Justinian 1 emperor of Byzantium. Rule of Justinian in the Byzantine Empire. In The Divine Comedy
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JUSTINIAN I THE GREAT(482 or 483–565), one of the greatest Byzantine emperors, codifier of Roman law and builder of St. Sofia. Justinian was probably an Illyrian, born in Tauresia (province of Dardania, near modern Skopje) into a peasant family, but was brought up in Constantinople. At birth, he received the name Peter Savvaty, to which Flavius \u200b\u200b(as a sign of belonging to the imperial family) and Justinian (in honor of the maternal uncle of Emperor Justin I, ruled 518-527) were subsequently added. Justinian, the favorite of his uncle-emperor, who had no children of his own, became an extremely influential figure with him and, gradually rising through the ranks, rose to the post of commander of the capital's military garrison (magister equitum et peditum praesentalis). Justin adopted him and made him his co-ruler in the last few months of his reign, so that when Justin died on August 1, 527, Justinian ascended the throne. Consider the reign of Justinian in several aspects: 1) war; 2) internal affairs and private life; 3) religious policy; 4) codification of law.
Wars.
Justinian never took a personal part in wars, entrusting the leadership of military operations to his military leaders. By the time of his accession to the throne, the perennial enmity with Persia remained an unresolved issue, which in 527 resulted in a war for domination over the Caucasian region. Justinian's general Belisarius won a brilliant victory at Dar in Mesopotamia in 530, but was defeated the following year by the Persians at Kallinikos in Syria. The king of Persia, Khosrow I, who replaced Kavad I in September 531, concluded at the beginning of 532 "peace for eternity", according to the terms of which Justinian was to pay Persia 4,000 pounds of gold for the maintenance of Caucasian fortresses that resisted the raids of barbarians and renounce the protectorate over Iberia in the Caucasus. The second war with Persia broke out in 540, when Justinian, absorbed in affairs in the West, allowed a dangerous weakening of his forces in the East. The fighting was carried out in the area from Colchis on the Black Sea coast to Mesopotamia and Assyria. In 540, the Persians plundered Antioch and a number of other cities, but Edessa managed to buy them off. In 545, Justinian had to pay 2,000 pounds of gold for the armistice, which, however, did not affect Colchis (Lazika), where hostilities continued until 562. The final settlement was similar to the previous ones: Justinian had to pay 30,000 aurei (gold coins) annually, and Persia pledged to defend the Caucasus and not persecute Christians.
Much more significant campaigns were undertaken by Justinian in the West. Once the Mediterranean Sea belonged to Rome, but now Italy, southern Gaul, and most of Africa and Spain were ruled by barbarians. Justinian hatched ambitious plans for the return of these lands. The first blow was directed against the vandals in Africa, ruled by the indecisive Helimer, whose rival Childeric Justinian supported. In September 533 Belisarius landed unhindered on the African coast and soon entered Carthage. About 30 kilometers west of the capital, he won a decisive battle and in March 534, after a long siege on Mount Pappua in Numidia, forced Gelimer to surrender. However, the campaign still could not be considered complete, as it was necessary to cope with the Berbers, Moors and rebellious Byzantine troops. The eunuch Solomon was instructed to pacify the province and establish control over the Ores mountain range and eastern Mauritania, which he did in 539-544. Because of new uprisings in 546, Byzantium almost lost Africa, but by 548 John Troglita had established a strong and lasting power in the province.
The conquest of Africa was only a prelude to the conquest of Italy, which was now dominated by the Ostrogoths. Their king Theodatus killed Amalasunta, daughter of the great Theodoric, who was patronized by Justinian, and this incident served as a pretext for the outbreak of war. By the end of 535 Dalmatia was occupied, Belisarius occupied Sicily. In 536 he captured Naples and Rome. Theodatus was replaced by Vitigis, who from March 537 to March 538 besieged Belisarius in Rome, but was forced to retreat to the north with nothing. Then the Byzantine troops occupied Pizen and Milan. Ravenna fell after a siege that lasted from late 539 to June 540, and Italy was declared a province. However, in 541, the brave young king of the Goths Totila took the business of reconquering the former possessions into his own hands, and by 548 Justinian only four bridgeheads belonged to the coast of Italy, and by 551 Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia also passed to the Goths. In 552, the talented Byzantine commander, the eunuch Narses, arrived in Italy with a well-equipped and well-equipped army. Swiftly moving south from Ravenna, he defeated the Goths at Taguin in the center of the Apennines and in the last decisive battle at the foot of Mount Vesuvius in 553. In 554 and 555 Narses cleared Italy of Franks and Alemanni and suppressed the last centers of resistance of the Goths. The territory north of Po was partially reclaimed in 562.
The Ostrogothic kingdom ceased to exist. Ravenna became the center of Byzantine administration in Italy. Narses ruled there as a patrician from 556 to 567, and after him the local governor began to be called exarch. Justinian more than satisfied his ambitions. The western coast of Spain and the southern coast of Gaul also submitted to him. However, the main interests of the Byzantine Empire were still in the East, in Thrace and Asia Minor, so that the price of acquisitions in the West, which could not be durable, may have been too high.
Private life.
A remarkable event in the life of Justinian was his marriage in 523 to Theodora, a courtesan and dancer with a bright but dubious reputation. He selflessly loved and venerated Theodora until her death in 548, finding in her a co-ruler who helped him run the state. Once, when, during the Nika uprising on January 13-18, 532 Justinian and his friends were already close to despair and discussed plans to escape, it was Theodora who managed to save the throne.
The Nika revolt broke out under the following circumstances. The parties that formed around the race at the racetrack were usually limited to feuds with each other. This time, however, they banded together and put forward a joint demand for the release of their prisoners, followed by a demand to fire three unpopular officials. Justinian showed compliance, but here the urban mob joined the struggle, dissatisfied with exorbitant taxes. Some senators took advantage of the unrest and nominated Anastasius I's nephew Hypatius as a candidate for the imperial throne. However, the authorities managed to split the movement by bribing the leaders of one of the parties. On the sixth day, troops loyal to the government attacked the people gathered at the hippodrome and perpetrated a savage massacre. Justinian did not spare the contender for the throne, but later he showed restraint, so that he emerged even stronger from this ordeal. It should be noted that the increase in taxes was driven by spending on two large-scale campaigns in the East and West. The minister John of Cappadocia showed miracles of ingenuity, obtaining funds from any source and by any means. Another example of Justinian's extravagance was his building program. Only in Constantinople one can point out the following grandiose structures: the Cathedral of St. John, rebuilt after being destroyed during the Nika uprising. Sofia (532-537), which is still one of the greatest buildings in the world; not preserved and still insufficiently studied so-called. Great (or Sacred) Palace; the Augustion square and the magnificent structures adjacent to it; built by Theodora the church of St. Apostles (536-550).
Religious politics.
Justinian was interested in religious issues and considered himself a theologian. Being passionately committed to Orthodoxy, he fought against pagans and heretics. In Africa and Italy, the Arians suffered from it. The Monophysites, who denied the human nature of Christ, were treated with tolerance, since Theodora shared their views. In connection with the Monophysites, Justinian faced a difficult choice: he wanted peace in the East, but he also did not want to quarrel with Rome, which meant absolutely nothing to the Monophysites. At first, Justinian tried to achieve reconciliation, but when the Monophysites were anathematized at the Council of Constantinople in 536, the persecution resumed. Then Justinian began to prepare the ground for a compromise: he tried to persuade Rome to develop a softer interpretation of Orthodoxy, and forced Pope Vigil, who was with him in 545–553, to actually condemn the position of the Creed adopted at the 4th Ecumenical Council in Chalcedon. This position was approved at the 5th Ecumenical Council, held in Constantinople in 553. By the end of his reign, the position held by Justinian could hardly be distinguished from that of the Monophysites.
Codification of law.
The colossal efforts made by Justinian to the development of Roman law turned out to be more fruitful. The Roman Empire gradually abandoned the previous rigidity and inflexibility, so that on a large (perhaps even excessive) scale, the norms of the so-called. "Peoples' rights" and even "natural law". Justinian decided to summarize and systematize this vast material. The work was established by an outstanding lawyer Tribonian with numerous assistants. As a result, the famous Corpus iuris civilis ("Code of Civil Law") was born, consisting of three parts: 1) Codex Iustinianus ("Code of Justinian"). It was first published in 529, but soon it was significantly revised and in 534 received the force of law - exactly in the form in which we now know it. This included all the imperial constitutiones that seemed important and remained relevant since the emperor Hadrian, who ruled at the beginning of the 2nd century, including 50 decrees of Justinian himself. 2) Pandectae or Digesta ("Digests"), prepared in 530-533, a compilation of the views of the best jurists (mainly 2nd and 3rd centuries), provided with amendments. The Justinian Commission took it upon itself to reconcile the different attitudes of the legal profession. The legislation described in these authoritative texts has become binding on all courts. 3) Institutiones ("Institutions", ie "Basics"), a textbook of law for students. The textbook of Guy, a lawyer who lived in the 2nd century. AD, was modernized and corrected, and from December 533 this text entered the curriculum.
After the death of Justinian, the Novellae ("Novella"), an addition to the "Code", which contains 174 new imperial decrees, were published, and after the death of Tribonian (546) Justinian published only 18 documents. Most of the documents are in Greek, which has become the official language.
Reputation and achievements.
When evaluating the personality of Justinian and his achievements, one should take into account the role that his contemporary and chief historian Procopius plays in the formation of our ideas about him. A well-informed and competent scientist, for reasons unknown to us, Procopius had a persistent dislike for the emperor, which he did not deny himself the pleasure of pouring out into Secret history (Anecdota), especially about Theodora.
History overestimated the merits of Justinian as a great codifier of law, only for this one act Dante gave him a place in Paradise. In the religious struggle, Justinian played a controversial role: at first he tried to reconcile rivals and reach a compromise, then unleashed persecution and ended up almost completely abandoning what he first professed. He should not be underestimated as a statesman and strategist. With regard to Persia, he pursued a traditional policy, having achieved some success. Justinian conceived a grandiose program for the return of the Western possessions of the Roman Empire and almost completely implemented it. However, by doing so, he upset the balance of power in the empire, and, perhaps, subsequently, Byzantium was sorely lacking in energy and resources that were wasted in the West. Justinian died in Constantinople on November 14, 565.
Justinian I the Great (lat.Iustinianus) (c. 482 - November 14, 565, Constantinople), Byzantine emperor. August and co-ruler Justin I from April 1, 527, ruled from August 1, 527.
Justinian was a native of Illyricum and a nephew; according to legend, he is of Slavic origin. He played a prominent role in his uncle's reign and was proclaimed August six months before his death. The epochal reign of Justinian was marked by the implementation of the principles of imperial universalism and the restoration of a unified Roman Empire. This was the subject of the entire policy of the emperor, which had a truly global character and made it possible to concentrate in his hands huge material and human resources. For the sake of the greatness of the empire, wars were fought in the West and East, legislation was improved, administrative reforms were carried out and issues of church order were resolved. He surrounded himself with a galaxy of talented advisers and commanders, remaining free from outside influences, inspired in his actions solely by faith in a single state, uniform laws and a single faith. “By the breadth of his political plans, clearly realized and strictly implemented, by the ability to use circumstances, and most importantly, by the art of determining the talents of others and giving everyone a case corresponding to his abilities, Justinian was a rare and remarkable sovereign” (F. I. Uspensky).
The main military efforts of Justinian were concentrated in the West, where colossal forces were thrown. In 533-534, his best commander, Belisarius, defeated the state of the African Vandals, in 535-555 the Ostrogoth state in Italy was destroyed. As a result, Rome itself and many of the western lands in Italy, North Africa, Spain, which had been inhabited by Germanic tribes for a hundred years, returned to the rule of the Roman state. These territories in the rank of provinces were reunited with the empire, and they were again subject to Roman law.
The successful course of affairs in the West was accompanied by a difficult situation on the Danube and eastern borders of the state, deprived of reliable protection. For many years (528-562, intermittently), there were wars with Persia over the disputed territories in Transcaucasia and influence in Mesopotamia and Arabia, which diverted huge funds and did not give any fruit. During the entire reign of Justinian, the tribes of the Slavs, Germans, Avars ravaged the Trans-Danube provinces with their invasions. The emperor sought to compensate for the lack of defensive resources through the efforts of diplomacy, concluding alliances with some peoples against others and thus maintaining the necessary balance of forces on the borders. However, such a policy was critically assessed by contemporaries, especially since all the increasing payments to the allied tribes excessively burdened the already frustrated state treasury.
The price of the brilliant "century of Justinian" was the hardest internal state of the state, especially in the economy and finance, which carried the burden of colossal expenses. The lack of funds became the real scourge of his reign, and in search of money, Justinian often resorted to measures that he himself condemned: he sold positions and introduced new taxes. With rare frankness, Justinian said in one of his decrees: "The first duty of his subjects and the best means of thanksgiving to the emperor is to pay public taxes in full with unconditional selflessness." The severity of tax collection reached its limit and had a disastrous effect on the population. According to a contemporary, "a foreign invasion seemed less terrible to taxpayers than the arrival of fiscal officials."
For the same purpose, Justinian strove to profit from the empire's trade with the East, setting high customs duties on all goods imported into Constantinople, and also turning entire industries into government monopolies. It was under Justinian that the production of silk was mastered in the empire, which gave the treasury huge incomes.
City life under Justinian was characterized by the struggle of the parties of the circus, the so-called. dimov. The suppression of the Nika 532 uprising in Constantinople, provoked by the rivalry of the dims, destroyed the opposition to Justinian among the aristocracy and the population of the capital, strengthened the authoritarian character of the imperial power. In 534, the Code of Civil Law (Corpus juris civilis or Codex Justiniani, see the Code of Justinian) was published, which gave a normative statement of Roman law and formulated the foundations of imperial statehood.
The ecclesiastical policy of Justinian is marked by the desire to establish the unity of faith. In 529, the Athenian Academy was closed, the persecution of heretics and pagans began, which filled the entire reign of Justinian. Persecutions of the Monophysites, up to the opening of hostilities, devastated the eastern provinces, especially Syria and the vicinity of Antioch. The papacy under him completely submitted to the imperial will. In 553, on the initiative of Justinian, the V Ecumenical Council was convened in Constantinople, at which the so-called. "Dispute over three chapters" and, in particular, Origen condemned.
Justinian's reign was marked by a huge scale of construction. According to Procopius, the emperor "multiplied the fortifications throughout the country, so that each land holding was turned into a fortress or a military post was located near it." A masterpiece of architectural art in the capital was the church of St. Sofia (built in 532-37), which played a great role in the addition of the special character of Byzantine worship and did more for the conversion of barbarians than wars and embassies. The mosaics of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, just reunited with the empire, have preserved to us magnificently executed portraits of the Emperor Justinian himself, the Empress Theodora and dignitaries of the court.
For 25 years, the burden of power was shared with the emperor by his wife Theodora, who had a strong will and a state mind. The influence of this "great ambitious" and "faithful empress" was not always beneficial, but the entire reign of Justinian was marked by him. Official honors were given to her on an equal basis with the emperor, and her subjects were henceforth sworn into a personal oath to both royal spouses. During the uprising of Nick, Theodora saved the throne for Justinian. The words she said went down in history: "Whoever put on a diadem, he should not experience her death ... As for me, I adhere to the old adage: purple is the best shroud!"
In the 10 years after Justinian's death, many of his conquests were nullified, and the ideas of a universal empire became a rhetorical figure for a long time. Nevertheless, the reign of Justinian, who is called "the last Roman and first Byzantine emperor", became an important stage in the formation of the phenomenon of the Byzantine monarchy.
The first remarkable sovereign of the Byzantine Empire and the ancestor of its internal order was Justinian I the Great(527‑565), who glorified his reign with successful wars and conquests in the West (see Vandal War 533-534) and brought the final triumph to Christianity in his state. The successors of Theodosius the Great in the East, with a few exceptions, were people of little ability. The imperial throne went to Justinian after his uncle Justin, who in his youth came to the capital as a simple village boy and entered military service, rose to the highest ranks on it, and then became the emperor. Justin was a rude and uneducated man, but thrifty and energetic, so he gave his nephew the empire in relatively good condition.
Descending himself from a simple title (and even from a Slavic family), Justinian married the daughter of one caretaker of wild animals in the circus, Theodore,who was formerly a dancer and led a frivolous lifestyle. She subsequently exerted a great influence on her husband, distinguished by an outstanding mind, but at the same time an insatiable lust for power. Justinian himself was also a man power-hungry and energetic,loved fame and luxury, strove for grandiose goals. Both of them were distinguished by great external piety, but Justinian inclined somewhat towards Monophysitism. Under them, court splendor reached its highest development; Theodora, crowned empress and even becoming a co-ruler of her husband, demanded that on ceremonial occasions the highest officials of the empire should put their lips on her leg.
Justinian decorated Constantinople with many magnificent buildings, of which he received loud fame temple of Saint Sophiawith a dome that was unprecedented in its enormousness and wonderful mosaic images. (In 1453 the Turks converted this temple into a mosque). In domestic politics, Justinian held the view that the empire should be one power, one faith, one law.Needing a lot of money for his wars, buildings and court luxury, he introduced many different ways to increase government revenues, for example, created government monopolies, imposed taxes on supplies, arranged compulsory loans, and willingly resorted to confiscation of property (especially from heretics). All this drained the strength of the empire and undermined the material well-being of its population.
Emperor Justinian with his retinue
42. Blue and Green
Justinian did not immediately establish himself on the throne. At the beginning of his reign, he even had to endure a serious popular uprising in the capital itself.The population of Constantinople has long been fond of horse racing, as the Romans used to do - gladiatorial games. To the capital hippodrometens of thousands of spectators flocked to watch the chariot races, and often a crowd of thousands took advantage of the emperor's presence at the hippodrome to make real political demonstrations in the form of complaints or demands, which were immediately presented to the emperor. The most popular coachmen at the circus horse rides had their fans, who broke up into parties that differed in the colors of their favorites. The two main parties of the hippodrome were blueand green,who were at enmity not only because of the coachmen, but also because of political issues... Justinian and especially Theodora patronized the blue; once upon a time the greens refused her request to give her father's place at the circus to her mother's second husband, and having become an empress, she avenged it with green. Different positions, both higher and lower, were distributed only in blue; the blue ones were awarded in every way; they got away with it, no matter what they did.
Once the greens turned to Justinian in the hippodrome with very persistent ideas, and when the emperor refused, they raised a real uprising in the city, called "Nika", from the battle cry (Νίκα, that is, win) with which the rebels attacked adherents of the government. A whole half of the city was burned down during this indignation, and the rebels, to which part of the blue also joined, even proclaimed a new emperor. Justinian was about to flee, but was stopped by Theodora, who showed great firmness of mind. She advised her husband to fight and entrust the pacification of the rebels to Belisarius. With the Goths and Heruls under his command, the famous commander attacked the rebels when they gathered in the hippodrome, and hacked them to pieces about thirty thousand people. Following this, the government established its position with numerous executions, exile and confiscations.
Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian I
43. Corpus juris
The main business of Justinian's internal government was collection of all Roman law,that is, all the laws applied by the judges and all the theories set forth by jurists (juris prudentes) throughout Roman history. This enormous case was carried out by a whole commission of lawyers, at the head of which was put Tribonian.Attempts of this kind have already been made, but only Corpus jurisJustinian, compiled for several years, was a valid the body of Roman law,produced by entire generations of the Roman people. IN Corpus jurisincluded: 1) systematized by the content of the decisions of the former emperors ("Code of Justinian"), 2) a guide to the study of disposition ("Institutions") and 3) systematically stated opinions of authoritative lawyers, cured from their writings ("Digests" or "Pandects" ). To these three parts was then added 4) Collection of new decrees of Justinian ("Novella"), already mostly in Greek, with a Latin translation. This work by which the secular development of Roman law was completed,it has historical meaningof paramount importance. Firstly, Justinian's law served as the basis on which everything developed byzantine legislation,influenced on the right of peoples who borrowed from Byzantium the beginning of their citizenship.Roman law itself began to change in Byzantium under the influence of new living conditions, as evidenced by the large number of new laws issued by Justinian himself and published by his successors. On the other hand, this modified Roman law began to be perceived by the Slavs, who adopted Christianity from the Greeks. Secondly, the temporary possession of Italy after the fall of Ostrogothic rule in it made it possible for Justinian to approve his legislation here too. It could take root here all the more easily because it was, so to speak, only transferred to the native soil on which it originally arose. Later in the Westroman law in the form that it received under Justinian, began to be studied in higher schools and put into practice,which here, too, entailed a number of different consequences.
44. Byzantium in the 7th century
Justinian gave his reign a great splendor, but under his successors began again internal strife(especially church strife) and external invasions. At the beginning of the VII century. the emperor became famous for his cruelty Fock,who took the throne by rebellion and began the reign by killing his predecessor (Mauritius) and his entire family. After a short reign, he himself suffered a similar fate when an uprising under the command of Heraclius took place against him, who was proclaimed emperor by indignant soldiers. It was a time of decline and government activityin Byzantium. Only the brilliantly gifted and energetic Irakli (610-641), with some reforms in administration and the army, temporarily improved the internal position of the state, although not all enterprises were successful (for example, his attempt to reconcile the Orthodox and Monophysites on Monothelism). A new period in the history of Byzantium began only with the accession to the throne at the beginning of the 8th century. asia Minor or Isaurian dynasty.
Justinian I the Great
(lat. Flavius \u200b\u200bPetrus Sabbatius Justinianus) ruled Byzantium from 527 to 565. Under Justinian the Great, the territory of Byzantium almost doubled. Historians believe that Justinian was one of the greatest monarchs of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages.
Justinian was born around 483.
in a peasant family of a remote village in the mountain Macedonia, near Skupi
... For a long time, the prevailing opinion was that he was of Slavic origin and wore originally the name of the Governor,
this legend was very common among the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula.
Justinian was distinguished by strict Orthodoxy , was a reformer and military strategist who made the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Coming from the dark mass of the provincial peasantry, Justinian was able to firmly and firmly assimilate two grandiose ideas: the Roman idea of \u200b\u200ba worldwide monarchy; and the Christian idea of \u200b\u200bthe kingdom of God. Combining both ideas and putting them into action with the help of power in a secular state that accepted these two ideas as political doctrine of the Byzantine Empire.
Under Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine Empire reached its dawn, after a long period of decline, the monarch tried to restore the empire and return it to its former greatness. It is believed that Justinian fell under the influence of the strong character of his wife Theodora, whom he solemnly crowned in 527
Historians believe that the main goal of Justinian's foreign policy was the revival of the Roman Empire within its former borders, the empire was to turn into a single Christian state. As a result, all the wars conducted by the emperor were aimed at expanding their territories, especially to the west, in the territory of the fallen Western Roman Empire.
The main commander of Justinian, who dreamed of the revival of the Roman Empire, was Belisarius,
who became a military leader at the age of 30. 
In the year 533 Justinian sent Belisarius's army to North Africa to the conquest of the kingdom of the vandals. The war with the Vandals was successful for Byzantium, and already in 534 the commander of Justinian won a decisive victory. As in the African campaign, the commander Belisarius kept in the Byzantine army many mercenaries - wild barbarians.
Even sworn enemies could help the Byzantine Empire - it was enough to pay them. So, huns made up a significant part of the army Belisarius which on 500 ships left Constantinople for North Africa.Hunnic cavalry , who served as mercenaries in the Byzantine army of Belisarius, played a decisive role in the war against Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. During the general battle, the opponents fled from the wild horde of the Huns and hid in the Numidian desert. Then the general Belisarius took Carthage.
After the annexation of North Africa in Byzantine Constantinople, they turned their eyes to Italy, on whose territory there existed kingdom of the Ostrogoths. Emperor Justinian the Great decided to declare war germanic kingdoms , who waged constant wars among themselves and were weakened on the eve of the invasion of the army of Byzantium.
The war with the Ostrogoths was successful, and the Ostrogoth king had to turn to Persia for help. Justinian secured himself in the East from a blow from the rear by making peace with Persia and launching a campaign to invade Western Europe.
First thing the general Belisarius took Sicily, where he met little resistance. Italian cities also surrendered one by one until the Byzantines approached Naples.
Belisarius (505-565), Byzantine general under Justinian I, 540 (1830). Belasarius refusing the crown of their kingdom in Italy offered to him by the Goths in 540. Belisarius was a brilliant general who defeated a range of enemies of the Byzantine Empire, virtually doubling its territory in the process. (Photo by Ann Ronan Pictures / Print Collector / Getty Images)
After the fall of Naples, Pope Silverius invited Belisarius to enter the holy city. The Goths left Rome , and soon Belisarius occupied Rome as the capital of the empire. The Byzantine military leader Belisarius, however, understood that the enemy was only gathering strength, so he immediately began to strengthen the walls of Rome. The subsequent the siege of Rome by the Goths lasted one year and nine days (537 - 538). The Byzantine army defending Rome not only withstood the attacks of the Goths, but also continued its advance deep into the Apennine Peninsula.
Belisarius' victories allowed the Byzantine Empire to take control of northeastern Italy. After the death of Belisarius was created exarchate (province) with capital in Ravenna ... Although Rome was later lost to Byzantium, since Rome actually fell under the control of the pope, Byzantium retained possessions in Italy until the middle of the VIII century.
Under Justinian, the territory of the Byzantine Empire reached its largest size in the entire history of the empire. Justinian managed to almost completely restore the former borders of the Roman Empire.
The Byzantine emperor Justinian captured all of Italy and practically the entire coast of North Africa, and the southeastern part of Spain. Thus, the territory of Byzantium doubles, but does not reach the former borders of the Roman Empire.
Already in 540 New Persian
the kingdom of the Sassanids dissolved the peaceful
treaty with Byzantium and was actively preparing for war. Justinian found himself in a difficult position, because Byzantium could not withstand a war on two fronts. 
Domestic policy of Justinian the Great
In addition to an active foreign policy, Justinian also pursued a reasonable domestic policy. Under him, the Roman system of government was abolished, which was replaced by a new one - Byzantine. Justinian was actively engaged in strengthening the state apparatus, and also tried improve taxation ... Under the emperor, civil and military positions, attempts have been made reduce corruption by raising officials' pay.
The people called Justinian "the sleepless emperor", as he worked day and night to reform the state.
Historians believe that Justinian's military successes were his main merit, but domestic politics, especially in the second half of his reign, devastated the state treasury.
Emperor Justinian the Great left behind a famous architectural monument that still exists today - Saint Sophie Cathedral ... This building is considered a symbol of the "golden age" in the Byzantine Empire. This cathedral is the second largest Christian temple in the world and is second only to St. Paul's Cathedral in the Vatican ... With the construction of the Hagia Sophia, the Emperor Justinian won the favor of the Pope and the entire Christian world.
During the reign of Justinian, the world's first plague pandemic broke out, which engulfed the entire Byzantine Empire. The largest number of victims was recorded in the capital of the empire, Constantinople, where 40% of the total population died. According to historians, the total number of victims of the plague has reached about 30 million people, and possibly more.
Achievements of the Byzantine Empire under Justinian
The greatest achievement of Justinian the Great is considered an active foreign policy, which expanded the territory of Byzantium twice, practically recovering all the lost lands after the fall of Rome in 476.
As a result of numerous wars, the state treasury was depleted, and this led to popular riots and uprisings. However, the uprising prompted Justinian to issue new laws for the citizens of the entire empire. The emperor abolished Roman law, abolished outdated Roman laws, and introduced new laws. The body of these laws was named "Code of Civil Law".
The reign of Justinian the Great was really called the "golden age", he himself said: "Until the time of our reign, God did not grant such victories to the Romans ... Thank heaven, inhabitants of the whole world: in your days a great work has been accomplished, which God recognized the entire ancient world as unworthy." Commemorations of the greatness of Christianity were built Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.
A huge breakthrough has taken place in military affairs. Justinian managed to create the largest professional mercenary army of that period. The Byzantine army under the leadership of Belisarius brought the Byzantine emperor many victories and expanded the borders of the Byzantine Empire. However, the maintenance of a huge mercenary army and endless warriors depleted the state treasury of the Byzantine Empire.
The first half of the reign of Emperor Justinian is called "the golden age of Byzantium", while the second caused only discontent from the people. The outskirts of the empire swept revolt of the Moors and Goths. AND in 548 during the second Italian campaign, Justinian the Great could no longer respond to Belisarius's requests to send money for the army and to pay the mercenaries.
For the last time, General Belisarius led the troops in 559, when Thrace was invaded by the Kotrigur tribe. The commander won a victory in battle and could completely destroy the attackers, but Justinian at the last moment decided to buy off his restless neighbors. However, the most surprising thing was that the creator of the Byzantine victory was not even invited to the festive celebrations. After this episode, the general Belisarius finally fell out of favor and ceased to play a prominent role at court.
In 562, several noble inhabitants of Constantinople accused the illustrious general Belisarius of plotting against the emperor Justinian. For several months Belisarius was deprived of his property and position. Soon, Justinian was convinced of the innocence of the accused and made peace with him. Belisarius died in peace and solitude in 565 A.D. In the same year, Emperor Justinian the Great expired.
The last conflict between the emperor and the general served as a source legends about the beggar, weak and blind commander Belisarius, begging for alms at the walls of the temple. Such - who fell out of favor - portrays him in his famous painting by the French artist Jacques-Louis David.
A world state created by the will of the autocratic sovereign - such was the dream that Emperor Justinian cherished from the very beginning of his reign. By force of arms, he returned the lost old Roman territories, then gave them a general civil law, ensuring the welfare of the inhabitants, finally - he affirmed the unified Christian faith, designed to unite all nations in worship of the one true Christian God. These are the three unshakable foundations on which Justinian built the power of his empire. Justinian the Great believed that "There is nothing higher and holier than the imperial majesty"; “The creators of the law themselves said that the will of the monarch has the force of law«; « he alone is able to spend days and nights in work and wakefulness, so that think about the welfare of the people«.
Justinian the Great argued that the grace of the emperor's power, as the "anointed of God" standing over the state and over the church, was received by him directly from God. The emperor is "equal to the apostles" (Greek ίσαπόστολος), God helps him to defeat enemies, to make fair laws. Justinian's wars got the character of the crusades - wherever the Byzantine emperor is master, the Orthodox faith will shine. His piety was transformed into religious intolerance and embodied in severe persecution for deviating from the faith he recognized.Every legislative act Justinian puts "Under the patronage of the Holy Trinity."
Justinian I the Great, whose full name sounds like Justinian Flavius \u200b\u200bPeter Sabbatius, is the Byzantine emperor (i.e. the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire), one of the largest emperors of late antiquity, under which this era began to give way to the Middle Ages, and the Roman style of government gave way to the Byzantine ... He remained in history as a major reformer.
Born around 483, he was a native of Macedonia, a peasant's son. A decisive role in the biography of Justinian was played by his uncle, who became Emperor Justin I. The childless monarch, who loved his nephew, brought him closer to himself, contributed to education, promotion in society. Researchers suggest that Justinian could have arrived in Rome at approximately 25 years of age, studied law and theology in the capital and began his ascent to the top of political Olympus from the rank of the personal imperial bodyguard, head of the guard corps.
In 521, Justinian rose to the rank of consul and became a very popular person, not least thanks to the organization of luxurious circus performances. The Senate repeatedly proposed to Justin to make his nephew a co-regent, but the emperor took this step only in April 527, when his health significantly deteriorated. On August 1 of the same year, after the death of his uncle, Justinian became a sovereign ruler.
The newly made emperor, feeding ambitious plans, immediately set about strengthening the power of the country. In domestic politics, this manifested itself, in particular, in the implementation of legal reform. Published 12 books of the "Code of Justinian" and 50 - "Digesta" have remained relevant for more than a millennium. Justinian's laws contributed to centralization, the expansion of the powers of the monarch, the strengthening of the state apparatus and the army, and the strengthening of control in certain areas, in particular, in trade.
The coming to power was marked by the onset of a period of large-scale construction. The Constantinople Church of St. Sophia was rebuilt in such a way that for many centuries it had no equal among Christian churches.
Justinian I the Great pursued a fairly aggressive foreign policy aimed at conquering new territories. His military leaders (the emperor himself was not in the habit of personally participating in hostilities) managed to conquer part of North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and a significant part of the territory of the Western Roman Empire.
The reign of this emperor was marked by a number of riots, incl. the largest Nika uprising in Byzantine history: this is how the population reacted to the harshness of the measures taken. In 529, Justinian closed the Academy of Plato, in 542 - abolished the consular post. More and more honors were shown to him, likening to a saint. Justinian himself, towards the end of his life, gradually lost interest in state concerns, giving preference to theology, dialogues with philosophers and clergy. He died in Constantinople in the fall of 565.
