state in The attitude of its subjects.
The relative compromise was achieved only in the later period: "Where is it not enough" Li "let" Fa "applies." The harmony of relations was presented by the implementation of the Confucian idea of \u200b\u200bpeople inequality due to the existing social differences and the strict regulation of their behavior.
The main institutions of law
The subjects of crimes were considered to be without exception - and free, and slaves.
Among traditional crimes, the compositions of which were based on the Confucian teaching (the concept of "ten evils"), you can allocate:
- state (rebellion, conspiracy, fellowship, the sovereign, the destruction or attempt to deract out the temple, the residence of the emperor or the graves of the ancestors of the emperor, theft of the objects of religious cult, the seals of the emperor and the members of his family, failure to comply When cooking and medication, the emperor or other actions harmful to his health, flight from the country or leaving the besieged city);
- religious (witchcraft, sorcerence), against the personality (murder, killing of three and more members of one family, if they were respectable people and were not guilty of crimes inflicted death, injury, preparation, storage and transfer to other persons to other persons);
- against property (theft, robbery, slaughter of someone else's cattle);
- military (failure to appear to the deadlines for the place of collection, cowardice).
As a crime, dismissed to the elders in the family, especially the Father, Failure to Mourning for the Dead, Near Wife to her husband and his beating, to kill or sell a close relative, unjust actions against colleagues, primarily the head, teacher, military officer, as well as incest. In the kingdom of Qin, a grave state crime was considered to be the storage of prohibited Confucian literature, a non-catching officer about the misdemeanor of his colleague.
At all times of the ancient Chinese history, the main purpose of punishment was an intimidation, so among the punishments were the most common with sticks and the death penalty. There was a traditional five-membered sentence system, which a criminal could undergo: a tattoo (brand), slicing the nose, chopping one or both legs, castration and death penalty ("Review of laws" 536 BC). Punishment could be applied as selectively (if the criminal did not sentenced to death) and in the complex (beating with sticks from 100 to 500 blows, the appeal to slavery, fine). In educational purposes, symbolism was practiced when the cut slication was replaced by the painting (tattoo) of the knee, the death penalty - wearing a canvas shrubach, etc.
Collective responsibility was widespread, in which the entire cause of the criminal was extended. In the period of the Qing kingdom of execution, three generations of the debit of a criminal (father, mother and wife) were subjected.
From punishment it was possible in some cases to pay off a high fine.
Despite the fact that in the period of Western Zhou, the tradition of resolving conflicts was practiced with the help of intermediaries, bypassing official instances, state beginnings began to appear in the trial. With the introduction of the post of a special official to investigate cases, the contestable form was fully ousted by the search. She began with a crime report, for the ambiguity of the wording of which the applicant was personal responsibility. However, the denominations of members of the economic unit (family) on parents, grandfather, grandmother and other close relatives were prohibited (the death penalty), except for the murder of the Father. The presumption of guilt (especially in the Zing Kingdom) envisaged the widespread use of torture, but the responsibility of the investigator for the situde of the suspect was envisaged.
Section 2 of the Civilizations of the Ancient East
Ancient India and China
ยง 21. Middle Empire and the first owners of the ancient China
Think only to protect the boundaries The first emperor saddled millions of people for grand construction. Why did the wall become a symbol of hatred of hundreds of thousands of Chinese for the emperor and his officials? What does another wall name indicate - "The longest cemetery in the world"?
The great Wall of China. Those construction began on the orders of Emperor Qin Shihuandi after the unification of China (221 g.) To protect the northwestern borders of the empire from the attacks of nomads. Subsequently, the wall was completed and repaired.
1. What were the natural and geographical conditions of the ancient China?
Ancient China occupied only a part of the territory on which modern China is located. Locals called their country internally.
The Supreme Divine Ancient Chinese considered the sky. That is why his country was called the Middle Kingdom.
In the center of the country, the Great Chinese Plain was expanded, which was carried by the water of a yellow river (it received such a name because of the color of water), or Juanhe. South cried the mountains covered with forests, and behind them - the valley of another great river - blue, or Yangtze.
The valleys of these rivers thicket with tropical forests. Elephants, rhinos, buffaloes, tigers, antelopes, leopards and other animals have been found in the forests. Just like Nile, Juanhe was carried with his waters a huge amount of fertile ral and, spilling, blended large coastal lowlands. The time of flooding the yellow river was accompanied by a change in the bed. Through such a capricious luck, Juanhe called the "river thousands of disasters", "China's Disaster", and also "wanders."
The wet climate has created opportunities for agriculture without irrigation. True, to have a suitable land for farming, the Chinese were to first emerge the forest. Already in 3 millennia BC. e. In China, the first settlements of farmers existed. In the Valley of Juanhe, the chumise was grown (view of millet), and on the shores of Yangtze - rice. The first urban settlements on the banks of the rivers emerged in the middle of 2 millennia BC. e.
The work of the ancient Chinese peasants on the rice field.
Consider the map on page 109. 1. Find the Great Chinese Plain in the northeast of India, two large rivers that flow there. 2. Where do these rivers be started? Where to fall? 3. Determine the location of the ancient China, compare it with the location of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
2. How did the first Chinese Empire arose?
In 8 tbsp. to n. e. In China, one and two hundred independent kingdoms stood up, which competed with each other. In the end, the seven of the most influential kingdoms were divided among themselves almost the entire territory of the country. That is why 5-3 tbsp. to n. e. Call the era of the "seven kingdoms who fought." The largest among them was the kingdom of Qin. The greatest strength of the kingdom reached at the Board of In Zhen. This ruler put himself for the purpose of the conquest of six other kingdoms and uniting all of China under its power. The embodiment of the goal, in Zheng alone defeated his opponents. He took the title of Emperor and became referred to Qin Shihuandi - "First Emperor Qin" (221-210 pp. Kn. E.). The capital of the Kingdom of Qin, the city of Xianyang, was proclaimed the capital of the Empire.
Read the fragment from the "historical notes" of the rates of Qian (145-86 pp. Kn. E.) - Father of Chinese history. Determine why Qin Shihuandi carried out the events about which Qian's Suma told.
"The kingdom of Qin first united the subnet ... Schihuangdi divided into thirty-six regions into three hundred and appointed officials to manage it. He changed the name of the simple people on the "Tsyanshow" - "Chernogol"; He took all the weapons in the Middle Kingdom, gathered it in Xianyan and paid a frame-rack frame from it to hang bells, as well as twelve human figures weighing a thousand Shi (about 31 tons) each; They were installed in the palaces. Unified laws, weight measures, capacity and length, carriages of carts, writing hieroglyphs were introduced.
1. Warrior from the ceramic army Qin Shihuandi from the tomb of the emperor. Interestingly, among several thousand clay and bronze figures of Warriors there are no two identical. 2. Emperor Qin Shihuandi in Palalankina. Figure on silk. Influential Chinese officials often used peculiar transport - a palanquin - a chariot for a seating driving, which was carried on the armor of the servant.
3. How did Qin Shihuandi ruled his empire?
After the unification of the country, Shihuandi began the conquest war, the result of which moved the borders of the state in the south until the South China Sea. In North Shihuandi fought against nomads, among whom Hongna (Gunns) was most predetermined. To protect against attackers, the emperor ordered to build a grandiose structure - the Great Wall of China.
Two millions of peasants were attracted to construction work, which were shludred to the north. For work units, summons were drawn with clothing and food. Builders had to work in terrible conditions. Most of all Donimali cold, begging products, hidewriters. Without withstanding inhuman conditions, the peasants fled to thousands. A terrible death was waiting for the fugitives: they were caught and alive littered into the wall.
To prevent meters and conspiracies, the emperor ordered to move 120 thousand people to the capital - representatives of noble childbirth, where they carefully followed them. Sources report that an inexorable Shihuandei executed 460 scientists who did not share his ideas.
Qin Shihuandi banned songs and legends and ordered to burn all private bamboo books, except for religious texts, books on medicine, pharmacology, agronomy and mathematics. An order was issued, prohibiting private training, as well as criticizing the government. To prevent discontent, the emperor introduced 12 species of execution.
The incredible cruelty of the emperor was the reason for the attempts on his life. Shihuangi built 37 palaces for himself so that no one knew where he was. However, at the age of 48, the emperor suddenly died.
Not much experienced Shihuang her empire. Soon a grand rebellion flashed. The leader of the rebels, the rural headman Liu Bang, declared himself the founder of the new Han dynasty. In 202 g. e. He became the Chinese emperor.
Decide the chronological task. Calculate how many years ago the first Ancient Chinese Empire appeared. How many years has it existed?
Consider the map on page 109. Find and name 7 Chinese "kingdoms that fought." What was the territory of the Empire Qin Shihuandi?
1. Think why Qin Shihuandi ordered to destroy books and keep scholars under the supervision? How are these facts related to the construction of many imperial palaces? 2. Compare the power of the Chinese Emperor, the Egyptian Pharaoh and the Persian king.
Read the passage from the work of Csyan, give answers to questions.
Why did the historian gave Qin Shihuandi such a characteristic?
Write your attitude to this historical figure.
Compare the verbal and hand-drawn portraits of Qin Shihuang. Or was the artist who was able to realize the character traits of the emperor, about whom Tsyan's Suma told?
"The Lord of Qin was a man with big eyes and breasts a bird of prey. He did not differ kindness. He had a whisker's voice and a heart of a tiger and a wolf at the same time. When Shihuandi got into a difficult position, he easily obeyed the other. But if he achieved his own, he could easily crush a person. "
Imaginary portrait of Qin Shihuandy.
4. What is known about the Han Empire (202 kn. E. - 220)?
Cut into order in a depleted country with a population of almost 60 million people could not immediately. Acting flexibly and carefully, he canceled the cruel laws of Qin and reduced taxes. The emperor proclaimed farming the basis of the Empire farm and the most respected occupation.
The heyday of the Han Empire reached in the times of Emperor U-di (14087 pp. Kn. E.), Whose rule is called the "golden age". China has become a powerful power, all parts of which were subordinate to the emperor. His orders embodied the 130,000th army of officials. The state belonged the exclusive right to process coins, sell salt and iron. The emperor significantly expanded the boundaries of the empire in the north and west, ensuring the unobstructed passage of shopping caravans. So it was the beginning of the Great Silk Road through the Middle
Asia west. This way in China has slaves, glass products, precious stones and spices. It was exported to iron, nickel, lacquered dishes, bronze and other craft products and, of course, silk, which was no longer produced anywhere.
Korea and modern Vietnam were conquered. Requires all the large funds, the emperors ordered to increase taxes and duty, as a result of which the peasants were poor.
In 3 tbsp. Officially canceled the mint turnover, starting to use as a silk and grain money. The population has decreased, and the number of cities has decreased twice. In 184, the uprising of the "yellow dressings" broke out. The 300-thousand army of the rebels of peasants, which tied the heads with yellow ribbons, which personified the "coming bright era of universal good," moved to the capital. In 207, the uprising was defeated. However, in 220, the state broke into three kingdoms.
Ceramic model of the watchtower of the time of the Han dynasty.
What is the origin of the expressions associated with the history of China: "The Great Silk Road", "The longest cemetery in the world", "River, what wanders", "Seven kingdoms fighting", "Yellow bandages"?
1. Where is the ancient China? Determine the boundaries of the Ancient Chinese Empires.
2. How did the natural conditions affect the emergence of ancient Chinese civilization?
3. Why are Qin Shihuangi call the most cruel ruler of the Ancient East?
4. What changes occurred in China for the Han Empire?
Whether you agree with the statement: "The construction of the pyramids in Egypt looks like a modest fun, if you compare it with construction works in China, the times of Qin Shihuandi." Justify the answer. Why did the ancient owners encouraged the construction of grand structures?
