§ 26. State structure and administration of Novgorod

In the earliest period of its existence under the rule of the Kyiv princes, that is, in the 10th and 11th centuries, Novgorod was no different from other Russian cities. Who reigned in Kyiv, he also owned Novgorod. The Kievan great princes kept their governor in Novgorod, usually one of their sons, and ruled the Novgorod region according to the general order, as they ruled Kyiv. But when in Kievan Rus, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh (1125), continuous strife of princes over Kyiv began, Novgorod took advantage of princely strife and ceased to obediently accept princes from the hands of the Kievan prince. The Novgorod veche itself began to invite princes to Novgorod, choosing them from different branches of the Russian princely family and offering them certain conditions from itself. Such an order could have been established in Novgorod in the 12th century. because the Novgorod land was far from Kyiv: on the one hand, the weakened princes of Kyiv did not have the strength to keep distant Novgorod in subjection to themselves; and on the other hand, the princes who were looking for Kyiv did not want to link their fate with Novgorod, they were afraid, sitting in Novgorod, to miss Kyiv and therefore stayed in the south, leaving the Novgorod table to their younger brothers. Having adopted the custom of electing a prince, the Novgorodians at the same time began to elect a "lord" for themselves. Until the middle of the XII century. a bishop (first a bishop, then an archbishop) was sent to Novgorod by the Metropolitan of Kyiv of his own choice. From the middle of the XII century. Novgorodians themselves began to choose the archbishop from the local clergy and sent him from themselves to the metropolitan to be delivered to the dignity. Finally, instead of the former princely posadniks and thousandths, the Novgorodians began to choose their own and, thus, surrounded the prince with their officials, demanding that he rule in Novgorod only with “Novgorod men”, and not with his princely retinue.

Having achieved this order, Novgorod achieved complete political independence and isolation. It turned into an independent state in which the supreme power belonged to the veche. Veche elect princes and expel them; elects rulers and, in case of dissatisfaction with them, brings them together; elects and dismisses dignitaries who manage the affairs of Novgorod. Veche establishes new laws, approves treaties with foreigners, resolves issues of war and peace. Veche judges the most important persons and the most important cases - from the clashes between the prince and Novgorod dignitaries to the crimes of Novgorod suburbanites. In a word, the Novgorod veche directs the entire political life of Novgorod and its lands. The meeting place of the veche was "Yaroslavov Dvor" (the square near the market on the Trade side) or the square in Detinets near St. Sophia. Every civilly free Novgorodian who had his own household attended the veche (children, even adults, but living on their father's household, were not considered full-fledged citizens in ancient Russia). Residents of the suburbs who came to Novgorod could go to the veche in the same way as the Novgorodians. Matters at the meetings were decided not by a majority of votes, but by a common cry (it was supposed to be unanimous). To our modern eye, this method seems strange and messy. To understand it, one must remember that Novgorod consisted of several communities - "ends", divided in turn into smaller communities - "hundreds" and "streets". At the meetings, the members of these communities, of course, stood together and could easily come to an agreement among themselves on every matter, so that after negotiations, the opinion of each community was clarified. And from the sum of these opinions, the opinion of the vecha was formed. Consequently, there was no need to count the individual votes of the people who made up the thousandth crowd: it was only necessary to make sure that all the communities that made up Veliky Novgorod agreed on one or another decision. If they agreed, their case was considered settled. If agreement was not reached, then they quarreled and even fought. Sometimes from one vecha two mutually hostile ones were formed. Civil strife began; most often, on the bridge across the Volkhov, enemies converged for battle, and the lord of Novgorod with the clergy hurried to reconcile fellow citizens.

With such arrangements, of course, the veche could not sensibly discuss the details of complex and important cases. It could only, after listening to the finished report on the case, accept it or reject it. Such reports were prepared for veche meetings by a special government council . It included all the most important Novgorod dignitaries - posadniks and thousands, both those who were in office ("powerful"), and those who had already left the position ("old"). At the head of the council was in ancient times the prince, and then - the "lord". The Council was called in Novgorod “Lord”; the Germans who traded with Novgorod called it "Herren". The entire state life of Novgorod was subject to the possession of the "master"; she directed both external relations and veche activities. The further time passed, the more influential this aristocratic council became in Novgorod.

When electing a prince for themselves, the Novgorod veche entered into an agreement with him, or a “row”. It obligated the prince to kiss the cross on which his ancestors kissed the cross of Novgorod: "Keep Novgorod in the old days on duty." The very same veche kissed the prince's cross on the fact that his "reigning should be kept honestly and menacingly without offense." According to the Novgorod "duty", that is, according to the old custom, the prince in Novgorod was the highest military and government authority. He led the Novgorod army, was the supreme judge and ruler of Novgorod. Among their internal quarrels and strife, the Novgorodians really needed a fair mediator, who would not depend on any of them, “love the good and execute the evil.” The prince was such an intermediary. But so that the prince himself would not turn his power against Novgorod, the Novgorodians set a number of conditions for him. They considered the prince as a foreigner outside Novgorod and therefore obliged him and his squad not to acquire land and servants in the Novgorod possessions and not to trade on their own, without the mediation of Novgorod merchants, with the Germans in the German court. Thus, the prince could not by any means enter into the composition of Novgorod society and always remained an outsider for Novgorod. At that moment, when the veche “showed him the way from Novgorod”, that is, refused him power, the prince lost all connection with Novgorod and could immediately leave the Novgorod borders. As an outsider to Novgorod, the prince did not live in Novgorod itself, but three versts from Novgorod, closer to Ilmen, in the so-called Settlement. The prince undertook to rule Novgorod without changing the laws and regulations of Novgorod, and, moreover, with the constant participation of a posadnik elected by the council. The posadnik accompanied the prince to the war, was present at the prince's court, together with the prince appointed officials to lower positions, in a word, controlled every action of the prince. The prince had to govern Novgorod exclusively through the Novgorodians, without appointing his warriors anywhere; in addition, he himself had to be in the Novgorod limits, and if he left there, he lost the right to govern Novgorod. For his service to Novgorod, the prince received "gifts" and "tribute" in a precisely defined amount and, moreover, enjoyed various lands and the right to hunt in specially designated places. In turn, the prince gave Novgorodians various benefits in his principality, from where he was invited to Novgorod.

Elected Novgorod dignitaries, posadnik and thousand , conducted the current management affairs, helping the prince and at the same time watching him. The posadnik was in charge of civil affairs, and the tysyatsky was the leader of the Novgorod "thousand", that is, the militia. Under the jurisdiction of the posadnik were elected elders ends (“Konchansky”, or “Konetsky”) and streets (“Ulichansky”, or “street”). Thousand were subordinated honeycomb - the chiefs of the ten "hundreds", amounting to a thousand. In ancient times, it always happened that each official not only ruled, but also judged his subordinates; according to the general custom, both the posadnik and the thousandth had their own court. The veche elected these dignitaries without a term; they were on a degree, that is, they ruled their position as long as they were pleasing to the council. The posadnik was always chosen from among the noblest and richest Novgorodians, from the big "boyars", and therefore was a representative of the Novgorod aristocracy. On the contrary, the tysyatsky represented the entire Novgorod mass, which was part of the “thousand”.

The management of the five Novgorod and suburbs was in the hands of the elected Novgorod authorities. Pyatiny and suburbs were assigned to the "ends" of Novgorod and communicated with Novgorod through their "end". As for the Novgorod "lands" and "volosts", it is difficult to determine the degree and order of their dependence on Novgorod. They were most likely ruled by Novgorod industrialists, who set up their own trades in them and arranged their own private patrimonial administration.

Novgorod lord , archbishop, not only was in charge of the Novgorod church, but was of great importance in the political life of Novgorod. He held first place in the Novgorod government council. He followed the activities of the vecha: every decision of the vecha usually required the "blessing" of the lord; in veche strife, Vladyka was a conciliator, entering the raging crowd in sacred vestments and with a cross. In relations with foreigners, Vladyka often came first: he sealed treaty letters with his seal; foreigners turned to him for patronage and protection when they were offended in Novgorod. The Vladyka's courtyard at the Sophia Cathedral and the Cathedral of St. Sophia was the government center where the "gentlemen" gathered, the state archive of Novgorod and the rich Sophia church treasury were kept, which the Novgorodians looked at as the state. Vladyka ruled over a vast number of ecclesiastical Novgorod lands. He had his own staff of officials and servants (“Sofians”) and his own “regiment”, separate from the general Novgorod militia. It is clear why it was important for the Novgorodians to choose their own ruler, and not to receive an appointment from outside.

Novgorod land was the largest economic, political and cultural center of Russia. According to the form of government, the Novgorod land separated itself from the Kyiv land and developed independently. At the end of the XI century. Novgorodians achieved the right by decision of the vech (a meeting of townspeople to decide public affairs, as well as the place of this meeting.) to expel or refuse to reign the protege of the great Kyiv prince and received the right to invite themselves to the prince who they liked more ..

General Veche of Veliky Novgorod was the highest authority, it was convened only when it was necessary. The competence of the veche was quite wide: it adopted the laws and rules for the life of the city and the territories subject to it; invited the prince and concluded an agreement with him; expelled the prince; chose, replaced, judged the posadnik and the thousand; dealt with their disputes with the prince; chose a candidate for the post of Novgorod archbishop; decided the issue of building churches and monasteries; gave the state lands of Veliky Novgorod to churches, monasteries and private individuals; gave the princes suburbs and lands to “feed”; was the highest court for suburbs and individuals; judged the gravest crimes (political and state); was in charge of foreign policy; decided on the collection of troops, the construction of fortresses, on war and peace, on defense; entered into trade agreements with other states.

The prince was elected, invited. He was the nominal head of state (only in negotiations with the heads of other states), as well as the head of the army. The prince in Veliky Novgorod was limited in rights. An agreement was concluded with him, in which his rights and obligations were determined. He did not have the right to start a war and conclude peace without the consent of the veche. If the prince did not fulfill the terms of the contract, he was expelled and another was invited.

Powerful posadnik- the highest official in the administration of Novgorod. He was elected from among the most influential boyars. Together with the prince, he ruled and judged the Novgorodians, led the course of the veche, negotiated with other principalities and countries, and replaced the prince in his absence. Only a veche could change the posadnik.
(The posadnik is the head of the city, "planted" (appointed) by the prince (initially, then by the veche), in the lands that were part of the Old Russian state. The posadnik obeyed the people's veche and controlled the power of the prince. The posadnik was in charge of law enforcement, the court, the signing of diplomatic treaties. Under the posadnik’s hand was the posad’s army.)

power thousand- was elected from the non-Yarsk population of Novgorod, led the militia. He had in subjection to the sots; controlled the collection of taxes, was an assistant to the posadnik, together with the posadnik was the guarantor of control over the princely power, replaced him during his absence, led the commercial court.
(tysyatsky - the military leader of the city militia ("thousands"), to whom ten sotskys were subordinate)

Bishop was the head of the church, took an active part in government. He had his own court, a staff of officials, a military regiment. All contracts were concluded with his blessing. He was the keeper of the state treasury. Together with the prince, he was in charge of foreign policy.

Council of Lords (Lord) consisted of 300 people, represented the power elite of Novgorod. It included the prince, acting and old posadniks, the thousandth, the most noble boyars, church hierarchs, sometimes Konchan elders. The council of gentlemen considered questions that were then brought up at the veche.

7. Management in Russian lands during the period of the Horde yoke

Having conquered Russia, the Mongol-Tatars did not remain to live in Russian lands, but retreated to the south, to open steppes, creating their own state - the Golden Horde (1242).
(The establishment of the yoke became possible as a result of the Mongol invasion of Russia in 1237-1242)

At the head of the Golden Horde was the khan, who had despotic, "amazing" power over everyone. He was necessarily from the clan of Genghis Khan. Khan relied on kurultai - a congress of the Mongol-Tatar nobility, which was convened to resolve the most important issues.

Russia was dependent on the Golden Horde. The Russian principalities retained their statehood, church, and administration. The Mongol-Tatar yoke tangibly affected not so much the form of government, but the fact of the final division of Russia into two parts: North-Eastern and South-Western.

The Mongol-Tatars left their governors in Russia - the Baskaks with military detachments. The Baskaks kept order, checked the payment of tribute, the fulfillment of duties in favor of the Golden Horde. They obeyed the Great (main) Baskak, who was in Vladimir.

Special officials of the Golden Horde - the clerks - conducted a census of the entire population (except for church people) and imposed an exit (tribute). The collection of the "exit" and the Tatar administration in Russia was in charge of the Darugs, they sent "tributors" to Russia to collect tribute and ambassadors for other assignments.

The Grand Duke now received a letter - the Golden Label - for reigning, and specific princes - labels. Gradually, a new system of administration took shape, which took on some features of the administration of the Golden Horde. This influence of the Horde was reflected in the procedure for taxation, in the organization of the army, in the formation of the Yamskaya transport service, and in the features of the financial and state department.

The formation of the Moscow centralized state and the formation of a new management system.

At the beginning of the XIV century. the fragmentation of the princely destinies almost ceased, the tendency towards the unity of the Russian lands became more and more clearly manifested. The impulse of unification and centralization was most active in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. The power of the specific princes was based on feudal councils and the palace-patrimonial system of government (The palace-patrimonial system of government refers to the division of government bodies depending on the territory. Under this management system, the government bodies in the palace were simultaneously government bodies in the state. The entire territory of specific Russia, and later, the Muscovite state (in the XV-XVI centuries) was divided into the following territories: 1) the princely palace; 2) the boyar estate.).

Gradually, among other centers that claimed leadership in the process of unification, Moscow stood out and finally secured its leading role. Specific princes and local tribal nobility received estates already on the rights of service to the Moscow prince. A single Russian centralized state really took shape in the 15th-16th centuries.

The victory on the Kulikovo field (1380) allowed Dmitry Ivanovich to change the principle of succession to the throne - from father to son. After the victory of Vasily the Dark and the restoration of his rights to the Grand Duchy of Moscow, the process of unification of the Russian lands into a single state entered its final phase.

Under Ivan III, an autocratic ideology and a centralized state apparatus began to take shape. Prior to this, the Moscow principality was governed like other destinies.

From the 15th century a new title "Sovereign-Tsar and Grand Duke of All Russia" appears, which became the title of Moscow sovereigns. At the end of the XV century. the title “autocrat” appears and begins to be actively used, which then meant the independence of the Moscow sovereigns. At the same time, it appears, and from the 16th century. the title "king" (short for "Caesar") is approved. The title of tsar made Ivan IV equal to the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, placed him above the kings of Europe and above the Horde khans.

Under Ivan III, national-state symbols begin to take shape. A coat of arms depicting a double-headed eagle appears. Barmas, orb, scepter and cap of Monomakh complemented the symbolism and testified to the final formation of a single statehood. Fearing conspiracies, Ivan III ordered to conduct any negotiations and resolve any disputes only through him.

In the XVI century. in Russia, autocratic power is taking shape, in which the monarch is above the law, and all civil, judicial, administrative and military power is concentrated in his hands.

Management system of the Novgorod and Pskov lands in the X-XIV centuries. General and special

republican system pskov novgorod

The socio-economic development of North-Western Russia was distinguished by a significant originality. There are several features characteristic of both Novgorod and Pskov. The first feature is the highest level of development of crafts and trade in comparison with other territories of Russia. The second feature is the more rapid development of large boyar land ownership than in other parts of Russia. The third feature is the presence of large land plots belonging to the church. In this regard, in the territory of North-Western Russia, there were no conditions for the creation of princely land ownership, as a result of which the princely domain did not form, and, consequently, there was no strong princely power.

These features of development made up the originality of the socio-political system and the rights of the Novgorod and Pskov lands, which took shape as feudal republics.

The main sources of law in the two feudal republics were Russkaya Pravda and customary legal norms. In parallel with the development of both cities, the Novgorod-Pskov veche legislation, treaties of Novgorod with the princes, letters of the Pskov princes, local judicial practice, international treaties, for example, on the rules of trade, began to occupy an important place in legal regulation. This led to the XV century. the codification of law, which resulted in the creation of the Novgorod and Pskov Judicial Letters.

Poorly preserved to this day, the Novgorod Judicial Letter (hereinafter referred to as the NSG) brought to us a description of legal proceedings based on the current tradition of veche administration. The Pskov Judicial Letter (hereinafter PSG), which has come down to us in two lists, gives us, first of all, an idea of ​​the regulation of civil law relations, which is caused by active trade, primarily foreign.

Strong Novgorod boyars and merchants as early as the 11th century. begins the struggle for the liberation of the Kyiv princes from power, which ensured the establishment of a republican system after the uprising of 1136. The highest organs of state power were the veche and the boyar council. The functions of the veche were very diverse. It resolved issues of war and peace, elected senior officials, including the archbishop, passed laws, held court, and discussed important domestic and foreign policy issues. It should be noted that meetings of the veche did not take place regularly, and were carried out on the initiative of senior officials. The collegium that prepared the veche and carried out the management of current affairs was called the Lord, or the Council of Lords in Novgorod and the Lord in Pskov. It included the highest elected officials of Novgorod: the posadnik, the thousand, the archbishop, the Konchansky elders, the Sotsk elders. The scope of the council's activities included the conduct of current affairs, the drafting of laws. A feature of the Novgorod system is manifested in the existence of an elected posadnik under the prince. Initially, the posadnik was appointed by the prince as his assistant and deputy, but from the 12th century. this position is elective. The duties of a posadnik are similar to those of a prince: he owns the initiative to establish and repeal laws, the judiciary on a par with the prince, and the determination of the boundaries of land plots. The posadnik also controlled and directed the activities of the prince in the interests of the top of the city community. The term for which one or another posadnik was elected was not limited. The PSG contains the text of the mayor's oath, which reflects his right to court: "to judge the right by the kiss of the cross, and do not take advantage of city kunami, and do not take revenge on anyone by the court, and do not cheat on the right, and do not destroy the right." In the NSG, this right is described by a shorter formula: "And they have the right to judge by kissing the cross." Posadnik's control over the laws in force is described in Art. (108): "And which line does not have a duty letter - and the mayor should tell Mr. Pskov for veche, and write that line." The second person after the posadnik in Novgorod was the thousand. With the advent of the election of the posadnik, the thousandth also began to get out, when, as in other Russian lands, he was appointed prince. His powers included the decision of current management affairs. Also in Pskov and Novgorod there was a post of sotsky. The difference between the sotsky of Novgorod and Pskov was the absence of intermediate instances between the posadnik and the sotsky in Pskov, when, as in Novgorod, the thousandth is the first person after the posadnik, and the sotsky is lower than him. The common feature is that they are officials, authorized representatives of their city-land. In Pskov, sotskie also performed a specific function of analyzing land affairs (“driving across the border”). Another peculiar official of Novgorod was the archbishop (lord) - the head of the church of Novgorod land, was the keeper of the state treasury, controller of trade measures and weights, served as an intermediary between the prince and posadnik, led diplomatic negotiations.

A similar state structure existed in Pskov. The power was in the hands of the patriciate, the system and functions of state bodies were similar to those of Novgorod. The differences consisted in the absence of the position of a thousand man, but two posadniks were chosen to manage the affairs of the republic, the second of them directly performed the functions of a Novgorod thousand man.

With the formation of the republican system, the Novgorod prince had only military and judicial power, which, at the same time, had limitations. In the treaties, the princes undertake "not to plot war without the Novgorod word." The participation of the people in the right to declare war and conclude peace was also practiced in other Russian lands, but nowhere was it provided by a formal agreement. This remark can be attributed to all subsequent features of the Novgorod device. On a military campaign, the prince had the right to speak only together with the mayor. The judicial power of the prince also had limitations. So the prince did not have the right to judge without a posadnik, which is reflected both in the PSG “do not judge the prince, and the posadnik, and the sovereign governor of the judge, do not judge the judges or the governor of the prince of the court”, and the NSG. In Pskov, the prince stood at the head of the Supreme Judicial Collegium, which included elected mayors and sots. The new prince could not review cases that had already been resolved: “do not judge letters.” The administrative power of the prince was also limited by denying him the right to create his own local government system by appointing volosts: “And the volosts, prince, do not keep the Novgorod men with their own, keep the men of Novgorod.” In PSG, the appointment of princely husbands to the suburbs as governors is allowed: “to whom ... go to the suburbs as governor.” From which it can be concluded that the princely power in Pskov was somewhat stronger compared to Novgorod, which can be explained by the relative weakness of the Pskov boyars. Also, the prince and members of his family could not acquire Novgorod lands and distribute them to their entourage, which also weakened the position of the prince: ".. the demon of the posadnik, prince, do not give the volost, nor give letters ... ".

Territorially, Novgorod was divided into two sides: Sophia on the left bank of the Volkhov (the “detinets”, the court of the archbishops were located) and the trading side on the right (there were the Yaroslavl courtyard, bargaining, foreign courts). Administratively, Veliky Novgorod was divided into five parts. Self-government of the city: management, court and conclusion of transactions, concentrated at the ends (veche headed by the Konchan headman). The ends were divided into hundreds (veche headed by a centurion), which had their own fractional components - streets, at the head of which stood, a veche headed, the so-called. street elder.

Pskov had a similar arrangement: there was also a citadel and bargaining; the city was divided into six ends, between which territories were divided for administration - two suburbs at the end.

The lands of Novgorod were subdivided into five pyatins, which in turn were divided into parts, and five main volosts. The patches were attributed to the end and were under his administrative control. The management of the pyatina did not differ from the city government. The volost was ruled by the headman, who was elected by the local population and extended his power to the so-called. black villages. The Novgorod princes and posadniks controlled the collection of tribute with the help of "husbands" sent by them to the places. Management and court in the field was in the hands of their owners.

The lands of Pskov were divided into lips, at the head was the headman elected from the boyars. Lips, in turn, were subdivided into volosts, which included several villages and hamlets. The prince and veche appointed governors in the province in double numbers (one from the prince, the other from the veche).

In the Novgorod land there was a hierarchy of cities. All cities were considered as "suburbs" of Novgorod and were obliged to bear duties in his favor.

Summing up, we can say that the control systems of the Novgorod and Pskov lands were very similar. So both lands were feudal republics. They were headed by the top of society - the oligarchy, which ruled through the veche and a number of elected (since the XII century) officials and the prince who was called. The differences lie in the details and are due to the power of the ruling elite, as well as the geographically and strategically important position of Pskov in military terms, which was reflected in the broader powers of the prince, who performed military functions.

Cult of Alexander Nevsky. In the national self-consciousness, the exploits of "the holy and faithful Alexander Nevsky" stand apart. The name of the famous warrior prince surprisingly harmoniously entered our historical memory. The cult of Alexander Nevsky arose almost immediately after his death. Perhaps there is no other Russian prince, canonized by the church, who would be so often depicted on icons. On the other hand, Alexander Nevsky is one of the most revered heroes of the military and civil history of Russia - Russia, up to this day. And the battles against the Swedes and the Teutons became part of the national-political myth.

Glorious predecessors: grandfather and father of Alexander. It is worth noting that the deeds and posthumous glory of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich overshadowed the life and feats of arms of his ancestors, and yet the military prowess of the winner of the Swedish and German knights was, so to speak, hereditary. His grandfather Mstislav Udaloy, who enjoyed extraordinary popularity among Novgorodians, was distinguished by rare military prowess.

In 1216, at the head of the Novgorod regiments, he utterly defeated the Vladimir-Suzdal regiments in the Battle of Lipitsa. This battle was one of the bloodiest in the internecine struggle of the Russian princes. Having changed several principalities and finally conquered Galich, the grandfather of the great Russian commander subjugated the arrogant Galician boyars to his power. Only once did he flee from the battlefield, in the fatal battle for Russia on the Kalka.

The father of the future Alexander Nevsky, Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, also reigned in Novgorod, but, not getting along with the boyars, left him, leaving his children in the city: 10-year-old Fedor and 8-year-old Alexander. Before the invasion of the Tatars in Russia, Prince Yaroslav went on campaigns against the Mordovians, Chud, and Lithuania. In 1236, he conquered the throne of Kyiv, and after the death of his brother Yuri on the Sit River, he ascended the throne of Vladimir, becoming the first Russian prince to receive from the Tatars immediately after their conquest of Russia a label for a great reign.

Danger from the West. With the establishment of the Tatar yoke, the troubles of Russia did not end, the young prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who ruled Novgorod (born, most likely, in 1220), faced the warlike plans and actions of his western neighbors in the 1240s.

After the defeat of the North-Eastern and South Russia by the Tatars, the danger hung over the North-West of Russia, primarily over Novgorod.

Novgorod land: economy, state structure, management system. Novgorod lands occupied a vast territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga, from the Baltic to the Urals. Due to the climatic conditions in Novgorod there could not be an abundance of bread, so the basis of the economy was fishing (hunting, fishing, salt production, iron production, beekeeping) and trade. The exceptionally favorable geographical position of Novgorod the Great contributed to the development of extensive trade: the city was located at the crossroads of trade routes that connected Western Europe with Russia, and through it - with the East and Byzantium.

Initially, Novgorod was owned by the prince of Kyiv, and one of his sons ruled. The remoteness of the North-Western lands from the borders with the steppe made it possible for stable, calm development. The intensity and vastness of trade relations contributed to the rise of the merchant nobility.

After the uprising of 1136 and the expulsion of the prince, Novgorod became a boyar republic.

The whole city was divided along the Volkhov into two sides: Sofia and Trade. The supreme governing body in Novgorod was the city council (on the Sofia side), which elected officials and decided all issues of domestic and foreign policy. In addition to the city-wide veche, there were "Konchansky veche" (the city was divided into five districts-terminals) and "street" veche (uniting representatives of the streets, on which, as a rule, representatives of the same profession settled). The real power in Novgorod belonged to the boyar elite, the so-called. "300 golden belts".

The main official in Novgorod was the posadnik, who was elected from among the largest boyars, in his hands were the administration and the court. Veche chose the head of the Novgorod church - the bishop (later the archbishop). Vladyka was in charge of the treasury, was in charge of Veliky Novgorod's foreign policy, determined trade measures of weight, and so on. The head of the Novgorod church even had his own regiment. An important role in the system of city government was played by the thousand, who controlled the city militia, the court for commercial affairs, and the collection of taxes.

Veche invited (or expelled) the prince who commanded the troops during military campaigns; the princely squad ensured order in the city. The power of the prince was limited by the city administration, the laws of Novgorod and the orders of the veche. The princely residence was located on the Yaroslav's Court, on the Trade side, and then a few kilometers from the Kremlin - on Gorodische. The prince did not have the right to own land property within the Novgorod land. The limits of the power and powers of the prince were clearly stipulated: "Without a posadnik, you, prince, do not judge courts, do not have volosts, do not give letters." Nevertheless, the princes, limited first by oral and then by written agreements, actively participated in the judicial-administrative and military administration, supported the unity of Novgorod with other principalities and lands of Russia.

Military organization of Novgorod. Novgorod land differed from other Russian lands and principalities not only in its political structure, but also in its military organization. The supreme commander of the great Novgorod was the prince, who had his own squad. When the prince was a posadnik, who acted as head of the Novgorod militia, in addition, the Novgorod lord also had his own squad. The posadnik was in charge of the "grids" who served as garrison in the suburbs of Novgorod: Pskov, Ladoga, Izborsk and other cities. If necessary, Novgorod formed the so-called. "Konchan" regiments (the whole city was divided into five parts - districts that had their own self-government) and the militia of the towns. Each such regiment was divided into two hundred, headed by governors who were subordinate to the prince. Cavalry troops were kept at the expense of rich Novgorodians, the poor population put up a foot army.

Warlike descendants of the Varangians. Russia's northern neighbors were the Scandinavians. At about the same time as the Slavs, states began to arise among them, the nobility began to strengthen. The source of her wealth and power was herds of cattle and everything that could be captured during naval military raids. Not only in the IX-XI centuries, but also in the XII-XIII centuries. these raids remained an important part of the vital interests of all Scandinavians, including the Swedes. It was they who tried to probe the forces of Russia in the northwest.

Read also other topics part IX "Russia between East and West: battles of the XIII and XV centuries." section "Rus and Slavic countries in the Middle Ages":

• 39. "Who are the Essence and the Departure": the Tatar-Mongols at the beginning of the 13th century.
• 41. Genghis Khan and the "Muslim front": campaigns, sieges, conquests
• 42. Russia and Polovtsians on the eve of Kalka
  • Polovtsy. Military-political organization and social structure of the Polovtsian hordes
  • Prince Mstislav Udaloy. Princely Congress in Kyiv - decision to help the Polovtsy
• 44. Crusaders in the Eastern Baltic
  • Invasion of the Germans and Swedes in the Eastern Baltic. Founding of the Order of the Sword
• 45. Neva battle
  • Alexander Nevskiy. Novgorod land: economy, state structure, management system

1. Using the map (p. 101), tell us about the geographical location and natural conditions of the Novgorod land.

Formally, Novgorod controlled a huge territory stretching north to the Arctic Ocean and far to the east. But basically, he simply collected tribute from the tribes that lived on these lands. Novgorodians lived in the city itself and in a relatively small area around it. These lands have a cold climate. The main thing is that the soils are mostly marshy, so farming there is very difficult.

On the other hand, the place is very favorable for trade. Novgorod stands on the Volkhov River near its confluence with Lake Ilmen - on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks" not far from the Baltic Sea. The city was the main Baltic port of the Russian lands, because there were no large cities closer to the coast at that time - the banks of the Neva were too swampy. Thus, the Novgorod merchants were intermediaries between the German and Scandinavian merchants on the one hand and the Russians on the other, making good money on this.

2. Describe the main occupations of the population of Novgorod land. What was the main source of prosperity and power of the Lord of Veliky Novgorod?

Based on natural conditions, the main occupation of the population was trade, as well as a craft that developed under the influence of trade: since there were always merchants in the city, artisans had someone to sell what they did, because there were more and more artisans, since this business was profitable. It was trade that gave the city's treasury the main income, although Novgorod was not going to refuse the tribute of the wild Finno-Ugric tribes, who lived both relatively close to the city and far to the north and northeast.

The Konchansky headman or posadnik ruled the city, being in charge of both domestic and foreign policy, together with the prince he ruled the court and generally controlled the prince.

The prince led the army, completely disposed of his squad, which was invited along with the prince. He was also responsible for the collection of tribute and ruled the court together with the posadnik.

During the war, Tysyatsky led the Novgorod militia, and in peacetime he was in charge of the commercial court.

The archbishop was in charge of all church affairs, and also approved international treaties and major decisions. In addition, he was the keeper of the city treasury. Over time, the archbishop even got his own army, however, it did not become a significant military force.

4. Explain what position the princes occupied in Novgorod. How did it differ from the position of princes, for example, in the lands of Southwestern Russia?

In the Galicia-Volyn land, the princes were, if not full-fledged, but rulers. In Novgorod, they were only the leaders of the troops, who were responsible for wars with neighbors and the collection of tribute. All the powers of the prince were indicated in a special agreement (series), which the prince signed when taking office. In the Galicia-Volyn land, the power of the prince was inherited, to remove the prince, a conspiracy of the boyars was needed, that is, a coup. In the Novgorod land, the princes were invited by the veche, and from any branch of the Rurikovich. Also, by decision of the veche, the prince could be expelled at any moment - it was a completely legal procedure, prescribed in a row with the prince.

5. Historians note that literacy was very widespread among the population of ancient Novgorod. What was it expressed in? What do you think explains such a high rate of literacy?

High literacy is shown by the abundance of birch bark letters written by people from various segments of the population. Most of the townspeople somehow dealt with trade, and therefore with trade agreements. For this, at least elementary literacy was needed.

6. Consider illustrations depicting Novgorod churches (pp. 119-120). What typical features do you see in them? What distinguished them from the church architecture of other Russian lands?

The temples of Novgorod look much simpler than the architecture of other Russian lands. There are no carvings on the walls, the windows occupy only part of the height of the drum under the dome. This happened because these temples were built with the money not of generous princes, but with the sums collected by the inhabitants of the streets and districts - they counted their pieces of silver.

7*. What do you think, what determined the choice of heroes in ancient Russian epics, legends? Why, for example, did the heroes of the Novgorod epics differ from the characters of the epics of Kievan Rus?

In epics, people are accustomed to seeing heroes of their time, only ideal ones. In the rest of the lands, these were the best combatants who received favors from the prince, because heroes act in epics there. In Novgorod, the prince and his retinue were treated with suspicion, those who amassed large fortunes were held in high esteem - most often they were obtained through trade, therefore the heroes of the Novgorod epics are the rich guest Sadko, the dashing fellow Vasily Buslaev and others.

eight*. Historical journey. Prepare a report about a trip to Novgorod in the 13th century. Indicate the occupation of your hero, the purpose of his trip, impressions of the city, its attractions, etc. Use in your message illustrations from the textbook and other publications available to you, as well as Internet resources.

From my native Riga, I arrived in Novgorod by sea. At times we had to fight with the Novgorodians, but now, thank the Lord, there is peace, so we can safely trade. A wide waterway leads to the city along the river and a lake as huge as the sea. In the city itself in July, when I arrived, it was warm. It is warm even at night - the surrounding swamps absorb the heat during the day. True, because of them there are no annoying mosquitoes.

Novgorod bargaining is large and lively. Here they accept any coin from those that are in use in the Baltic. I sold good cups and bought a fur brought from some northern lands, the name of which I don’t even remember. Local merchants know their benefits. Honestly, non-Christian Jews are easier to deceive than Novgorodians (however, they are also not real Christians, but schismatics). But you can get some good stuff here.

The local St. Sophia Cathedral, which is on the other side of the river, I saw on my last visit, so I went to see something else. The churches in Novgorod are somewhat nondescript. Sculptures, which our churches are famous for, are generally not recognized by Russians, but there are not many other decorations in Novgorod. Take, for example, the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa. It was the one I saw best, because they sold good beer nearby, but other churches of the so-called ends are no better.

Simple walls, separated only by vertical relief partitions. It is crowned with a dome, not even gilded, unlike other large Russian cities, and only one. Inside, everything is just as boring - there are murals, but they are rough and straightforward. Novgorodians do not create stained-glass windows, they do not use sculpture.

In general, Novgorod cannot achieve the glory of Jerusalem, but they trade briskly here, and therefore Rigans and other Germans will come here again and again.