The formation of the Ottoman state.

Seljucky and the formation of the state of the Great Seldzhuks.

Turks in the era of the great resettlement of peoples. Early Turkic kaganates.

Lecture 4. Turkic world on the way to the Empire.

1. Turks in the era of the Great Resettlement of Peoples. Early Turkic kaganates.

In the second half of the 11th millennium AD. In the Eurasian Steppes and Mountains of Central Asia, the prevailing position was taken by the tribes of the Turkuli. The history of Turkic peoples is known mainly on the stories of their sedentary neighbors. Own historical literature appeared in Turkuli in Turkestan only in the XVI century. Of all the Turkish states, only the history of the Ottoman Empire can be studied on Turkish sources (on Starosman language).

The initial use of the word "Turk" served as the designation of the tribe led by the genus Ashina, i.e. It was an ethnonym. After the formation of the Turkic kaganate, the word "Turk" was politicized. It has become simultaneously denoted by the state. A wider sense was given to the neighbors of Kaganata - Byzantines and Arabs. They distributed this name to the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian steppes dependent on the Turks and the nomadic peoples related to them. Currently, the name "Turk" is an exclusively linguistic concept, excluding ethnography and even origin.

The genus Ashina is the creator of the first Turkic state. It originated in Altai in the VI century. The extensive tribal union from 12 tribes has been formed here, which accepted the Samulation "Turk". According to the ancient legend, this name was the local name of the Altai Mountains.

The first historical face from the genus Ashin, who led the Union, was the leader of Juluzzi Bumyn. In 551, after the victory over the zhuzhani (bordered by Northern China), Buma became the head of the multi-grade state. It included not only Turks, but also subject to them other nomadic tribes. The NIRM is the name of the Turkic Kaganat (Turk El, El in Tyuluok - a tribe and a state in the Middle Ages).

Bumyn accepted the buzze title "Kagan" (later shape - Khan). This title of nomadic peoples indicated the Supreme Lord, under which other rulers of lower rank were located. This title was equated with the title of Chinese emperor. Such title was carried by the lord of many nations - Huns, Avara, Khazara, Bulgarians.

The Turkic Kaganat under the nearest successors of the Buma in a short period expanded its borders from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea. In 576, during the greatest territorial expansion of Turks, the borders were published with Byzantium and Iran.

According to the internal device, Kaganat was a rigid hierarchy of tribes and childbirth. The championship belonged to the 12-breeding alliance of Turils. The second most important was the tribal union of Tokuz-Oguz led by Uigurs.

The supreme power belonged to the representatives of the Kaganian kind of Ashin. Kagan personified in one person of the drills of the leader, the Supreme Judge, the Supreme Priest. The throne was transferred to the seniority of brothers and nephews. Each of the blood princes received a lot of blood. They received the title "Shad" (middle. Persian Shah). This is the so-called express-particle boarding system.

Turkic kagans, subordinating the ancient agricultural areas, they themselves continued to wag in the steppes. They intervened little in the political, economic and cultural life of the captured territories. Local rulers paid tribute to Turks.

Within 582-603. There was a civil war, which led to the breakdown of Kaganate to the warring parts: Easternoturk kaganate in Mongolia; Western Mountains in Central Asia and Jungaria. The history of their existence lasted long. Until the end of the VII century. They were under the authority of the Chinese Empire Tang.

For a short period of time, the second Turkic kaganat arose (687 - 745), at the origins of which again stood the genus Ashin, united the eastern Turks. The state of Western Turks was restored with the dominant position of the Türgechey tribe. Hence the name of Kaganata - Türgesh.

After the collapse of the second Turkic kaganate, an important political force in Central Asia became Uygur Kaganat with the capital in Orubles on the river. Orhon. At the head of the state from 647, the genlack was standing. Uigurs professed Buddhism and non-traditional. They were considered irreconcilable enemies of Islam. In 840, Uigurs were defeated by the Yenisei Kyrgyz.

An important milestone in the history of the early Turkic states and peoples of Central and Central Asia was the conquest of Arabs and the processes of Islamization, which took place here. At the beginning of the VIII century. Arabami was conquered the entire Central Asian region. Starting from 713 - 714. The Arabs collided with Turks in battles under Samarkand. Türgesh Kagan refused voluntary subordination by Khalifat and supported the fight of Samarkand against the Arab presence. As a result of the Arabs in the 30s. VIII century They inflicted a decisive blow to the Turkic troops, and the Türgesh kaganat collapsed.

With the addition of Central Asia to the caliphat, fractional internal boundaries were eliminated, and the different peoples of this region were combined with one language (Arabic) and a common religion - Islam. Middle Asia from this time has become an organic part of the Islamic world.

2. Seldzhukide and the formation of the state of the Great Seldzhuks.

At the end of the X century. The tribes of the Tribes of Islam Tauli began to play an active political role in Central Asia. From this time, the Islamic Turkic Dynasties - Karakhanids, Gaznevids and Seldjucides began to rule in the region.

Caracanides came from the top of the Karluk tribe. They were associated with the genus Ashina. After the defeat of the Uygur Kaganat by the Yenisei Kyrgyz, the supreme authority among the Turkic tribes passed. In 840, the State of the Karakhanids was formed, which originally occupied the territory of Semirchia and Turkestan. In 960, Karluki was massively accepted Islam. According to sources in Islam, 200 thousand tents passed immediately. The State of the Karakanov existed before the beginning of the XIII century. His fall was accelerated by the blows of Seljuk.

Gaznevids - Turkic Sunni Dynasty, which rules in Central Asia from 977 to 1186, the founder of the state is the Turkic Gulyam Alp - Tögin. Having left the service from Samanids in Horasan, he headed the semi-independent principality in the gas (Afghanistan). The greatest power of the state of Gaznevoov reached the Mahmud Gaznevi under Sultan (998 - 1030). He significantly expanded the territory of his state, making successful hiking in Central Asia, India. His hiking played a big role in the spread of Islam Sunni sense in the north of India. He also became famous for widespread patrony, providing extensive opportunities for the court of a well-known scientist. With his courtyard, the famous Encyclopedist ABK Reichan Biruni (973-1048) worked. The great Persian poet Firdusi, the author of the epic poem "Shah-Nona". The son of Mahmoud Masood (1031 - 1041) underestimated the danger of seventhjucides. In 1040, the huge army of Masud suffered a defeat from the Seljuks under the Merv. As a result, they lost Horacean and Khorezm. By the middle of the XI century. Gaznevids lost all Iranian possessions, and in 1186 after a long struggle for survival, after numerous territorial losses, the Gaznevid state ceased to exist.

In the IX - X centuries. Nomads Oguza lived on Syrdarya and in the alarm. The head of the Ogzi Tribal Union with the Turkic title "Yabga" headed the Union from 24 tribes. The clash of Oguzes with the culture of Central Asia contributed to their Islamization. Among the Ogzian tribes, Selzhuki was distinguished. They wore such a name by the name of the semi-ligand leader of Selzhuk Ibn Tugak.

The history of the elevation of Seljukov is associated with the names of two well-known leaders, which the tradition considers the grades of Selzhuk - Chagril-Beck and Togrul-Beck. Togrul-Beck the headlong defeated Gaznevids and became the master of Horasan. Then he made hiking to Iraq, overthrew the Buvakhid dynasty. For this from the Baghdad Caliph, he received the title "Sultan and the king of the East and the West." The conquest policy continued his son Alp Arslan (1063 - 1072). In 1071, he won the famous victory over the Byzantines under Manzikert. This victory opened the Seljuks road to Malny Asia. By the end of the XI century. Seljoki captured Syria, Palestine, and in the east - possession of the Karakanids.

As a result of the military campaigns of Seljuk, a huge state was created, stitching from Amudarya and the borders of India to the Mediterranean. Board of Sultanov XI - XII centuries. It is customary to call the Dynasty of the Great Seldzhukides.

The heyday of the power of the Seldzhukide reached the Board of Sultan Malik-Shaha (1072 - 1092). In his rule, the folding of state structures, started in Togrul-Beck, was completed. Unlike their predecessors who were carrying Turkic names, Malik-Shah took a name made from Arab. Malik and PERS. Shah (both words mean - king). The city's capital was Isfahan. His vesiera was Nizam Al-Moulc (1064 - 1092), the author of the Persian-speaking treatise "Siiaasat-Nona" ("Book of the Board"). In it, the sample of the board was announced by the abbacasida caliphate. To implement this ideal, a new system of training officials and Sunni theologians was introduced.

During the reign of Malik-Shaha, the state of the Seldzhukids was relatively centralized. Sultan, as the head of state, was the supreme owner of the entire Earth of the Empire. His power was inherited to his son. The second figure in the state - Vesir, who led the central office of management and departments - sofas. The provincial administration clearly shared on military and civilian.

A permanent army from slaves-Mamlukov was formed. They were brought from Central Asia, they turned to Islam and taught the military business. Becoming professional military, they received freedom and sometimes they did a successful career.

During the Seldzhukids, the ICT system was distributed, which arose during abbasids. Seljuk's Sultans allowed to transmit ICT inherited. As a result, large land possessions not controlled by the central government appeared.

In the state of the Seljukov, some elements of management, ascending to the generic principles, remained. one). The Empire was considered as family ownership, therefore, the control functions could belong to several brothers at the same time. 2). Institute of Atabekov (Bukalo - Father-guardian) or mentors and educators of juvenile princes. Atabeki had a huge impact on young Tsarevichi, sometimes even ruled for them.

In 1092, the al-Mulk nizam was killed, and in a month, Malik Shah died. His death laid the beginning of the decay of the Empire of Seldzhukides. Sons of Malik-Shaha for a number of years fought for power. At the beginning of the XII century. The Seljuk Sultanate finally split into several independent and semi-dependent possessions: Chorashansky (East-Khoradjuksky), Iraqi (Westernsland) and Rum's Sultanates.

The Horacean and Iraqi Sultanates existed until the end of the XII century. Rumsky Sultanate was destroyed by Mongols. During the XI - XIII centuries. It was the process of turkization of Malaya Asia. From the XI to the XII century. From 200 to 300 thousand Seljukov moved here. The development of Turks of the Byzantine world took various forms. First, the ousting of the Greeks with their lands, which led to the depopulation of the territories of the former Byzantine provinces. Secondly, the Islamization of the Greeks. Mongolian conquests led to a new wave of turkization. In small Asia, especially Anatoly, the Turkic tribes from Eastern Turkestan, Central Asia and Iran were hung.

3. Education of the Ottoman state.

In the second half of the XIII - the first half of the XIV century. In the territory of Western and Central Anatolia (the Byzantine name of Malaya Asia, which is about 20 Turkic beyliks or Emirates) with heeric means "East").

The most powerful from the emerged of the Emirates was the Ottoman state in Viphinia (North-West Malaya Asia). This name received the state named Osman - the ancestor of the ruled emir. Around 1300, Ottoman Bailik was freed from the subordination to Seldzhukidam. His ruler Bay Osman (1288 - 1324) began to conduct an independent policy.

On the board of Son Osman - Orhans (1324 - 1359), Omman Turks conquered almost all Muslim Emirates in Malaya Asia. They began to conquer the Byzantine possessions in Malaya Asia. Initially, the capital of the Ottoman state was Bruus. By the middle of the XIV century. Osmans came to the Black Sea Straits, but they could not capture them. They transferred their conquest activity to the Balkans belonging to Byzantiums.

Osmans faced the Balkans not with a powerful state, but with a weak Visantium and several enemy states of the Balkans. Turkish Sultan Murad I (1362 - 1389) captured Thrace, where he suffered the capital, choosing G. Adrianopol for her. Byzantium recognized its vassal dependence on Sultan.

The decisive battle that determined the historical fate of the peoples of the Balkans occurred in 1389 on the Kosovo field. Sultan Bayazid I Lynamine (1389 - 1402) defeated Serbs, and then captured the Bulgarian kingdom, Valahia and Macedonia. Capturing thesaloniki, he went on the approaches to Constantinople. In 1394, he blocked the Byzantine capital from Sushi, which lasted long 7 years.

European countries tried to stop Turkish conquest. Heading to the Hungarian King of Sigismund, the crusaded knightly army in 1396 gave the Turkish army of Bayazid, the general battle. As a result, under Nickopol, shiny knights from Hungary, the Czech Republic, Germany, France and Poland suffered a crushing defeat.

Constantinople for a while was saved not by the West, but the East. The troops of the Central Asian ruler of Timur came on the power of Bayazid. 20 (28) July 1402 in Angore (Sovr. Ankara) in Malaya Asia met the army of the two glorified commander of Timur and Bayazid. The outcome of the battle decided to betrayals of low-immigory bees and tactical miscalculations of Bayazid. His army suffered a crushing defeat, and Sultan was captive. Without submitting humiliation, Bayazid died.

After a long struggle for the power of the sons of Bayazid, Murad II came to power (1421 - 1451). He made an attempt to capture Constantinople, which in 1422 gave his troops. Murad removed the siege, but the Byzantine emperor admitted himself to Danitor Sultan.

Twice unsuccessfully Western European monarchs tried to defend Balkans and Constantinople. In 1444, the combined troops under the command of the King of Poland and Hungary Vladislav III Yagelon were broken by the Army of Murad. In 1448, the same fate awaited Janos Hongyadi on the Kosovo field and the Hungarian commander.

Constantinople was taken after a long preparation with young Sultan Mehmed II (1451 - 1481), who received the nickname "Fatih" ninch - "Conqueror". May 29, 1453 Constantinople fell. The latter symbol of the Byzantine Empire remained Trapezund, Vasilevs, David Great Comnne (1458 - 1461) belonged to the descendants of the old imperial genus of the comments. After the conversion of the tracks, all the sultans, starting with Mehmed, included the name of Kaisser and Room in their titlature, i.e. "Emperor Romania".

After the capture of Constantinople, the Ottoman state has become a global state that has long played a crucial geopolitical role in the east and west of Eurasia.

Ottomans fully subordinate to their authorities The peoples of the Balkan Peninsula were actually crowded out of trade routes on the Mediterranean of European merchants and former leaders, Genoa and Venice. Genoa lost its largest colony in the Crimea (1475). Since that time, the Crimean Khanate has turned into a Vassal of the Ottoman Empire.

By the beginning of the XVI century. The Turks captured all Eastern Anatolia and began to control the most important international trade routes. At the Board of Selim I (1512 - 1520), the Ottoman Empire received a way out to the Arab East, capturing Northern Mesopotamia with major cities like Mosul, Mardin.

Ottomans contributed to the destruction of the hegemony of the Arab world in the Middle East. In 1516 - 1520. Under the leadership of Selima I, they crushed the Mamluk state of Egypt. As a result, Syria and Hijaz with Mecca and Medina were attached to the Ottoman state. In 1516, Selim I took the title of Padishah-I-Islam (Sultan Islam) and began to fulfill the Califa Putrogatives, such as, for example, the Hadj organization. In 1517, Egypt entered the Ottoman state.

After the victory over the Mamluk Egypt, the sole enemy in the east for Ottomans remained Power Sefavid. During the XVI century. Ottoman rulers sought to isolate the Sefavid state, seizing the Eastern Black Sea coast and part of the territories of the Caucasus (East Armenia, Azerbaijan, Shirvan, Dagestan). In 1592, Ottomans closed the Black Sea to enter all foreign ships.

From the beginning of the XVI century. The Ottoman Empire turned out to be involved in European politics. The main rivals were Portuguese and Spaniards. But the Union of the Ottoman Empire was seen with Protestant countries, as well as with France, fantastic against the Habsburgs.

The Ottoman threat pursued Europe and from the sea, and from Sushi: in the Mediterranean Sea and from the territory of the Balkan. After even crushing victories, when the Sacred Liga of the Ottoman Fleet was destroyed in the battle of Lepanto (1571), the Turks captured Tunisia. According to the results of these campaigns, the Great Vesir Mehmed Sokolu told the Venice Ambassador: "You cut off the beard from Leongato, we are your hand in Tunisia; Beard will grow, hand - never.

Until the middle of the XVI century. Turks were really dangerous to the neighbors of their Balkan territories: Hungary, Czech Republic, Austria. They took Vienna three times in the siege, but could not overcome her. Succent success was control over Hungary. In the future, Ottoman wars in Western Europe wore a local nature and did not change the political map of this region.

4. Internal device and social structure of the Ottoman Empire.

The main socio-political and economic institutions of the Ottoman Empire were in the second half of the XV century, under Mehmeda II (1451 - 1481) and Bayazid II (1481 - 1512). The Board of Suleiman I Canow ("legislator"), or Suleiman Gorgeous (1520 - 1566), as he was called in Europe, is considered the "golden age" of the Ottoman Empire. By this time, she reached the apogee of their military power and the maximum size of the territory.

Usually, during the lifetime, Sultan prescribed his successor to whom the son of any of the Sultan wives could become. Such a direct inheritance from the Father to the Son was maintained in the Ottoman Empire until 1617, when the supreme power became possible to transmit on seniority. Such an inheritance procedure was a constant threat to family members. The deadly dynasty struggle continued until the beginning of the XIX century. So, Mehmed III (1595 - 1603), having come to power, executed 19 of his brothers and ordered the 7 pregnant women of Ottoman princes in the Bosphorus.

In the XVI century In the Sultanian family, it was accepted, according to the Saljuksky custom, send the sons that have reached 12 years, in remote provinces. Here they organized the control of the metropolitan pattern. Mehmed III laid the beginning of another practice. He kept his sons in isolation in a special room of the palace. These conditions did not contribute to the preparation of the rulers of a huge empire.

A prominent role at the court of Sultan had a harem. Sultan-mother reigned in it. She discussed with the Great Vezir and the Main Mufti state affairs.

Great Vezir was appointed by Sultan. He led on behalf of the Sultan administrative, financial and military affairs. The agency of the Great Veir was called Bab-and Ali ("Great Gate"), in French La Sublime Porte ("Brilliant Gate"). Russian diplomats have a "brilliant port".

Sheikh-Ul-Islam is a higher Muslim spiritual person to whom Sultan repulted his spiritual power. He had the right to take out "Fetwu", i.e. Special conclusion on the compliance of the government actor Koran and Sharia. As a deliberative body, the Imperial Council - Sofa and Humayun functioned.

The Ottoman Empire had an administrative division on the Eyaleta (provinces), which was headed by Governors - Balerbia (from 1590 - Vali). Beielbey had the title of Vesira and Pasha Title, so Eyelets were often called Pashalyki. The governor was assigned from Istanbul and obeyed the Great Vezir. In each province, the Janachars' corps were located who were also assigned to the commander (AGA) from the Stanbula.

Smaller administrative units were called "Sanjaks" headed by commander - Sanjacbays. With Murad III, the empire consisted of 21 Eyaylet and about 2500 Sanjaks. Sanjaki shared on the counties (Kaza), the counties - on parish (Nakhiya).

The basis of the socio-political structure of the Ottoman Empire was self-governing communities (Taifa), which established in all spheres of professional activities in the city and in the village. At the head of the community stood Sheikh. Cities did not have self or municipal device. They were included in the system of government. The actual head of the city was the Cadi, who was subordinate to the sheikh trade and craft corporations. Cadi regulated and installed the norms of production and sales on all goods.

All sultan subjects were divided into two discharges: military (asceci) - professional warriors, Muslim clergy, state officials; And Removing (Reia) - peasants, artisans, merchants of all religions. The first rank was released from taxation. The second category was paid by the grade, according to Arab-Muslim tradition.

In all parts of the empire there was no fortress dependence. The peasants could freely change the residence, if they had no arrears. The status of elite groups of the Company was supported exclusively by tradition and was not enshrined by law.

In the Ottoman Empire XV - XVI centuries. There was no dominant nationality. The Ottoman state and society had a cosmopolitical nature. Turks as an ethnic community accounted for a minority and did not stand out among other nations of the Empire. Turkish as a means of interethnic communication has not yet developed. Arabic was the language of the Holy Scriptures, science and proceedings. Slavic served as a conversational language of the yard and the Janacarian troops. In Greek, the stanges and residents of the former Byzantine cities said Greek.

The ruling elite, the army, the administration was multinational. Most Vezirov and other administrators came from Greeks, Slavs or Albanians. From the Slavic-speaking Muslims consisted of the backbone of the Ottoman army. Thus, the unity of Ottoman society as a holistic system was supported exclusively Islam.

Millets are the religious and political autonomy of an injecting population. By the XVI century. Three Millet formed: Rum (Orthodox); Yahudi (Jews); Ermena (Armenian Gregorian, etc.). All the Milesi recognized the Sultan's Supreme Power, they paid the pitchfork. At the same time, they used complete freedom of cult and independence in solving their community affairs. At the head of Millet stood Millet-Bashi .. He was approved by Sultan and was a member of the Imperial Council.

However, in fact, non-Muslim Sultan's Nomulmianship were incurred. They paid more taxes, were not accepted for military service and did not occupy administrative posts, and their evidence in court was not taken into account.

The TiMarny system has developed in the conditions of a special form of land tenure, according to which all land and water resources were considered the property of "intelligence", that is, all Muslims. There was a very slightly private property or "Mulk". The main type of ownership of land was state.

Government employees, the military received Timars - inalienable land holdings, first with the right of transmission by inheritance. Not the land itself complained, but the right to part of income from it.

Timars differed in terms of income. Once every 30-40 years in the Empire, a census was made of all land holders. This census was a cadastre (deftern) for each Sanjaku. The defatern and the eve of the tax rates were tightly fixed, over which it was forbidden to take payments from the peasants.

In the XVI century The distribution of Timarov acquired a strictly centralized order. Based on the distribution of Timarov, the soldiers of the sipa were kept. From the end of the XV century. This army began to push the warriors of the slave state (kapacku), which contained a government account. Warriors - slaves were gained in the Slavic regions aged 9-14 years. They were drawn to Islam and specially prepared for military and civil service. Such infantry in the Ottoman army was called Janachara (from the tour. Yeni Chery - "New Army"). They lived according to the Charter of the Dervish Order "Bektashi". Over time, they became a closed military corporation - Guard Sultan.

Literature

Vasilyev L.S. History of Religions of the East: 7th ed. Spread. and add. - M., 2004.

Gasparyan Yu.A., Oreshkova S.F., Petrosyan Yu.A. Essays of the history of Turkey. - M., 1983.

Eremeev D.E. At the junction of Asia and Europe: essays about Turkey and the Turks. - M.: Science, 1980.

Konovalova I.G. Medieval East: studies. Manual for universities / wounds, GUGN, Scientific and educational center on history. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2008.

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Smirnov V.E. Mamluk institutions as an element of the military administrative and political structure of the Ottoman Egypt // Odyssey. - M., 2004.

The content of the article

Ottoman (Ottoman) Empire.This empire was created by Turkic tribes in Anatolia and existed from the era of the sunset of the Byzantine Empire in the 14th century. Up to the formation of the Turkish Republic in 1922. Its name occurred on behalf of Sultan Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman Dynasty. The influence of the Ottoman Empire in the region began to gradually win from the 17th century, it finally broke down after the defeat in the First World War.

Elevation of Ottomans.

The modern Turkish Republic leads its origin from one of the Baylikov Gazi. The creator of the future mighty power, Osman (1259-1324 / 1326), inherited from his father Ertogrula a small border distance (UDG) of the Seljuk state in the southeastern border of Byzantium, not far from Eskisehir. Osman became the founder of a new dynasty, and the state received his name and entered the story as the Ottoman Empire.

In the last years of Ottoman power, a legend appeared, which staining that Ertogrul and his tribe came from Central Asia just in time to have time to save Seljuks in their battle with Mongols, and their Western lands received as a reward. However, modern studies do not confirm this legend. Ertogrull his fleet was donated by the Seljuki, which he swore and paid tribute, like Mongolian Khanam. So under the Osman and his Son until 1335. It is likely that neither Osman nor his father was Gazi until Osman fell under the influence of one of the dervish orders. In the 1280s, Osman managed to capture the bialysis, annoy and eskisehir.

At the very beginning of the 14th century. Osman, together with his Gazi, attached to his land of the Earth, Stranded up to the coasts of the Black and Marble Seas, as well as most of the territory to the west of R. Sakarya, right up to Kutayja in the south. After the death of Osman, his son Orhan took the fortified Byzantine city of Bruus. Bursa, as the Ottoman called him, became the capital of the Ottoman state and remained it for more than 100 years until they were taken by Constantinople. Almost for one decade, Byzantium lost almost all small Asia, and such historical cities like Nikia and Nicomedia, got the names of the isp and Izmit. Osmanas subordinate to themselves Baili Karey in Bergama (former Pergami), and Gazi Orhan became the ruler of the entire North-West part of Anatoly: from the Aegean Sea and the Praolid of Dardanelles to the Black Sea and the Bosphorus Strait.

Conquest in Europe.

The formation of the Ottoman Empire.

In the period between the seizure of Bursa and the victory in the Kosovo field, organizational structures and the management of the Ottoman Empire were quite effective, and at this time many features of the future of a huge state were identified. Orhans and Murad did not interest whether newly arrived by Muslims, Christians or Jews, whether they were the Arabs, Greeks, Serbs, Albanians, Italians, Iranians or Tatars. The state system of government was built on the combination of Arab, Seljuk and Byzantine customs and traditions. At the captured lands, Ottomans tried to preserve how much it was possible, local customs, not to destroy the established public relations.

In all newly attached regions, military leaders immediately allocated in the award of valiant and decent soldiers about land valves. The owners of this kind of flax, called Timari, were obliged to manage their lands and from time to time to participate in campaigns and raids for remote areas. From the feudalists, called sipahs, which had a timari, cavalry was formed. Like Gazi, the sipahs performed as Ottoman pioneers on newly conquered territories. Murad I distributed many such lots in Europe from Anatoly, who did not have property, resetting them to the Balkans and turning into feudal military aristocracy.

Another notable event of that time was the creation of Yanychar's Corps in the Army, soldiers who were included in the military units close to Sultan. These soldiers (Turkish. Yeniceri, letters. The new army), called foreigners by Janachars, later began to be brought to the captured boys from Christian families, in particular in the Balkans. Such a practice known as the devmirma system may have been introduced during Murada I, but completely formed only at 15 V. under Murada II; It continuously lasted up to 16 centuries, with breaks up to 17 century. Being on the status of slaves of Sultanov, Janchars were a disciplined regular army consisting of well-trained and armed infantrymen who exceeded combat capability to all similar troops in Europe until the advent of the French Army of Louis XIV.

Conquest and fall of Bayazid I.

Mehmed II and the capture of Constantinople.

The young Sultan received an excellent education at the Palace School and as the Governor of Manisa under the guidance of his father. It was undoubtedly more educated than all other monarchs of the then Europe. After the murder of a minor brother, Mehmed II conducted the reorganization of his yard during the preparation for the seizure of Constantinople. Huge bronze guns were cast and troops are collected for the storming of the city. In 1452, the Ottomans built a huge fort with three majestic intrafasy castles in a narrow part of the Bosphorus Strait approximately 10 km north of the Konstantinople Golden Horn. Thus, Sultan was able to control the shipping on the part of the Black Sea and cut off Konstantinople from the supply of from those who were located norther of Italian trading factories. This fort, called Romel Hisar, along with another fortress Anadolu Hisar, erected by Praded Mehmed II guaranteed a reliable message between Asia and Europe. The most spectacular step of Sultan was the inventive cross part of his fleet from the Bosphorus to the Golden Horn through the hills, bypassing the chain stretched at the entrance to the bay. Thus, guns from Sultan ships could shelter the city from the inner harbor. On May 29, 1453, broach was broken in the wall, and Ottoman soldiers broke into Constantinople. On the third day, Mehmed II had already prayed in Aya Sofia and decided to make Istanbul (so the Ottomans called Constantinople) the capital of the Empire.

Owning such a well-positioned city, Mehmed II controlled the position in the Empire. In 1456, unsuccessfully ended his attempt to take Belgrade. Nevertheless, Serbia and Bosnia became the provinces of the empire soon, and before their death, Sultan managed to join Herzegovina and Albania to his state. Mehmed II seized all Greece, including Peloponnese Pershes, with the exception of several Venetian ports, and the largest islands in the Aegean Sea. In Malaya Asia, he finally managed to overcome the resistance of the Karaman rulers, to master the kilicia, to attach to the Empire Trapezund (Trabzon) on the Black Sea coast and install suzenagate over the Crimea. Sultan recognized the authority of the Greek Orthodox Church and worked closely with the newly elected patriarch. Previously, over the course of two centuries, the population of Constantinople was constantly declining; Mehmed II moved a lot of people from different parts of the country to the new capital and restored traditionally severe crafts and trade in it.

The flourishing of the empire at Suleiman I.

The power of the Ottoman Empire reached its apogee in the middle of the 16th century. The reign period of Suleiman I is excellent (1520-1566) is considered to be the Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman I (Previous Suleiman, Bayazid I Son, never rules for all its territory) surrounded himself with many capable dignitaries. Most of them were scored on the devshirma system or captured during army campaigns and pirate raids, and by 1566, when Suleiman I died, these "new Turks", or "new Ottomans", had already held power in their hands over the entire empire in their hands. They constituted the backbone of the administrative governance bodies, while the highest Muslim institutions were headed by indigenous Turks. The theologians and lawyers were recruited from their environment, whose duties came to interpret laws and execute the judicial functions.

Suleiman I, being the only son of the monarch, never faced with claims on the throne. He was an educated person who loved music, poetry, nature, as well as philosophical discussions. And yet the military forced him to adhere to militant politics. In 1521, the Ottoman army crossed through the Danube and captured Belgrade. This victory, which at one time could not achieve Mehmed II, opened the path to the plains of Hungary and to the Upper Danube pool. In 1526, Suleiman took Budapest and took the entire Hungary. In 1529, Sultan began the siege of the Vienna, but could not seize the city before the onset of winter. Nevertheless, the extensive territory from Istanbul to Vienna and from the Black Sea to the Adriatic Sea formed the European part of the Ottoman Empire, and Suleiman during his Board carried out seven military campaigns on the Western borders of the Power.

Suleiman led the fighting and in the east. The borders of his empire with the Persia were not identified, and the vassal rulers in the border areas changed their owners depending on whose side was power and with whom it was more profitable to enter into an alliance. In 1534, Suleiman took Tabriz, and then Baghdad, including Iraq in the Ottoman Empire; In 1548 he returned Tabriz. The entire 1549 Sultan held in pursuit of Persian Shah Tahmasp I, trying to fight him. At the time, when Suleiman was in Europe in 1553, the Persian troops invaded Maly Asia and captured Erzurum. Exchanged Persians and devoting the majority of 1554 to the East of East of Euphrates, Suleiman, on the official peace treaty concluded with Shah, received a port in the Persian Gulf at his disposal. The Squadgers of the Naval Forces of the Ottoman Empire acted in the water area of \u200b\u200bArabian P-Oov, in the Red Sea and Suez Bay.

From the very beginning of his reign, Suleiman paid great attention to strengthening the sea power of the Power to support the superiority of Ottomans on the Mediterranean Sea. In 1522, his second trip was directed against O. Rhodes lying 19 km from the south-west coast of Malaya Asia. After the capture of the island and the eviction of the Aegean Sea owned by the John, the Aegean Sea and the entire coast of Malaya Asia became Ottoman possessions. Soon the French king Franciscom I turned to Sultan for military assistance in the Mediterranean Sea and with a request to oppose Hungary to stop the promotion of Emperor Charles V, who were coming on Francis in Italy. The most famous of the Flotovodians Suleiman Highlandin Barbarossa, the Supreme Ruler of Algeria and North Africa, devastated the coast of Spain and Italy. Nevertheless, Suleiman's Admirals could not seize Malta in 1565.

Suleiman died in 1566 in Sigtwhare during a hike in Hungary. The body of the last of the Great Ottoman Sultans was transferred to Istanbul and was buried in the mausoleum in the courtyard of the mosque.

Suleiman had a few sons, but his favorite son died at the age of 21, two others were executed on charges of conspiracy, and the only remaining son - Selim II - turned out to be drunkard. A plot that destroyed the Suliman family can be partly attributed to the jealousy of his wife Roxewana, the former girl-slave or Russian, or Polish origin. Another mistake of Suleiman was the exaltation in 1523 his beloved slave Ibrahim, appointed by the chief minister (Great Vizier), although among the applicants there were many other competent courtiers. And although Ibrahim was a capable minister, his appointment broke the long-established system of palace relations and caused envy of other dignitaries.

Mid 16 V. There was a period of flourishing of literature and architecture. In Istanbul, more than a dozen mosques under the guidance and projects of the architect Sinan, the masterpiece became Selimie's mosque in Edirne dedicated to Selim II.

With the new Sultan Selim II, Osmans began to lose their positions on the sea. In 1571, the United Christian Fleet met with Turkish in the battle at Radano and defeated it. During the winter, 1571-1572 shipyards in Helibolu and Istanbul worked without tired, and by spring 1572, thanks to the construction of new warships, the European victory of Europeans was negated. In 1573 it was possible to break up the Venetians, and O. Kipre was attached to the Empire. Despite this, the defeat at Dartan was an omotation for the coming sunset of the power of Ottomans on the Mediterranean.

Sunset of the Empire.

After Selim II, most Sultans of the Ottoman Empire were weak rulers. Murad III, Salim's son, rules from 1574 to 1595. His stay on the throne was accompanied by unrest, who caused Palace slaves led by the Great Vizier Mehmed Sokolki and two harem factions: one headed the mother of Sultan Nur Banu, facing Islam Jewish, and another favorite Safi's wife. The latter was the daughter of the Venetian governor O. Corfin, which the pirates captured and presented it to Suleiman, immediately giving it to his graduate of Murada. However, the empire has even enough forces to move to the East, to the Caspian Sea, as well as to preserve its position in the Caucasus and in Europe.

After the death of Murad III, 20 of his sons remained. Of these, Mehmed III climbed onto the throne, who defeated 19 of his brothers. Inherited to him in 1603 Son Ahmed I tried to reform the system of power and get rid of corruption. He moved away from the cruel tradition and did not kill his brother Mustafa. And although this, of course, was a manifestation of humanism, but since that time all the sultan brothers and their closest relatives from the Ottoman dynasty began to be imprisoned in a special part of the palace, where they spent their lives up to the death of the ruled monarch. Then the eldest of them proclaimed his successor. Thus, after Ahmed I, few of the reigns in 17-18 centuries. Sultanov had a sufficient level of intellectual development or political experience to manage such a huge empire. As a result, the unity of the state and the central government itself began to easily weaken.

Mustafa I, Brother Ahmed I, was the mentally ill and rules only one year. The new Sultan in the 1618 was proclaimed Osman II, the son of Ahmed I. As an enlightened monarch, Osman II tried to transform state structures, but was killed by his opponents in 1622. For a while, the throne again went to Mustafa I, but in 1623 the brother Osman Murad rose to the throne Iv, who led the country up to 1640. His reign was dynamic and resembled the Board of Selim I. Reaching the majority in 1623, Murad spent the next eight years in the tireless attempt to restore and reform the Ottoman Empire. In an effort to heal the state structures, he subjected 10 thousand officials execution. Murad personally stood at the head of his armies during the eastern campaigns, forbade the consumption of coffee, tobacco and alcoholic beverages, but he himself showed weakness to alcohol, which led the young ruler to death at the age of only 28 years.

Murad's successor, his heartless brother Ibrahim, managed to greatly spill the state to him before was lowered in 1648. The six-year-old son of Ibrahim Mehmed IV was planted on the throne of the conspirators and actually led the country to 1656, when Sultan's mother achieved the appointment of a great visionary with unlimited authority Talented Mehmed Kepelulul. He was in this position until 1661, when his son Qosil Ahmed Köprulyul became Vizier.

The Ottoman Empire still managed to overcome the period of chaos, the lair chimples and the crisis of state power. Europe was split by religious wars and thirty-year-old war, and Poland and Russia experienced a vague period. This gave the opportunity to both Kepelu after cleaning the administration, during which 30 thousand officials were executed, to seize in 1669 O. Krit, and in 1676 Podolia and other areas of Ukraine. After the death of Ahmed Kepelul, his place was taken by the urgent and selling palace favorite. In 1683, Osmans were besieged by Vienna, but were broken by the Poles and their allies led by Jan sore.

Care with the Balkans.

The defeat near Vienna was the beginning of the retreat of the Turks in the Balkans. First, Budapest fell, and after the loss of Mojcha, all Hungary fell under the power of Vienna. In 1688, Osmans had to leave Belgrade, in 1689 - Vidin in Bulgaria and Niche in Serbia. After that, Suleiman II (years of government 1687-1691) appointed a great Vizier Mustafa Keppuraul, Brother Ahmed. Osmanas managed to return to themselves Niche and Belgrade, but they were headlong broken by Prince Evgenia Savoy in 1697 under Saint, in the extreme north of Serbia.

Mustafa II (reigning years of 1695-1703) tried to win the lost position, appointing the great Vizier Hussein Kepelulul. In 1699, a Karovitsky peace treaty was signed, according to which Peloponnese and Dalmatia, Austria received Hungary and Transylvania, Poland, and Russia retained Azov to Venice. The Karhitsky world was the first in a series of concessions that the Ottomans were forced to do, leaving Europe.

During the 18th century The Ottoman Empire lost most of its power on the Mediterranean Sea. In the 17th century The main opponents of the Ottoman Empire were Austria and Venice, and in the 18th century. - Austria and Russia.

In 1718 Austria, a number of territories received a number of territories in 1718 in Passarovitsky. Nevertheless, the Ottoman Empire, despite defeats in the wars, which she led in the 1730s, according to the contract signed in 1739 in Belgrade, returned this city to itself, mainly due to the weakness of the Habsburgs and the intrigue of French diplomats.

Citulation.

As a result of the referee maneuvers of French diplomacy in Belgrade, in 1740 a contract was concluded between France and the Ottoman Empire. Named "capitulation", this document for a long time was the basis for special privileges obtained by all states in the territory of the Empire. The formal ongoing arrangements were laid in 1251, when the Mamluk Sultans in Cairo recognized Louis IX Saint, King France. Mehmed II, Bayazid II and Selim I confirmed this agreement and used it as a sample in relations with Venice and other Italian cities-states, Hungary, Austria and most other European countries. One of the most important treaties 1536 between Suleiman I and the French king of Francis I. In accordance with the agreement 1740, the French received the right to move freely and trade on the territory of the Ottoman Empire under the complete defense of Sultan, their products were not taxed, with the exception of import-export fees, The French Messengers and Consuls acquired the judicial authority over compatriots who could not be arrested in the absence of a consulate representative. The French were granted the right to erect and freely use their churches; The same privileges were fixed within the Ottoman Empire and for other Catholics. In addition, the French could take on their defense of Portuguese, Sicilians and citizens of other states who did not have ambassadors at the court of Sultan.

Further decline and attempts of reforms.

The end of the 1763 seven-year war marked the beginning of the new attacks against the Ottoman Empire. Despite the fact that the French king Louis XV sent to Istanbul Baron de Tom Totta to modernize the Sultanian army, Ottomans were defeated from Russia in the Sudenha provinces of Moldova and Valahia and were forced to sign in 1774 Küchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty. Crimea received independence, and Azov went to Russia, which recognized the border with the Ottoman Empire on R. Bug. Sultan promised to ensure the protection of Christians living in His Empire, and allowed the presence of the Russian ambassador in the capital, who received the right to represent the interests of his Christian subjects. Starting from 1774 and up to World War I, the Russian kings referred to Kychuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, justifying their role in the affairs of the Ottoman Empire. In 1779, Russia received the rights to Crimea, and in 1792 the Russian border in accordance with the Nask Peace Treaty was moved to the Dniester.

Time dictated change. Ahmed III (years of government 1703-1730) invited architects who built him palaces and mosque in the style of Versailles, and opened a typography in Istanbul. The nearest relatives of Sultan were no longer kept in strict imprisonment, some of them began to learn the scientific and political heritage of Western Europe. However, Ahmed III was killed by conservatives, and Mahmoud I took his place, in which the Caucasus was lost, which passed to Persia, and continued the retreat in the Balkans. One of the outstanding sultans was Abdul Hamid I. During his rule (1774-1789), reforms were made, French teachers and technical experts were invited to Istanbul. France hoped to save the Ottoman Empire and prevent Russia to the Black Sea Strait and the Mediterranean Sea.

Selim III

(years of reign 1789-1807). Selim III, who became Sultan in 1789, formed the Cabinet of Ministers as part of 12 people by type of European governments, replenished the treasury and created a new military corps. They created new educational institutions designed to educate civil servants in the spirit of the ideas of enlightenment. Printed publications were resolved again, and the works of Western authors began to translate into Turkish.

In the first years of the French revolution, the Ottoman Empire was left by European powers alone with her problems. Napoleon considered Selim as an ally, believing that after the defeat of Mamlukov, Sultan could strengthen his power in Egypt. Nevertheless, Selim III announced the war of France and sent his fleet and the army to protect the province. Savior Turks from defeat only the British fleet, who was in Alexandria and off the shores of Levant. This step of the Ottoman Empire involved it in the military and diplomatic affairs of Europe.

In the meantime, Muhammad Ali, a native of the Macedonian city of Cavala, who served in the Turkish army came to power in Egypt after the French leaves. In 1805, he became the governor of the province, which opened the new chapter in the history of Egypt.

After the conclusion of the Amiena Peace Treaty in 1802, relations with France were restored, and Selim III managed to maintain the world until 1806, when Russia invaded her inventive provinces. England had assisted to his ally of Russia, sent his fleet through Dardanelles, but Selim managed to speed up the restoration of defensive structures, and the British were forced to sail to the Aegean Sea. The victories of the French in Central Europe strengthened the position of the Ottoman Empire, but the rebellion of Selim III began in the capital. In 1807, during the absence of the Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Army in the capital, Sultan was lowered, and his cousin Mustafa IV entered the throne. After the return of Bayraktar in 1808, Mustafa IV executed, but before the rebels strangled in the conclusion of Selim III. Mahmoud II remained the only representative of the male gender from the ruling dynasty.

Mahmoud II.

(years of government 1808-1839). Under it, in 1809, the Ottoman Empire and the United Kingdom concluded the famous Dardanelle world, who opened the Turkish market for British goods on the terms of recognition of the UK closed status of the Black Sea straits for military vessels in peaceful time. Earlier, the Ottoman Empire gave consent to the connection to the continental blockade created by Napoleon, so the agreement was perceived as a violation of previous obligations. Russia began hostilities on the Danube and seized a number of cities in Bulgaria and Valahia. In the Bucharest Treaty of 1812, significant territories were deployed to Russia, and she refused to support the rebels in Serbia. At the Vienna Congress in 1815, the Ottoman Empire was recognized as a European power.

National revolutions in the Ottoman Empire.

During the French revolution, two new problems stood before the country. One of them matured for a long time: as the center was weakened from the Sultan authorities, the separated provinces slipped away. In Epiere, the rebellion raised Ali-Pasha Yaninsky, who ruled the province as a sovereign and supported diplomatic relations with Napoleon and other European monarchs. Similar performances also occurred in Vidin, Sidion (Sovd. Side, Lebanon), Baghdad and other provinces, which undermined the power of Sultan and reduced tax revenues to the imperial treasury. The strongest of the local rulers (Pasha) ultimately became Muhammad Ali in Egypt.

Another difficult problem for the country was the growth of national liberation movement, especially among the Christian population of the Balkan. At the peak of the French revolution, Selim III ranked in 1804 with a uprising, raised by Serbs, led by Karageorgia (George Petrovich). The Vienna Congress (1814-1815) recognized Serbia by a semi-autonomous province as part of the Ottoman Empire, led by Milos Obrenovich, Rival Karageorggy.

Almost immediately after the defeat of the French revolution and the fall of Napoleon, Mahmoud II collided with the Greek national liberation revolution. Mahmoud II had a chance to win, especially after it was possible to convince the nominal Vassal in Egypt Muhammad Ali to send his army and fleet to Istanbul. However, the Armed Forces of Pasha were defeated after the UK intervention, France and Russia. As a result of the breakthrough of Russian troops in the Caucasus and their attack on Istanbul, Mahmud II had to sign in 1829 the Adrianopol peace treaty, according to which the independence of the Kingdom of Greece was recognized. In a few years, the Army Muhammad Ali under the command of his son Ibrahim-Pasha captured Syria and was in dangerous intimacy from Bosphorus in Malaya Asia. I reversed Mahmoud II Only the Russian Maritime Railway, landed on the Asian Bosphorus shore as a warning of Muhammad Ali. After that, Mahmuda never managed to get rid of the Russian influence until he signed in 1833 the humiliating Unincira-Schellesian Agreement, which provided the Russian king the right to "defend" the Sultan, and also to close and discover the Black Sea Straits for the passage of foreign Military vessels.

Ottoman Empire after the Vienna Congress.

The period after the Vienna Congress probably turned out to be the most destructive for the Ottoman Empire. Greece separated; Egypt at Muhammad Ali, which, besides, capturing Syria and South Arabia, became actually independent; Serbia, Valahia and Moldova became semi-autonomous territories. During the Napoleonic Wars, Europe has significantly strengthened its military and industrial power. The weakening of the Ottoman Power is attributed to a certain extent by Mahmud II in 1826, Yanychar's carved.

By concluding the Unconi-Sologie Treaty, Mahmoud II hoped to win time to convert the empire. The reforms held were so tangible that travelers who visited Turkey in the late 1830s noted that over the past 20 years there has been more change in the country than for the previous two centuries. Instead of Yanychar Mahmud created a new army prepared and equipped with a European sample. For the training of officers, the new military arts were hired by Prussian officers. Official clothing of civilian officials were fez and imprisoners. Mahmoud tried to implement the latest methods developed in young European states in all areas of management. It was possible to reorganize the financial system, streamline the activities of the judiciary, improve the road network. Additional educational institutions were created, in particular, military and medical colleges. Newspapers began to be published in Istanbul and Izmir.

In the last year of life, Mahmoud reiterated the war with his Egyptian vassal. The army of Makhmud was broken in Northern Syria, and his fleet in Alexandria moved to the side of Muhammad Ali.

Abdul-Medzhid

(years of government 1839-1861). Mahmoud II, an eldest son and the successor of Mahmud II, Abdul-Medzhida, turned on only 16 years. Without the army and the fleet, he turned out to be helpless before the superior forces of Muhammad Ali. He was saved by diplomatic and military assistance between Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia. France first supported Egypt, but the agreed actions of the European powers made it possible to find an implication of a deadlock: Pasha received the hereditary right to manage Egypt under the nominal suzenagate of the Ottoman Sultanov. This provision was legalized by the London Treaty of 1840 and confirmed by Abdul-Medzhide in 1841. In the same year, the London Convention of the European Power Supply, in which military vessels should not have been held through Dardanelles and Bosphorus in a peaceful time for the Ottoman Empire, and the signed powers took The obligation to contribute to Sultan in the preservation of sovereignty over the Black Sea Straits.

Tanzimat.

During the struggle with his strong vassal, Abdul Medzhid, in 1839, announced Hatt-and Sheriff ("Sacred Decree"), who announced the beginning of reforms in the empire, with which the chief Minister of Route-Pasha came to the highest state dignitaries and invited ambassadors. The document canceled the death penalty without trial, guaranteed justice for all citizens, regardless of their racial or religious affiliation, established a judicial council for the adoption of the new Criminal Code, canceled the sputter system, changed the methods of recruiting the army and limited military service.

It became apparent that the empire was already no longer able to protect himself in the event of a military attack by any of the great European powers. Radia Pasha, who served earlier ambassador in Paris and London, understood that certain steps would be taken, which would show European states that the Ottoman Empire is capable of self-deforming and managed, i.e. Deserves preservation as an independent state. Hatt and Sheriff seemed to be a response to European doubts. However, in 1841, the sentence was removed from office. In the next few years, his reforms were suspended, and only after his return to power in 1845, they again began to be implemented with the support of the British ambassador of Stratford Kanning. This period in the history of the Ottoman Empire, known as Tanzimat ("Streamlining"), included the reorganization of the management system and the transformation of the Company in accordance with the ancient Muslim and Ottoman principles of tolerance. At the same time, education developed, the network of schools, sons of famous families began to be trained in Europe. Many Osmans began to lead the western lifestyle. The number of newspapers published, books and magazines increased, and the younger generation professed new European ideals.

At the same time, foreign trade was growing rapidly, but the influx of European industrial products has adversely affected the finances and the economy of the Ottoman Empire. Imports of British factory fabrics destroyed handicraft textile production and ran out gold and silver from the state. Another blow to the housework was the signing in 1838 the Ballet Liman Trade Convention, which imported duties on goods imported into the empire were frozen at 5%. This meant that foreign merchants could act in the empire on equal footing with local merchants. As a result, most of the trade in the country turned out to be in the hands of foreigners, which, in accordance with the "capitulations", were exempt from control by officials.

Crimean War.

The London Convention 1841 canceled the special privileges that the Russian emperor Nicholas I received on a secret application to the Unincira-Iskelian Treaty 1833. Referring to Kychuk-Kainardzhi Treaty 1774, Nikolai I began an offensive in the Balkans and demanded special status and rights for Russian monks in holy places in Jerusalem and Palestine. After the refusal of Sultan Abdul-Medzhid, the Crimean War began to satisfy these requirements. The United Kingdom, France and Sardinia came to the aid of the Ottoman Empire. Istanbul became an advanced basis for the preparation of hostilities in the Crimea, and the influx of European sailors, army officers and civil officials left an indelible mark on Ottoman society. Paris Agreement 1856, completing this war, declared the Black Sea with a neutral zone. European powers again recognized Turkish sovereignty over the Black Sea Straits, and the Ottoman Empire was adopted in the Union of European States. Romania gained independence.

Bankruptcy of the Ottoman Empire.

After the Crimean War, Sultans began to occupy money from Western bankers. In 1854, almost no external debt had no external debt, the Ottoman government was very rapidly bankrupt, and already in 1875 Sultan Abdul-Aziz had to be European Bondholders almost one billion dollars in foreign currency.

In 1875, the Great Vizier stated that the country is no longer able to pay interest on debts. Noisy protests and pressure from the European powers forced the Ottoman authorities to increase taxes in the provinces. In Bosnia, Herzegovina, Macedonia and Bulgaria began excitement. The government sent troops for the "pacification" of the rebels, during which unprecedented cruelty was manifested, struck Europeans. In response, Russia sent volunteers to help the Balkan Slavs. At this time, the country arises the secret revolutionary society of "New Osmans", who advocated constitutional reforms in their homeland.

In 1876, Abdul-Aziz, who has changed his brother Abdul-Medzhid in 1861, was lowered for the incompetence of Midhat-Pasha and Avni Pasha, heads of the liberal organization of constitutionalists. On the throne, they planted Murad V, the eldest son Abdul-Medzhid, who turned out to be the mentally ill and in just a few months was dismissed, and Abdul Hamid II was built on the throne, another son Abdul-Medzhida.

Abdul Hamid II

(years of government 1876-1909). Abdul Hamid II visited Europe, and many tied great hopes with him to liberal constitutional regime. However, at the time of his entry into the throne, Turkish influence on the Balkans was in danger, despite the fact that the Ottoman troops managed to defeat the Bosnian and Serbian rebels. Such a development of events forced Russia to speak with the threat of open intervention, against which Austria-Hungary and the United Kingdom expressed sharply. In December 1876, the conference of ambassadors was convened in Istanbul, at which Abdul-Hamid II announced the introduction of the Constitution of the Ottoman Empire, which provided for the creation of a selection parliament responsible for the government and other attributes of European constitutional monarchies. However, the cruel suppression of the uprising in Bulgaria nevertheless led in 1877 to the war with Russia. In this regard, Abdul-Hamid II suspended the effect of the Constitution for the period of war. Such a situation was maintained up to the young-standing revolution 1908.

In the meantime, at the front, the military situation was in favor of Russia, whose troops had already stood a camp under the walls of Istanbul. The UK managed to prevent the capture of the city, sending the fleet to the Marmara Sea and presenting to St. Petersburg an ultimatum demanding to stop hostilities. Initially, Russia imposed Sultan an extremely unprofitable San Stefan agreement, according to which most of the European owners of the Ottoman Empire became part of the new autonomous education - Bulgaria. Austria-Hungary and the United Kingdom were against the terms of the contract. All this prompted the German Chancellor Bismark convene in 1878 Berlin Congress, on which the size of Bulgaria was reduced, but the complete independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania was recognized. Cyprus departed to the UK, and Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary. Russia received the fortresses Ardachan, Kars and Batum (Batumi) in the Caucasus; To regulate shipping on the Danube, a commission was created from representatives of the Sudenha states, and the Black Sea and Black Sea Straits again received the status provided for by the Paris Agreement 1856. Sultan promised to equally manage all his subjects, and European powers considered that the Berlin Congress had permitted a difficult eastern problem.

During the 32-year-old reign of Abdul-Hamid II, the Constitution actually did not actually entered into force. One of the most important unresolved issues was the bankruptcy of the state. In 1881, under foreign control, the Office of Ottoman public debt was created, which was responsible for payments on European bonds. For several years, confidence in the financial stability of the Ottoman Empire was restored, which contributed to the participation of foreign capital in the construction of such major objects as Anatolian Railway, having connected Istanbul with Baghdad.

Young-bearing revolution.

During these years, national uprisings occurred in Crete and in Macedonia. In Crete, bloody clashes took place in 1896 and 1897, which led to the War of the Empire with Greece in 1897. After 30 days, European powers intervened to save Athens from the seizure of the Ottoman army. Public opinion in Macedonia was leaning either to independence, or to the Union with Bulgaria.

It became obvious that the future of Power is associated with the youngsters. The ideas of national lift were promoted by some journalists, the most talented of whom was Namik Kemal. This movement Abdul Hamid tried to suppress the arrests, references and executions. At the same time, secret Turkish societies flourished in military headquarters in the country and in such remote places as Paris, Geneva and Cairo. The most effective organization was the Secret Committee "Union and Progress", which created "Young Turks".

In 1908, the troops posted in Macedonia rebelled and demanded the implementation of the Constitution 1876. Abdul Hamid was forced to agree with this without being able to apply force. Parliament elections were followed and the formation of the government from the ministers responsible before this legislative body. In April 1909, the counter-revolutionary insurgency broke out in Istanbul, which, however, was quickly suppressed by the armed parts from Macedonia. Abdul Hamid was lowered and sent to exile, where he died in 1918. Sultan was proclaimed his brother Mehmed V.

Balkan wars.

Soon the government of the Young Turks collided with internal partitions and new territorial losses in Europe. In 1908, in the investigation of the revolution of Bulgaria, which occurred in the Ottoman Empire, proclaimed its independence, and Austria-Hungary reflected Bosnia and Herzegovina. Young Turks were powerless to prevent these events, and in 1911 were drawn into conflict with Italy, who invaded the territory of modern Libya. The war ended in 1912 by the fact that the provinces of Tripoli and Kerenaic became an Italian colony. In early 1912, Crete united with Greece, and later in the same year, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria began the first Balkan war directed against the Ottoman Empire.

For several weeks, Ottomans lost all their possessions in Europe, with the exception of Istanbul, Edirne and Janin in Greece and Scunt (Sovk. Shkoder) in Albania. The great European powers concernedly observed how the balance of forces in the Balkans was destroyed, demanded to stop hostilities and hold a conference. Young Turks refused to pass the city, and in February 1913 battles resumed. For a few weeks, the Ottoman Empire fully lost its European possessions, with the exception of the Istanbul zone and strait. Young Turks were forced to go on a truce and formally refuse already lost lands. However, the winners immediately began a civil war. Osmans entered the collision with Bulgaria to return Edirne and European regions adjacent to Istanbul. The Second Balkan War ended in August 1913 by the signing of the Bucharest Treaty, but a year later, the First World War broke out.

World War II and the end of the Ottoman Empire.

The development of events after 1908 weakened the government of the young and isolated politically. It tried to correct this position, offering alliances to the stronger European powers. August 2, 1914, shortly after the start of the war in Europe, the Ottoman Empire concluded a secret alliance with Germany. From the Turkish side in the negotiations, the properly configured Enver Pasha, a lead member of the triumvirata of young and military minister participated in the negotiations. A few days later, the two German cruisers "Gheben" and "Breslau" were hiding in the straits. The Ottoman Empire acquired these warships, in October held them in the Black Sea and shelled Russian ports, declare war on Antante.

In winter, 1914-1915, the Ottoman army suffered huge losses when Russian troops entered Armenia. Fearing that local residents will perform on their side, the government authorized a violence over the Armenian population in Eastern Anatolia, which many researchers were subsequently called the Armenian Genocide. Thousands of Armenians were deported to Syria. In 1916, an end to the Ottoman rule in Arabia came: the uprising was raised supported by Entente Sheriff Mecca Hussein Ibn Ali. As a result of these events, the Ottoman government was finally collapsed, although Turkish troops in German support made a number of important victories: in 1915 it was possible to repel the attack of the Anttanta to the Strait of Dardanelles, and in 1916 it was captured by the British Corps and to stop the promotion of Russians in the East. During the war, the capitulation regime was canceled and customs tariffs were improved to protect domestic trade. The Turks went through the business of the exiled national minorities, which helped create the kernel of the new Turkish trade and industrial class. In 1918, when the Germans were withdrawn for the defense of the Hindenburg line, the Ottoman Empire began to endure defeats. On October 30, 1918, Turkish and British representatives concluded a truce, according to which the Entente received the right to "occupy any strategic points" of the empire and control the Black Sea Straits.

Disintegration of the Empire.

The fate of most provinces of the Ottoman Power was determined in the secret agreements of the Entente during the war. The Sultanate agreed to the separation of areas with predominantly non-Nuechurek. Istanbul was occupied by the forces that had their own zones of responsibility. Russia was promised to the Black Sea Straits, including Istanbul, but the October Revolution led to the revocation of these agreements. In 1918, Mehmed V died, and his brother Mehmed VI came to the throne, who, although he retained the government in Istanbul, but in reality he was dependent on the allied occupation forces. There were problems in the inner regions of the country, far from the locations of the dislocation of the Ants and the power institutions submitted to the Sultan. The detachments of the Ottoman army, who walked over the extensive outskirts of the empire, refused to fold the weapon. British, French and Italian military contingents occupied various parts of Turkey. With the support of the fleet of the Entente in May 1919, the Greek armed connections landed in Izmir and began promoting minor Asia to take protection of the Greeks in Western Anatolia. Finally, in August 1920, the Severian peace treaty was signed. No area of \u200b\u200bthe Ottoman Empire remained free from foreign supervision. To control the Black Sea Strait and Istanbul, the International Commission was established. After at the beginning of 1920, excitement occurred as a result of the growth of national sentiment, British troops were included in Istanbul.

Mustafa Kemal and Lausanne Mirny Treaty.

In the spring of 1920 Mustafa Kemal, the most fortunate Ottoman warlord of the period of war, convened in Ankara the Grand National Assembly. He arrived from Istanbul to Anatoly on May 19, 1919 (the date on which the counts of the Turkish national liberation struggle began), where he combined the patriotic forces around him who sought to preserve the Turkish statehood and independence of the Turkish nation. From 1920 to 1922, Kemal and his supporters defeated enemy armies in the East, the south and west and concluded peace with Russia, France and Italy. In late August 1922, the Greek army in disarray retreated to Izmir and in coastal areas. Then, Kemal's squads headed for the Black Sea Strait, where British troops were located. After the UK Parliament refused to support the proposal to start hostilities, the English Prime Minister Lloyd George resigned, and the war was prevented by signing a truce in the Turkish city of Mudania. The British government suggested Sultan and Kumalia to send its representatives to the Peace Conference, which opened in Lausanne (Switzerland) on November 21, 1922. However, the Sultanat's Great National Assembly in Ankara, and Mehmed VI, the last Ottoman monarch, left Istanbul at the British warship on November 17.

On July 24, 1923, the Lausanian Agreement was signed, according to which the complete independence of Turkey was recognized. The Office of the Ottoman public debt and surrender was abolished, foreign control over the country was abolished. At the same time, Turkey agreed to demilitarize the Black Sea Straits. The province of Mosul with its oil fields, departed to Iraq. The exchange of the population with Greece was scheduled, from which the Greeks who lived in Istanbul and Westfracian Turks were expelled. On October 6, 1923, British troops left Istanbul, and on October 29, 1923 Turkey was proclaimed by the Republic, and Mustafa Kemal was elected her first president.



The education system in the Ottoman Empire has developed gradually and transformed over time, changing together with the Ottoman society. The first madrasa was built in the hatch still Orhahan Gazi. The traditional education system included Mecteps (elementary schools) and the madrasa (analogue of a higher educational institution), which were located in mosques. For the establishment of a system of the Madrasa, an important aspect was the creation of Sultan Mehmed by Fatih Sakhn-I-Sedan (eight madrasa) in 1463-1471 and the construction of a network of Madrasa Suleymaniy by Sultan Suleiman Canow in 1550-1557. The main part of the future officials and administrators of the empire was trained in them. Madrasa was preparing not only managers, but also specialists in different fields of knowledge, such as doctors and architects. Graduates of these madrasas after graduation usually maintained the relationship between themselves and helped each other.

This system existed until the 19th century was subjected to a fundamental reform when, during the numerous transformations conducted by the Sultans, it was tried to remake on European samples in order to establish training of specialists, primarily in technical specialties. It all started with the reforms of Sultan Mahmoud II, who dispersed the Jancharian corps and tried to create an army on a European model, for which he needed European educated officers. He left the untouched by the media system, but he made it possible to graduates of primary mektebov schools to enter technical educational institutions belonging to the military department.

Two such schools were discovered in the mosques of Suleyimania and Sultanahmet. Three more schools were open to the preparation of civilian officials who had to work on the reformed government.

Sultan also supported the previously existing technical educational institutions - naval and military engineering schools. In addition, he sent for training to Europe with the hopes of young people who, upon return, had to take the vacancies of teachers in reformed educational institutions. Moreover, Sultan instructed them the translation of European technical terms to Ottoman. A medical school was also established, teaching in which was conducted in French and on European textbooks, due to the lack of educational materials in Ottoman.

Graduates of European - German and French educational institutions have prepared the era of reforms of the Ottoman Empire -Tanzimat, which was declared the corresponding decree of Sultan in 1839 and during which the ministries were formed on the European manner, including the Ministry of Education (1847).

However, the reform of education was complicated by the fact that in the country there were several education systems at the same time: traditional (Mecteps and Madrasa), educational institutions arising in the course of reforms and schools on the content of religious minorities that had their own programs, mainly confessional learning And in which the Ottoman state did not interfere.

New changes The education system in the Ottoman Empire was subjected to Sultan Abdulhamide II during the reform of 1879, and since 1883 a special tax on the maintenance of educational institutions began to be charged. Unfortunately, this was not enough to ensure that graduates of primary schools are to ensure higher education.

The system of the Madrasa gradually came into decline. This was laid back in 1826, when the Ministry of Imperial Vacuishes was created - Euchef-and-Humayun ineverance was created and all the VACFs were transferred to his disposal, the income from which were mainly the madrasa throughout the country.

The case was also complicated by the fact that the most primary schools were 4390, it was in the Orthodox Greeks that did not have enough to owned the state Turkish. The situation partly corrected the efforts of district training committees who sent the Turkish language teachers to these schools who received salary from the Ministry of Education.

In the 1880s, the creation of a lyceum network in Anatoly and secondary schools throughout the Empire was completed.

In addition, there was a so-called room of the Lesius - founded in 1454 by the permission of Sultan Mehmed Fatiha Private School, which was still called the Patriarchal Academy, in which representatives of the Greek Orthodox community were studied.

For their part, Armenians who had only elementary schools who had previously had in 1860s, by decision of their patriarch Nerses Varabetyan in 1886 created Ermen Lisy.

At the same time, Turkish began to turn into an extended language. Greek-Turkish and Armenian-Turkish dictionaries were created.

Graduates of non-Samulman schools were given the opportunity to receive education in the highest educational institutions of the Ottoman Empire.

Alumni-non-Muslims of Ottoman universities replenished the ranks of the imperial bureaucracy. They took leadership posts and in states formed as a result of disintegration and further decay of the empire.

The result of the development of the education system was, including the emergence of a westernized intelligentsia, which stacked the opposition of state power and required more and more radical reforms and shifts of the form of a state device with absolutely monarchical to constitutional. It was graduates, first of all, military educational institutions stood at the origins of the Young Orthodox revolution and the further collapse of the Ottoman state.

Ildar Muhamedzhanov

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Becoming the ruler of the mountainous region, Osman in 1289 received the title of Bay from the Sultan Sultan. Having come to power, Osman immediately went to conquer the Byzantine lands and the first captured Byzantine town of Mellangia made his residence.

Osman was born in a small mountain location of the Saljuk Sultanate. Osman's father, Ertogrull, got the neighboring with the Byzantine Earth from Sultan Ala-Ad-Dina. The Turkic tribe to which Osman belonged to Osman, considered the sacred business seizure of neighboring territories.

After the escape of the overseas Sultan Sultan in 1299, Osman created an independent state based on his own beylike. For the first years of the XIV century. The founder of the Ottoman Empire managed to significantly expand the territory of the new state and postponed his rate in the city-fortress epishehir. Immediately after that, the Ottoman army began to make raids on Byzantine cities located on the Black Sea coast, and the Byzantine regions in the Dardanella Strait area.

He continued the Ottoman dynasty of the son of Osman Orhan, who began his military career with a successful taking of bursa, a powerful fortress in Malaya Asia. Orhahan announced a prosperous fortified city by the capital of the state and ordered to begin the chasing of the first coin of the Ottoman Empire - silver accuma. In 1337, the Turks won several brilliant victories and occupied the territory to Bosphorus, making the state conquered by the initial shipyard of the state. At the same time, Orhan attached neighboring Turkish lands, and under his dominion by 1354, the North-Western part of Malaya Asia to the eastern shores of the Dardanella Strait, part of his European coast, including the city of Galliopol, and Ankara, washed down by Mongols.

The son of Orhan Murad I became the third ruler of the Ottoman Empire, which added to her possessions of the territory near Ankara and the military campaign to Europe.

Murad was the first Sultan of the Ottoman dynasty and a real advocateman of Muslim. The cities of the country began to build the first in the Turkish school history.

After the first victories in Europe (the conquest of Thrace and Plovdiv) on the European coast, the flow of Turkic settlers was hung.

Sultans bonded decrees - firms by their own imperial monogram - Tugra. A complex oriental pattern included the name of Sultan, the name of his father, the title, the motto and the epithet "always victorious".

New conquest

Muradi pay great attention to improving and strengthening the army. For the first time in history, a professional army was created. In 1336, the ruler formed the Yanychar Corps, which later turned into the personal guard of Sultan. In addition to Janacram, an equestrian army of sipakhov was created, and as a result of these indigenous changes, the Turkish army became not only numerous, but also unusually disciplined and powerful.

In 1371, on the Marice River, the Turks broke the United Army of South European states and captured Bulgaria and part of Serbia.

The next brilliant victory was won by the Turks in 1389, when Yanychars first took the firearms for the first time. In that year, a historic battle on the cosse field was left when, defeating the Crusaders, the Omman Turks attached a significant part of the Balkans to their lands.

The son of Murada Bayazid continued in everything to the politics of his father, but unlike him was distinguished by cruelty and indulged in debauchery. Baiazid tried to defeat Serbia and turned it into the Vassal of the Ottoman Empire, becoming a full-awake owner in the Balkans.

For the rapid movement of the army and the energetic actions, Sultan Bayazid received the nickname Ilderim (zipper). During the lightning hike in 1389-1390. He subjugated Anatoly, after which the Turks seized almost the entire territory of Malaya Asia.

Bayazid had to fight simultaneously on two fronts - with Byzantines and Crusaders. On September 25, 1396, the Turkish army defeated the huge army of the Crusaders, having received all the Bulgarian lands into submission. On the side of the Turks, according to the description of contemporaries, more than 100,000 people fought. Many noble europeans crusaders captured, later they were bought for huge money. In the capital of Ottoman Sultan, the caravans of the coagulled animals with the gifts of Emperor Charles Vi French were reached: gold and silver coins, silk fabrics, carpets from Arras with paintings out of their lives from Alexander Macedonian, hunting falcon from Norway and many others. True, the Bayazid did not perform further trips to Europe, abstracted by the eastern danger from the Mongols.

After the unsuccessful siege of Constantinople in 1400, the Turks had to fight the Tatar army of Timur. On July 25, 1402, one of the greatest battles of the Middle Ages occurred, during which the Army of Turks met under Ankara (about 150,000 people) and the Army of Tatars (about 200,000). The Timur Army, besides well-trained warriors, had in service with more than 30 combat elephants - a rather powerful weapon at the occurrence. Yanychars, showing extraordinary courage and strength, were still broken, and Bayazid captured. Timur's army plundered the entire Ottoman Empire, destroyed or captured thousands of people, burned the most beautiful cities and towns.

Muhammad I ruled the Empire from 1413 to 1421 throughout his reign Muhammad consisted of Byzantium in good relationship, turning his focus on the situation in Malaya Asia and having completed the first trip in the history of the Turks to Venice, ended in failure.

Murad II, the son of Muhammad I, ascended the throne in 1421. It was a fair and energetic ruler, which has long been making the development of arts and urban planning. Murad, cope with the inner straightenings, made a good trip, mastering the Byzantine city of Fessonalonik. The battles of the Turks against the Serbian, Hungarian and Albanian armies were no less successful. In 1448, after the victory of Murad over the United Army of Crusaders, the fate of all the peoples of the Balkans was predetermined - Turkish dominion was hung over several centuries.

Before the beginning of the historical battle in 1448, between the United European Army and Turks through the ranks of the Ottoman troops was carried at the tip of a spear of a diploma with a traffic agreement, violated once again. Thus, the Ottomans showed that peace treaties do not interest them - only battles and only an offensive.

From 1444 to 1446, the Empire of Rules Turkish Sultan Muhammad II, Son Murad II.

The Board of this Sultan for 30 years has turned the power to the world empire. Starting the Board with the traditional execution of relatives, potentially applicants to the throne, the ambitious young man showed its strength. Muhammad, who received a nickname conqueror, became a tough and even cruel ruler, but at the same time had an excellent education and owned four languages. Sultan invited scientists and poets from Greece and Italy to his yard, a lot of funds allocated for the construction of new buildings and the development of art. The main task of Sultan put the conquest of Constantinople, while it was very detailed to its implementation. Intect the Byzantine capital in March 1452, the fortress of Rumelichisar was laid, in which the newest guns installed and placed a strong garrison.

As a result, Constantinople turned out to be cut off from the Black Sea region, with whom trade was associated. In the spring of 1453, a huge land army of Turks and a powerful fleet approached the Byzantine capital. The first assault of the city was not crowned with success, but Sultan ordered not to retreat and organize the preparation of a new assault. After dragging to the Konstantinople bay on the flooring specially built over the iron barrier chains, the city was in the ring of Turkish troops. The battles were daily, but the Greek defenders of the city showed samples of courage and perseverance.

The siege was not a strong place of the Ottoman army, and the Turks won only due to the thorough environment of the city, the numerical handle of the forces approximately 3.5 times and due to the presence of siege guns, cannons and powerful mortar with nuclei weighing 30 kg. Before the main storming of Constantinople, Muhammad suggested to surrender to the residents, promising to spare them, but they, to his huge amazement, refused.

The general assault was started on May 29, 1453, and the choice of Yanychars, with the support of artillery, broke into the gate of Constantinople. 3 days of the Turks robbed the city and killed Christians, and the temple of Saint Sophia was subsequently turned into a mosque. Turkey has become a real global power, proclaiming the oldest city with its capital.

In the following years, Muhammad made his province conquered by Serbia, conquered Moldova, Bosnia, a little later - Albania and captured all Greece. At the same time, Turkish Sultan conquered extensive territories in Malaya Asia and became the ruler of the entire Majual Peninsula. But he did not stop at that: in 1475, the Turks captured many Crimean cities and the city of Tana at the mouth of the Don on the Azov Sea. Crimean Khan officially recognized the power of the Ottoman Empire. Following this, the territory of Sefavoid Iran was conquered, and in 1516 Sultan, Egypt and Hijaz and Medina and Mecca were under the rule of Sultan.

At the beginning of the XVI century. The conquering campaigns of the empire were directed east, south and west. In the east, Selim I Grozny won a victory over Sefvids and joined the eastern part of Anatoly and Azerbaijan to his state. In the south, Osmans supputed militant Mamlukov and took control of trade routes along the coast of the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean, in North Africa reached Morocco. In the West, Suleiman is great in the 1520s. captured Belgrade, Rhodes, Hungarian lands.

At the peak of power

The Ottoman Empire joined the highest heyday stage at the very end of the XV century. With Sultan Selima I and his successor to Suleiman, which achieved a significant expansion of the territories and established a reliable centralized management of the country. The time of the Board of Suleiman entered the story as the "golden age" of the Ottoman Empire.

Starting from the first years of the XVI century, the Turk's empire has become the most powerful power of the old world. Contemporaries who visited the Empire lands, in their notes and memories with delight described wealth and luxury of this country.

Suleiman Gorgeous
Sultan Suleiman is the legendary ruler of the Ottoman Empire. During his reign (1520-1566), a huge power has become even more, the city is more beautiful, the palaces are luxurious. In the history of Suleiman (Fig. 9), he also entered the nickname legislator.

Becoming Sultan in 25 years, Suleiman significantly expanded the borders of the state, capturing Rhodes in 1522, in 1534 - Mesopotamia, in 1541 Hungary.

The ruler of the Ottoman Empire was traditionally called the Sultan, the title of Arabic origin. It is considered the right to use such terms as "Shah", "Padishai", "Khan", "Caesar", which came from different peoples that were under the rule of the Turks.

Suleiman contributed to the cultural prosperity of the country, with it in many cities of the empire, beautiful mosques were built, luxury palaces. The famous emperor was a good poet, leaving his writings under the pseudonym Muhibby (in love with God "). During the reign of Suleiman in Baghdad, there lived and worked the wonderful Turkish poet of Fizuli, who wrote the poem "Leila and Medezhun". The nickname of Sultan among the poets was served at the court of Suleiman Mahmoud Abd Al-Baki, who reflected in his poems the life of the senior society of the state.

Sultan concluded a legitimate marriage with the legendary rokcolanic, nicknamed, one of the slaves of Slavic origin in the harem. Such an act was at the time and according to the Sharia with an exceptional phenomenon. Roksolana gave birth to Sultan heir, the future of Emperor Suleiman II and a lot of time dedicted to patronage. The great influence of the Sultan's spouse possessed him and in the affairs of diplomatic, especially in relations with Western countries.

In order to leave about himself a memory in Stone, Suleiman invited the famous architect Sinana to create mosques in Istanbul. The approximate emperors also erected large religious structures with the help of the famous architect, as a result of which the capital was noticeably changed.

Harema
Garema with several wives and concubines allowed by Islam, only wealthy people could afford. Sultan games became an integral part of the empire, its business card.

Harames, except Sultanov, possessed Viziri, Bai, Emirs. The overwhelming majority of the population of the empire had one wife, as it should be in the whole Christian world. Islam officially allowed Muslim to have four wives and several slaves.

The Sultan Garem, which threatened many legends and legends, was actually a complex organization with strict internal orders. Managed this system Mother Sultan, Valida Sultan. The main assistants were eunuhi and slave. It is clear that the life and power of the authorities of the Sultan's governor depended directly from the fate of her high-ranking son.

In the harem there were girls captured during wars or acquired in slave markets. Regardless of their nationality and religion before entering the harem, all girls became Muslims and were trained traditional for Islam art - embroidery, singing, the ability to talk, music, dancing, literature.

Being in a harem for a long time, its inhabitants passed several steps and ranks. At first they were called Jariy (newbies), then pretty soon they are renamed them to Chagirt (student), over time they became Gedikley (companions) and mouth (craftsmen).

There were in history and isolated cases when Sultan recognized the concubuser with his legitimate wife. It happened more often when the concubine gave birth to the ruler of the long-awaited son-heir. A vivid example is the Suleiman magnificent, married Roksolane.

Only girls who have reached the stage of craftsmen could decline the attention of Sultan. From their number, the ruler chose a permanent mistress, favorite and concubines. Many of the Harem representatives who became mistresses of Sultan were awarded their own housing, jewels and even slaves.

A lawful marriage was not provided for by Sharia, but Sultan chose himself from all the inhabitants of the harem of four wives who were in a privileged position. Of these, the main one who gave birth to Sultan Son.

After the death of Sultan, all his wives and concubines were sent to the old palace, which was outside the city. The new ruler of the state could solve the retired beauties to marry or go to him in the harem.

Ottoman Empire. State education

Sometimes the born of the state of Turk-Ommanov can be considered, of course, conditionally, years of the previously preceding the deaths of the Seljuk Sultanate in 1307. This state emerged in the situation of extreme separatism, which returned to the village of Seldzhukide Rum after the defeat, which his ruler suffered in the battle with Mongols in 1243 G. Bai Aydina, Hermiana, Karaman, Menthesh, Saruhana and a number of other areas of Sultanate turned their lands into independent principalities. Among these principalities, Bayliki Hermians and Karaman were distinguished, whose rulers continued to fight, often successful, against Mongolian dominion. In 1299, the Mongolas had to even recognize the independence of Bailica Hermenyan.

In recent decades of the XIII century. In the north-west Anatolia there was another almost independent bialle. In history, he entered the name of Ottomansky, named the leader of a small Turkic tribal group, the main component of which were nomads of the Oguz tribe of Kaiy.

According to the Turkish historical tradition, part of the Kaiy tribe ran into Anatoly from Central Asia, where Kaiy's leaders were in the service of Khorezm rulers for some time. Initially, Turkic Caya elected the place of the nomads of the Earth in the Karadjadaga area to the west of the present Ankara. Then part of them moved to the districts of Ahlat, Erzurum and Erzindjan, reaching the Amasia and Aleppo (Haleba). Some nomads of the Kaiy tribe found a refuge on fertile lands in the Chukurov area. It is from these places that the small division of Kaya (400-500 tents) led by the ERROGRULA, fleeing from the raids of Mongols, headed for the possession of the Sultan Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I. Ertogrull turned to him for the patronage. Sultan complained ERROGRUULU UDG (the outskirts of the Sultanate region) on the lands captured by Selzhuki by the Byzantines on the border with Viphinia. Ertogrull assumed the obligation to defend the border of the Semjuk state in the territory of the ditch-given to him.

Udzh Ertogrula in the area of \u200b\u200bMelangy (Tour. Karadjahisar) and Sogyut (northwest of Eskisehir) was small. But the ruler was energetic, and his warriors wouldingly participated in raids on the neighboring Byzantine lands. The action of ERROGRULA was facilitated by a lot of the fact that the population of the Border Byzantine regions was extremely displeased by the robber tax policy of Constantinople. As a result, the ERRIOGRULOU managed to slightly increase their DVG due to the border regions of Byzantium. It is difficult, however, to accurately determine the scale of these comprehensive operations, as, however, the initial dimensions of the ERTOGRULA itself, about the life and activity of which there are no reliable data. Turkish chronicles, even early (XIV-XV centuries), outlines many legends associated with the initial period of addition of Beilica Ertogrul. These legends say that Ertogrul lived for a long time: he died aged 90 years in 1281 or, according to another version, in 1288

Information about the life of the Son of Ertogrul, Osman, who gave the name to the future state, is also thoughtlessly legendary. Osman was born about 1258 in Sogyut. This mountain minor area was convenient to nomads: there was a lot of good summer pastures, grabbed and comfortable winter nomads. But, perhaps, the main advantage of Dr. Ertogrul and Ottoman inherited to him was the neighborhood with Byzantine lands, which gave the opportunity to enriched at the expense of raids. This feature attracted representatives of other Turkic tribes that settled in the territories of other confuses to the Ertogrula and Osman detachments, as the conquest of the territories belonged to the Nemusulman states was revered by the Adepts of Islam, the case of sacred. As a result, when in the second half of the XIII century. The rulers of Anatolian Beilikov in search of new possessions fought among themselves, the warriors of Ertogrula and Osman looked like fighters for faith, sinking in search of production and for the purpose of territorial seizures of the land of Byzantine.

After the death of Ertogrul, Osman became ruler. Judging by some sources, there were supporters of the transfer of power to Brother Ertogrula, Dundara, but he did not dare to oppose the nephew, for he saw him supported by the majority. A few years later, a potential opponent was killed.

Osman sent her efforts to conquer the Viphini. The zone of its territorial claims became areas of Bruses (Tour. Bursa), protein (bialysis) and Nicomedia (Izmit). One of the first military sucker was captured in 1291 melangia. This small Byzantine town he made his residence. Since the former population of Melangy was part of the part of the part, and he ran away, hoping to find salvation from Osman's troops, the latter set out his residence from Beilica Hercian and other places of Anatolia. The Christian Temple on Osman was turned into a mosque in which his name began to be mentioned in Hutbach (Friday prayers). According to legends, at about this time, Osman, Osman, made it from the Sultan Sultan without much difficulty, the power of which became completely ghost, the title of Beea, having received the appropriate regalia in the form of a drum and Bunchuk. Soon Osman declared his dj in an independent state, and himself was independent rule. It happened about 1299, when the Sultan Aladedine Camebad II ran out of his capital, fleeing from rebeling subjects. True, becoming almost independent of the Seljuk Sultanate, which nominally existed until 1307, when the last representative of the Dynasty of the Rum Seldzhukide was strangled on the orders of Mongols, Osman recognized the supreme power of the Mongolian dynasty of Hulaghaid and annually sent part of the Dani in their capital, which was collected from the subjects. From this form, the Ottoman Bailik was released during the successor Ottoman, his son Orhans.

In the late XIII - early XIV century. Ottoman Bailik significantly expanded its territory. His ruler continued to raid on the Byzantine lands. The actions against the Byzantines were made to make it easier for his neighbors then still hostility towards the young state. Bailik Hermeniyan fought with Mongols, then with the Byzantines. Baille Carii was just weak. Not disturbed Bailik Osman and rulers located in the north-west Anatoly Beilik Chandar-oglu (Jandarida), because they were mainly engaged in the fight against Mongolian governors. Thus, the Ottoman Bailik could use all his military forces for conquests in the West.

Capturing the District of the Yenishehir in 1301 and building the city-fortress there, Osman began to prepare the capture of Bruses. In the summer of 1302, he broke the troops of the Byzantine governor of Bruses in the battle at Vafee (Tour. Koyunkhisar). It was the first major military battle won by Ottoman Turks. Finally, the Byzantines understood that they deal with a dangerous opponent. However, in 1305, Osman's army was defeated in the Battle of Levka, where the Catalan squads were fought against them, who were in service at the Byzantine emperor. In the Byzantium, the next intersubita began, which facilitating the further offensive actions of the Turks. Osman's warriors seized near the Byzantine cities on the Black Sea coast.

In those years, the Omman Turks also committed the first raids to the European part of the territory of Byzantium in the Dardanelle region. Osman's troops also captured a number of fortresses and fortified settlements on the way to timber. By 1315, the bar was almost surrounded by the fortresses who were in the hands of the Turks.

Brusa captured a little later Son Osman Orhan. Born in the death of his grandfather Ertogrula.

Orhan's army consisted mainly of cavalry parts. There were no Turks and siege cars. Therefore, Bay did not decide on the storming of the city, surrounded by a ring of powerful fortifications, and set the blockade of Bruse, interrupting all its connections with the outside world and thereby having deprived its defenders of all sources of supply. The Turkish troops applied such tactics later. Usually they captured the neighborhood of the city, expelled or paid to slavery. Then these lands were hacked by people displaced there by order of Beea.

The city turned out to be in a hostile ring, and over his residents hung the threat of hungry death, after which the Turks were easily mastered.

Siege Bruza lasted ten years. Finally, in April 1326, when the Army of Orhans stood near the walls of Bruus, the city capitulated. This happened on the eve of Osman's death, which was told by brushes on mortal app.

Orhan, who inherited power in Bailice, made Bursa (so the Turks became called), famous for crafts and trade, the city is rich and thriving, with its capital. In 1327, he ordered to minimize the first Ottoman silver coin in Bursa - acc. This indicated that the process of turning the ERROGRULA Bailika into an independent state was nearing completion. An important stage on this path was the further conquest of Omman Turkings in the north. Four years after the seizure of Brues, the troops of Orhans were traded by Nicea (tour. Iznik), and in 1337 - Nicomedia.

When the Turks moved to Nica, between the army of the emperor and the Turkish troops, which were led by the brother of Orhan, Alaaddine, there was a battle in one of the mountain gorges. Byzantines were defeated, the emperor was wounded. Several storms of the powerful walls of Nikei did not bring success Turks. Then they resorted to the blockade tested tactics, capturing several advanced fortifications and cutting off the city from the surrounding land. After these events, Nikeya was forced to surrender. Garnizon-exhausted diseases and hunger could not more resist the superior forces of the enemy. The seizure of this city opened the roads to the Asian part of the Byzantine capital.

Nine years lasted by the blockade of Nicomedy, who received military assistance and food by sea. To master the city, Orhans had to organize the blockade of the narrow bay of the Marmara Sea, on the shores of which Nicomedia was located. Sliced \u200b\u200bfrom all sources of supply, the city surrendered to the mercy of the winners.

As a result of the capture of Nikei and Nicomedia, the Turks captured almost all the lands north of the Izmita bay until Bosphorus. Izmit (such a name from nowend received Nicomedia) became for the emerging fleet of Osmanov Verfia and the harbor. The yield of the Turks to the shores of the Marmara Sea and Bosphorus opened the way to the raids on the tricks. Already in 1338, the Turks began to break the Thracian lands, and Orhahan himself, with three dozen ships, appeared at the walls of Constantinople, but his squad was defeated by Byzantine. Emperor John Vi tried to blame with Orhaman, giving his daughter for him. For a while, Orhan stopped raids on the ownership of Byzantium and even provided military assistance to the Byzantines. But the lands in the Asian shore of Bosphor Orhan considered already as his own ownership. Having arrived at the emperor, he placed his bet on the Asian coast, and the Byzantine monarch with all his courtiers was forced to arrive there on the PI.

In the future, the relationship of Orhans with Byzantium again aggravated, his detachments resumed raids on Thracian lands. One and a half decades have passed, and Orhan's troops began to invade the European owners of Byzantium. This was facilitated by the fact that in the 40s of the XIV century. Orhans managed, taking advantage of civil engineers in Bailice Kapay, to join his possessions most of the lands of this Baylik, accounted for to the eastern shores of the Dardanella Strait.

In the middle of the XIV century Turks intensified, began to act not only in the West, but also in the East. Bailik Orhan bordered by the possessions of the Mongolian governor in the Malaya Asia Ertena, who was almost independently independent due to the decline of the state of Ilkhanov. When the governor died and the troubles began in his possessions, caused by the struggle for the power between the sons of the heirs, Orhan attacked Ertena's land and significantly expanded his bialle during their score, capturing Ankara in 1354.

In 1354, the Turks easily seized the city of Gallipoli (Tour. Helibolu), the defensive fortifications of which were destroyed as a result of the earthquake. In 1356, the army under the command of the son of Orhan, Suleiman, crossed over Dardanelles. Capturing several cities, including Dzorillos (Tour. Chorsu), Suleyman's troops began to move towards Adrianopol (tour. Edirne), which was perhaps the main goal of this campaign. However, around 1357, Suleiman died, without fulfilling all his ideas.

Soon, Turkish military operations in the Balkans resumed under the leadership of another son of Orhan - Murada. Turks managed to take Adrianopol after the death of Orhans, when Murad became the ruler. It happened, according to various sources, between 1361 and 1363, the seizure of this city turned out to be a relatively simple military operation that did not accompany the blockade and the protracted siege. The Turks broke the Byzantians on the approaches to Adrianopol, and the city remained almost without protection. In 1365, Murad, Murad, postponed his residence from Bursa for some time.

Murad took the title of Sultan and entered the story under the name Murad I. Wanting to rely on the authority of the Abbasid Caliph, who was in Cairo, the successor Murada Bayazid I (1389-1402) sent him a letter, asking the recognition of the title of Sultan Ruma. Slightly Sultan Mehmed I (1403-1421) began to send money to Mecca, seeking his rights to the Sultan title in this sacred for Muslims the city.

So less than one and a half years, a small Bailik Ertogrull transformed into an extensive and rather strong state in militarily.

What was the young Ottoman state in the initial stage of its development? Its territory covered the entire North-West of Asia Minor, spreading to the water of the Black and Marble Seas. Socio-economic institutions began to develop.

In Osman, the social relations inherent in his Baylice also dominated, when the power of the chapter of Beilik was based on the support of the tribal top, and the gripical operations carried out its military formations. Muslim clergy played a major role in the formation of Ottoman state institutions. Muslim theologians, rules, performed many administrative functions, in their hands there was a departure of justice. Osman has established strong connections with dervish orders of Mevlev and Bektashi, as well as with Ahi - a religious-shop fraternity, which has enjoyed the great influence in the handicraft layers of the cities of Malaya Asia. Based on the rules, the top of Dervish orders and Ahi, Osman and his successors not only strengthened their power, but also justified the Muslim slogan of Jihad, the "struggle for faith", their grip.

Osman, whose tribe led the half-blood lifestyle, has not yet possess anything, except herd horses and sheep's stadium. But when he began to conquer new territories, the lands distribution system arose with his approximately as a reward for the service. These awards were called Timar. Turkish chronicles are so outlined by Osman's Decree regarding the conditions of sucks:

"Timar, which I will give anyone, let them take no reason. And if the one who I gave Timar will die, then let him pass him. If the son is small, then let them pass, so that during the war, the servants go to the trip until he himself becomes suitable. " This is the essence of the Tigarny system, which was a type of military system and became the basis of the social structure of the Ottoman state with the time.

The TiMarna system has gained a complete form during the first century of the existence of a new state. The supreme law of the provision of Timarov was the privilege of Sultan, but from the middle of the XV century. Timara complained and near the highest dignitaries. Land paddles were given to soldiers and warlords as a conditional holding. Subject to the fulfillment of certain military duties, Timar holders, thimaritors, could transmit them from generation to generation. It is noteworthy that Timariotov owned, in essence, not the lands that were the treasury of the treasury, and income from them. Depending on these revenues, the ownership of this kind was divided into two categories - Timars, who brought up to 20 thousand accuma per year, and zeamiet - from 20 to 100 thousand accumies. The real value of these amounts can be represented in comparison with the following numbers: in the middle of the XV century. Average income from one urban economy in the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman state ranged from 100 to 200 accuma; For 1 acc. In 1460, 7 kilograms of flour could be purchased in Bursa. In the face of Timarits, the first Turkish sultans sought to create a solid and loyal support of their power - military and socio-political.

In a historically relatively short period, the rulers of the new state have become owners of large material values. In the orhana, it happened that the ruler of Bailica did not have the means to ensure another ceased raid. The Turkish medieval chronicle of Hussyin leads, for example, a story about how Orhan sold the prisoner of the Byzantine Sanovnik by Archon Niccomedia, so that the money was equipped with such a way to equip the army and send it against the same city. But already with Murada I, the picture changed dramatically. Sultan could contain an army, to build palaces and mosques, spend considerable money at the festivities and receptions of ambassadors. The reason for such a change was simple - since the rule of Murad I became the law deductions to the execution of the fifth of military production, including prisoners. War hikes to the Balkans became the first source of Osmasky's income. Tribute from the conquered peoples and military premium constantly replenished His treasury, and the labor of the conquered regions gradually began to enrich the knowledge of Osmananov - Sanovnikov and military leaders, clergy and bees.

At the first sultans, the management system of the Ottoman state began to take shape. If, with Orhans, military affairs were solved in a close circle of his arrivals from among the military leaders, then with its successors in their discussion, Vesira began to participate - ministers. If Orhan ruled his possessions with the help of the nearest relatives or rules, then Muradi I from among Vesirov began to allocate a person who guessed the management of all matters - civil and military. Thus originated the Institute of Great Vesira, the central figures of the Ottoman administration remained the central figure. The general affairs of the state in the successors of Murada I as a senior advisory body was conducted by the Sultansky Council as part of the Great Vesira, heads of military, financial and judicial departments, representatives of the highest Muslim clergy.

During the reign of Murad I received the initial design of the Ottoman financial department. At the same time, the separation of treasury on the personal treasury of Sultan and the State Treasury arose during the centuries. An administrative division appeared. The Ottoman state was divided into Sanjaki. The word "Sanjak" means in the translation "banner", as if reminding that the rules of Sanjakov, Sanjak Ba, personified the government in the field the civil and military. As for the judicial system, it was entirely under the jurisdiction.

The state that developed and expanded as a result of the grunge wars showed a special concern for creating a strong army. Already at Orhans, the first important steps in this direction were made. An infantry army was created - Yaya. The infantrymen in the period of participation in the campaigns received a salary, and in peacetime they lived due to the processing of their lands, being exempt from taxes. Under Orhans, the first regular cavalry parts were created - Mueshel. With Murade I, the army was strengthened by the peasant infantry militia. The militias, Azaps, were gained only at the time of the war and during the military actions also received a salary. It was Azaps at the initial stage of development of the Ottoman state the main part of the infantry troops. With Murada I began to form and the Yanychar's building (from "Yeni Chery" - "New Army"), who later became the shock force of the Turkish infantry and a kind of personal guard of Turkish sultans. It was completed by the compulsory set of boys from Christian families. They were treated in Islam and trained in a special military school. Janchars were subordinated to the Sultan himself, received a salary from the treasury and from the very beginning became a privileged part of the Turkish troops; The commander of the Jancharian corps was among the highest state of state. Somewhat later, the Yanycharn infantry was formed horse squads, which were also subordinate to Sultan directly and were on a salary. All these military formations ensured the sustainable successes of the Turkish army during the period when the Sultans have increasingly expanded the gaining operations.

Thus, by the middle of the XIV century. The initial core of the state was developed, which was destined to become one of the largest empires of the Middle Ages, a powerful military power, in a short time submitting to the many nations of Europe and Asia.