Why was the knightly fief entirely inherited by the eldest son? Feudal lords in the early Middle Ages Fief of a knight of the 9th century
Establishment of the feudal system in the countries of Western Europe in the 9th-11th centuries. In most states of Western Europe, the process of forming feudal relations is being completed. In some countries, for example in Italy and France, the feudal system in its main features took shape already in the 10th century; in England and Byzantium this process was completed mainly only by the end of the 11th century, in Germany even later - by the beginning of the 12th century. Feudalization progressed even more slowly in the Scandinavian countries. But by the end of the 11th century. feudal production relations prevailed in most countries of Western Europe and in Byzantium. Despite all the unique development of individual countries of Western Europe, common features characteristic of the established feudal mode of production clearly appear. Feudal land ownership in the form of patrimony, combined with small individual peasant farming, dominates. The bulk of the peasants are already in one form or another of dependence on the landowner and are subjected to severe exploitation on his part. This exploitation is expressed in feudal rent and is carried out through various means of extra-economic coercion. The previously free rural community by this time turns into a dependent community, and traditional forms of communal land use are borrowed by the feudal lords to organize the exploitation of the peasantry.
In Byzantium, although the estates of individual feudal lords are also acquiring an increasingly prominent place, state ownership and personally free and semi-free categories of the peasantry continue to play a major role.
At the early stage of the development of feudalism, subsistence farming dominated; the exchange was insignificant, trade relations were not developed; crafts were just beginning to separate from agriculture. In Western European countries, among personally dependent peasants, especially on large estates, labor rent and the corvee system of farming associated with it prevailed.
Leases in kind were also widely distributed from peasants who were in lighter dependence. Cash rent was still poorly developed.
The small peasant economy, although subject to exploitation by the feudal lord, was, however, more productive than the large slave-owning economy or what existed under the primitive communal system. The establishment of feudal relations in Europe in the 9th - 11th centuries. in general led to economic growth and a leap in the development of productive forces (see Chapter 19). Crafts developed, gradually separating from agricultural activities, and exchange; Roman cities that had fallen into disrepair were revived on a new feudal basis; new suburban settlements, market centers, and ports for maritime trade arose in both Southern and Northern Europe (see Chapter .7).
A characteristic feature of the socio-political relations that had developed in Europe by the middle of the 11th century was the inextricable connection between feudal land ownership and the political power of the feudal lord. A large fiefdom represented not only an economic unit, but also a kind of small independent state - a seigneury. In relation to the population of his possessions, the feudal lord was not only a landowner, but also a sovereign - a lord, in whose hands were the court, administration, military and political forces. This organization of society determined the dominance in Europe in the 10th-11th centuries. (in some countries and later) political fragmentation.
The main classes of feudal society. Peasantry. In most countries of Western Europe and in Byzantium in the 11th century. society was already divided into two antagonistic classes: the class of feudal landowners and the class of feudally dependent peasants.
Personally dependent peasants everywhere found themselves in the most difficult situation; in some countries (for example, France) already in the 10th-11th centuries. who made up a significant part of the peasantry. They depended on their lord in personal, land, and judicial-administrative matters and were subjected to especially severe exploitation. Such peasants could be alienated (usually only together with the land); they were constrained in the disposal of their inherited allotment and even their movable property, which were considered the property of the feudal lord. In addition, such peasants performed a number of humiliating duties and were subject to payments that emphasized their personal dependence. Former slaves gradually joined the category of such peasants. In a number of countries, this most dependent layer of the peasantry was called serfs, although they were no longer slaves in the ancient meaning of the word. The situation was somewhat easier for the personally free peasants, who were, however, in land and judicial dependence on their lords. In Western Europe as a whole, they made up a very significant part of the peasantry. They could more freely dispose of their movable property, and sometimes their land allotment with the consent of the feudal lord, but they also paid him high rents. In some countries (England, Germany, the south of France, Italy) it was preserved in the 9th-11th centuries. there was still a small layer of free peasants - landowners of the allodial type, whose dependence on the lord was primarily of a judicial and political nature.
Feudal class. Feudal hierarchy. Relations between individual representatives of the feudal class in the states of Western Europe were built on the principle of the so-called feudal hierarchy (“ladder”). At its top was the king, who was considered the supreme lord of all feudal lords, their overlord - the head of the feudal hierarchy. Below him stood the largest secular and spiritual feudal lords, who held their lands - often large areas - directly from the king. This was the titled nobility: dukes, as well as the highest representatives of the clergy, counts, archbishops, bishops and abbots of the largest monasteries, who held lands from the king. Formally, they were subordinate to the king as his vassals, but in fact they were almost independent of him: they had the right to wage war, mint coins, and sometimes exercise supreme jurisdiction in their domains. Their vassals - usually also very large landowners - who often bore the name barons, were of a lower rank, but they also enjoyed a certain political power in their domains. Below the barons stood smaller feudal lords - knights - lower representatives of the ruling class who did not always have vassals. In the 9th - early 11th centuries. the term “knight” (miles) simply meant a warrior who carried out vassal, usually mounted military service to his lord (German - Ritter, from which the Russian “knight” comes). Later, in the 11th-12th centuries, as the feudal system strengthened and the class of feudal lords consolidated, it acquired a broader meaning, becoming, on the one hand, a synonym for nobility, “nobility” in relation to commoners, and on the other hand, belonging to the military class in difference from spiritual feudal lords. The knights were usually subordinate only to peasant holders who were not part of the feudal hierarchy. Each feudal lord was a lord in relation to the lower feudal lord, if he held land from him, and a vassal of the higher feudal lord, of which he himself was the holder.
The feudal lords who stood at the lower levels of the feudal ladder, as a rule, did not obey the feudal lords, whose vassals were their immediate lords. In all countries of Western Europe (except England), relations within the feudal hierarchy were regulated by the rule “my vassal’s vassal is not my vassal.”
Among the church feudal lords there also existed their own hierarchy according to the rank of the positions they held (from the Pope to parish priests). Many of them could simultaneously be vassals of secular feudal lords in their land holdings, and vice versa.
The basis and provision of vassal relations was feudal land ownership - fief, or in German linen, which the vassal kept from his lord (see Chapter 4). As a specific military holding, the feud was considered a privileged, “noble” possession, which could only be in the hands of representatives of the ruling class. The owner of the fief was considered not only its direct holder - the vassal, but also the lord from whom the vassal held the land, and a number of other lords higher up the hierarchical ladder. The hierarchy within the feudal class was thus determined by the conventional and hierarchical structure of feudal land ownership. But it was formalized in the form of personal contractual relations of patronage and loyalty between the lord and the vassal. The transfer of a fief to a vassal - taking possession - was called investiture. The act of investiture was accompanied by a solemn ceremony of entering into vassalage - bringing homage(hommage - from the French word 1 "homme - man), - during which the feudal lord, entering into vassal dependence on another feudal lord, publicly recognized himself as his “man”. At the same time, he took an oath of allegiance to the lord. Among the French, it was called “foie” (in French foi - loyalty).
In addition to the main obligation to perform military service in favor of the lord and at his call (usually 40 days during the year), the vassal had to never do anything to harm him and, at the request of the lord, defend his possessions with his own forces, participate in his judicial curia and in certain cases , determined by feudal custom, to provide him with financial assistance: for the acceptance of a knighthood by his eldest son, for the marriage of his daughters, for ransom from captivity. The lord, in turn, was obliged to protect the vassal in the event of an enemy attack and to assist him in other difficult cases - to be the guardian of his young heirs, the protector of his widow and daughters.
Due to the complexity of vassal relations and frequent non-compliance with vassal obligations, there were conflicts on this basis in the 9th-11th centuries. a common occurrence. War was considered a legitimate way to resolve all disputes between feudal lords. However, from the first half of the 11th century. The church, although not always successfully, tried to ease military conflicts by promoting the idea of "God's peace" as an alternative to war. The peasants who suffered most from internecine wars were the peasants, whose fields were trampled, their villages burned and devastated at each successive clash between their lord and his numerous enemies.
The hierarchical organization, despite frequent conflicts within the ruling class, connected and united all its members into a privileged layer.
In the conditions of political fragmentation of the 9th-11th centuries. and the absence of a strong central state apparatus, only the feudal hierarchy could provide individual feudal lords with the opportunity to intensify the exploitation of the peasantry and suppress peasant uprisings. In the face of the latter, the feudal lords invariably acted unanimously, forgetting their quarrels.
Life and customs of feudal lords. The main occupation of the feudal lords, especially in this early period, was war and the robbery that accompanied it. Their favorite pastimes were hunting, horse racing, and tournaments.
In the X-XI centuries. Europe is covered in castles. The castle - the usual home of a feudal lord - was at the same time a fortress, his refuge from external enemies, and from feudal neighbors, and from rebellious peasants. It was the center of the feudal lord's political, judicial, administrative and military power, allowing him to dominate the surrounding area and keep its entire population in subjection. Castles were usually built on a hill or on a high river bank, from where the surrounding area was clearly visible and where it was easier to defend against the enemy.
Until the end of the 10th century. Castles were most often a two-story wooden tower, in the upper floor of which the feudal lord lived, and in the lower floor - the squad and servants. Here or in the outbuildings there were warehouses for weapons, provisions, premises for livestock, etc.
The castle was surrounded by a rampart and a moat filled with water. A drawbridge spanned the moat. Around the beginning of the 11th century. feudal lords began to build castles of stone, usually surrounded by two or even three high walls with loopholes and towers in the corners. The main multi-story tower, the “donjon,” still rose in the center. The dungeons of such towers often served as a prison, where prisoners, disobedient vassals and peasants who had done something wrong languished in chains. Usually the castle surrendered to the enemy only after a months-long siege. Small feudal lords, who did not have the means to build such powerful structures, tried to strengthen their homes with strong walls and watchtowers.
The main type of troops in Europe X - XI centuries. becomes heavily armed cavalry. Each feudal lord owed his lord equestrian military service. The main weapon of a knight at that time was a sword with a cross-shaped handle and a long, heavy spear. He also used a club and a battle ax (axe); for protection from the enemy, they used chain mail and a shield, a helmet with a metal lattice plate - a visor. Later, in the XII-XIII centuries, knightly armor appeared.
The feudal lords, who spent their entire lives in wars, violence and robberies and despised physical labor, were ignorant, rude and cruel. Above all, they valued physical strength, dexterity, courage in battle and generosity towards their servants and vassals, in which they saw a manifestation of their power and innate nobility, in contrast to the despised or “stingy”, in their opinion, men and townspeople. The idealized code of “knightly” behavior, depicting the knight as a noble defender of the weak and offended, developed in feudal Europe much later - in the 12th-13th centuries. (see Chapter 21). But even then he did not correspond much to the actual appearance of a feudal knight, remaining for the majority only an unattainable ideal. This ideal had nothing in common with the rude barbarian knight of the early Middle Ages.
Life and daily life of peasants. By the 11th century there were peasants. almost completely excluded from military service, which was a sign of their lack of rights. Their lot was hard agricultural labor, which essentially fed the entire society. Peasants lived in villages, often located under the walls of a castle, in the center of which there was usually a church. Villages, depending on geographical conditions, could be large or small; in some places, especially in mountainous areas, farmsteads predominated. Houses, depending on the availability of building materials, could be wooden or made of wooden frames, filled and coated with clay, or stone (especially in the south); sometimes these were small huts or dugouts.
The houses were cramped and dirty, and cold in winter. Many houses were heated “black” or warmed with an open hearth; often there were livestock in the house; sometimes several families lived on the estate. Crop failures and famines, livestock deaths and epidemics were common. Infant mortality was especially high.
However, the difficult life of the peasants also had its joys: holidays, many of which dated back to pagan times, but were timed by the church to coincide with Christian holidays - Christmas, Easter, Spiritual Day, Trinity, etc. Then, for example, on the day of spring celebrated almost everywhere in Europe Maypole holiday, round dances were held, folk songs were sung, and mummers walked from house to house with carols. Most folklore traditions that originated in the early Middle Ages, and sometimes in the even more distant past, were associated with the life of peasants: folk songs, dances, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings. In this folk culture, the spiritual life of the mostly illiterate peasantry manifested itself in the early Middle Ages.
Relations between the feudal lord's castle and the peasant village were contradictory. On the one hand, in everyday life there was mutual hostility and mistrust between them. But on the other hand, peasants often saw in their lord a patron and protector from the violence of other feudal lords, and they escaped from them within the walls of his castle. They sometimes gathered there to watch knightly tournaments, listen to a visiting juggler (buffoon) or singer.
The parish church played a major role in the life of the peasants, which also satisfied the spiritual needs of the peasants, whose worldview was permeated by religiosity. But in addition, the church - the largest building of the village - was the center of public life for its population: a meeting place, a repository of valuables, a refuge in the event of enemy raids.
- only those who earn enough income to support themselves. Typically this income was provided by land. The feudal lord owns the estate, and since his honor does not allow him to cultivate it personally, he assigns this responsibility to his holders. Thus, the feudal lord almost always exploits at least several peasant families. In relation to these holders, he is a lord (in Latin dominus, hence the Spanish don). Having an income is a practical condition for being a nobleman. But in terms of the amount of wealth between medieval feudal lords, there is a sharp inequality, on the basis of which a number of degrees are established, starting with squire and ending with king. Contemporaries very clearly distinguished these degrees and even marked them with special names. The hierarchy of these degrees is the medieval “feudal ladder”. (See also Feudal hierarchy.)
The highest level of the feudal ladder is occupied by princes with titles (kings, dukes, marquises, counts), sovereigns of entire provinces, owners of hundreds of villages, capable of bringing several thousand knights to war.
A step lower on the feudal ladder of the Middle Ages are the noblest of the nobles, usually the owners of several villages, leading a whole detachment of knights with them to war. Since they do not have an official title, they are designated by common names, the meaning of which is not clear and is somewhat loose; These names are different in different countries, but are used as synonyms. The most common of them are: baron - in the west, in Southern France and in the Norman countries, sire, or seigneur - in the east ("baron" means a husband, a man par excellence; "sire" is a leader and lord). In Lombardy they are called captains, in Spain - “ricos hombres” (rich people). In Germany they say “herr”, which corresponds to the name lord, in England - lord; These names are translated into Latin by the word dominus (lord). Later they were also called bannerets because, in order to rally their men, they attached a quadrangular banner (bannière) to the end of their spear.
Even lower on the feudal ladder stands the entire mass of the ancient nobility - knights (French chevalier, German Ritter, English knight, Spanish caballero, Latin miles), owners of one estate, which, depending on the wealth of the country, consists of a whole village or from part of it. Almost each of them serves some large owner standing higher on the feudal ladder, from whom he receives an estate; they accompany him on campaigns, which, however, does not prevent them from fighting at their own risk. They are sometimes called bacheliers, in Lombardy - vavasseurs. There is also the apt name miles unius scuti, which means a warrior with one shield, that is, a knight who does not have another warrior at his disposal.
At the last rung of the medieval feudal ladder are squires. Initially - simple military servants of the knight, they later became the owners of a certain amount of land (equal to what we now call a large estate) and in the 13th century. live as masters among their holders. In Germany they are called Edelknecht (noble servant), in England - squire (corrupted ècuyer - shield-bearer), in Spain - infanzon. They are in the 13th century. will form the mass of the nobility, and in subsequent centuries the citizen raised to the nobility will pride himself on the title of squire.
Thus, on the medieval feudal ladder one can distinguish four steps, which in general terms correspond to modern military ranks: princes, dukes and counts - our generals, barons - captains, knights - soldiers, squires - servants. But in this strange army, consisting of troops at war with each other, where rank and position on the feudal scale are determined by wealth, common life eventually so mitigates inequalities that everyone, from general to servant, begins to feel like members of the same class . Then the nobility finally takes shape and then it finally becomes isolated and isolated.
In the 13th century. get used to strictly distinguish between two categories of people: nobles, or noble (gentilshommes), and non-nobles, who in France are called hommes coutumiers (people of custom, coutume "a) or homme de poste (that is, potestatis - subordinate people); the name roturier (commoner) not used in the Middle Ages. These categories become strictly hereditary. Noble families belonging to any level of the feudal ladder refuse to enter into kinship with the descendants of non-noble families. Anyone who is not born of a nobleman cannot become a knight, even if he is rich enough. to lead the life of a knight; the daughter of a non-nobleman cannot marry a nobleman; the one who marries her enters into an unequal marriage and thereby dishonors himself; the feudal families will not accept his wife, and the nobles will not treat his children as equal to itself. This heredity, less strict in the documents of previous centuries, then becomes the predominant feature of medieval feudal society and dominates until the 18th century.
As the differences between the nobles are smoothed out, the nobility organized in the feudal ladder becomes increasingly alienated from the rest of the nation. The spirit of the nobility was most firmly established in France and Germany. In Spain, and especially in the south, it is weaker, due to contact with the rich population of the Moorish cities, in Italy and, perhaps, also in the south of France - due to the power of the merchant class. In England, where military-feudal habits early disappeared, a squire is no different from a rich peasant; here the boundary is set much higher - between the lords and the rest of the people; the privileged class consists only of the highest aristocracy, which is very small in number.
Feudalism is the name given to the social system that existed in Europe in the 5th - 17th centuries. In each country it had its own characteristic features, but this phenomenon is usually considered using the example of France and Germany. The period of feudalism in Rus' has a time frame that is different from the European one. For many years, domestic historians denied its existence, but they were wrong. In reality, feudal institutions did not develop except in Byzantium.
A little about the term
The concept of “feudalism” was introduced into use by European scientists on the eve of the Great French Revolution. Thus, the term appeared just when Western European feudalism essentially ended. The word is derived from the Late Latin “feodum“ (“fief”). This concept appears in official documents and denotes conditional inheritable land property that the vassal receives from the master if he fulfills any obligations towards him (the latter most often meant military service).
Historians were not immediately able to identify the general features of this social system. Many important nuances were not taken into account. However, by the 21st century, thanks to systems analysis, scientists were finally able to provide a comprehensive definition of this complex phenomenon.
Characteristics of feudalism
The main value of the pre-industrial world is land. But the owner of the land (feudal lord) was not involved in agriculture. He had another duty - service (or prayer). A peasant worked the land. Although he had his own house, livestock and tools, the land did not belong to him. He was economically dependent on his master, which means he bore certain duties in his favor. But still, the peasant was not a slave. He had relative freedom, and in order to control him, the feudal lord used non-economic coercive mechanisms.
During the Middle Ages, classes were not equal. The land owner in the era of feudalism had much more rights than the land holder, i.e., the peasant. In his possessions, the feudal lord was the unconditional sovereign. He could execute and pardon. Thus, land ownership during this period was closely related to political opportunities (power).
Of course, economic dependence was mutual: in fact, the peasant fed the feudal lord, who himself did not work.
Feudal staircase
The structure of the ruling class in the era of feudalism can be defined as hierarchical. The feudal lords were not equal, but they all exploited the peasants. Relations between land owners were built on interdependence. At the top rung of the feudal ladder was the king, who granted lands to dukes and counts, and in return demanded their loyalty. Dukes and counts, in turn, allocated land to barons (lords, sires, seigneurs), in relation to whom they were masters. Barons had power over knights, knights over squires. Thus, the feudal lords who stood on the lower steps of the ladder served the feudal lords who stood a step higher.
There was a saying: “My vassal’s vassal is not my vassal.” This meant that a knight serving a baron was not obliged to obey the king. Thus, the king's power in times of fragmentation was relative. The land owner in the era of feudalism is his own master. His political opportunities were determined by the size of his plot.
Genesis of feudal relations (V - 9th centuries)
The development of feudalism became possible thanks to the decline of Rome and the conquest of the Western Roman Empire (by the barbarians). The new social system arose on the basis of the Roman traditions of slavery, colonation, a universal system of laws) and the characteristic features of the Germanic tribes (the presence of ambitious leaders, belligerence, inability to govern vast countries).
At that time, the conquerors had a primitive communal system: all the lands of the tribe were under the jurisdiction of the community and distributed among its members. Seizing new lands, military leaders sought to own them individually and, moreover, to pass them on by inheritance. In addition, many peasants went bankrupt, villages were raided. Therefore, they were forced to look for a master, because the landowner in the era of feudalism not only gave them the opportunity to work (including for themselves), but also protected them from enemies. This is how the land was monopolized by the upper classes. The peasants became dependent.
The rise of feudalism (X - XV centuries)
Back in the 9th century, each county, seigneury, and estate turned into a kind of state. This phenomenon was called “feudal fragmentation.”
During this period, Europeans began to actively explore new lands. Commodity-money relations are developing, and artisans are emerging from the peasantry. Thanks to artisans and merchants, cities emerge and grow. In many countries (for example, Italy and Germany), peasants, previously completely dependent on overlords, receive freedom - relative or complete. Many knights, going on crusades, set their peasants free.
At this time, the church became the support of secular power, and the Christian religion became the ideology of the Middle Ages. So the land owner in the era of feudalism is not only a knight (baron, duke, lord), but also a representative of the clergy (abbot, bishop).
Crisis of feudal relations (XV - XVII centuries)
The end of the previous period was marked by peasant uprisings. They were a consequence of In addition, the development of trade and the outflow of population from villages to cities led to the fact that the position of landowners began to weaken.
In other words, the natural economic foundations of the rise of the aristocracy were undermined. Contradictions between secular feudal lords and the clergy intensified. With the development of science and culture, the power of the church over the minds of people ceased to be absolute. In the 16th-17th centuries, the Reformation took place in Europe. New religious movements arose that stimulated the development of entrepreneurship and did not condemn private property.
Europe in the era of late feudalism is a battlefield between kings who are not satisfied with the symbolism of their power, the clergy, the aristocracy and the townspeople. Social contradictions led to revolutions in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Russian feudalism
During the times of Kievan Rus (from the 8th to the 13th centuries), there really was no feudalism. Princely ownership of land was carried out according to the principle of succession. When one of the members of the princely family died, his lands were occupied by a younger relative. The squad followed him. The warriors received a salary, but the territories were not assigned to them and, of course, were not inherited: there was plenty of land, and it did not have much value.
In the 13th century, the era of appanage-princely Rus' began. It is characterized by fragmentation. The possessions of the princes (appanages) began to be inherited. The princes acquired personal power and the right to personal (not tribal) property. A class of large landowners - the boyars - emerged, but the peasants still remained free. However, in the 16th century they were attached to the ground. The era of feudalism in Russia ended at the same time, since fragmentation was overcome. But such a relic of it as serfdom persisted until 1861.
Nuances
In both Europe and Russia, the period of feudalism ended around the 16th century. But certain elements of this system, for example, fragmentation in Italy or serfdom in the Russian Empire, lasted until the mid-19th century. One of the main differences between European and Russian feudalism is that the enslavement of the peasantry in Rus' occurred only when the villans in the West had already received relative freedom.
Miniature "Knight's tournament"The classical Middle Ages in Europe ". - XIII centuries) was the heyday of feudalism. The word " feudalism " comes from the word "feud" - hereditary land ownership for service. The person who received the fief was a vassal (servant) of the one who provided him with the land. The one who endowed the fief was lord (senior). Both lords and vassals were called feudal lords. The feudal lord was also the lord of all the inhabitants of his fief.
By X-XI neither. in Europe, almost all the land was divided into fiefs. At that time they said: “ No land without a lord " All feudal lords became virtually independent rulers in their domains. However, a connection remained between the feudal lords, which protected the states from complete collapse. This connection is depicted in the form of the so-called “feudal ladder”. At its top level was the king or emperor - the supreme owner of all lands and the supreme lord of the state. It was believed that the king distributed large areas to his vassals - princes, dukes, counts. Those. in turn, they allocated certain parts of their principalities, duchies and counties to their own vassals - the barons. The barons also have 61.1:111 vassals - knights. Word " knight "translated from German means horseman, cavalryman. As a fief, the knights received an estate - a village or part of a village. Knights formed the bottom rung of the “feudal ladder.”
There was a rule: " My vassal's vassal is not my vassal " This meant that the vassal served only his immediate lord. The king, for example, could not call into service a baron - a vassal of the dukes, and a duke - a simple knight. That is why the power of kings was then very weak.
The lord gave the vassal land, helped him and protected him from enemies. A vassal, upon the call of his master, joined the ranks of his army. As a rule, military service was compulsory for a vassal for 40 days a year. For the remaining days. carried out and in the saddle, he received a lord's person's payment. In certain cases, the vassal also gave gifts to the lord, ransomed him from captivity, etc. After the death of the owner, the fief was inherited by his eldest son.
The causes of feudalism.
During the Middle Ages, wars were common. After the collapse of Charlemagne's empire, all European countries were rocked by bloody strife. It was even worse in the 9th-10th centuries. turned out to be devastating Norman raids (residents of Scandinavia and Denmark), Arabs, Hungarians, who at times threatened the very existence of European society. To be saved from complete extermination and ruin, it was necessary to have a reliable army. Improvements in military science (for example, the introduction of regiments for horses and stirrups for saddles) dramatically increased the importance of professional knightly troops (horsemen with heavy weapons and heavily armored). Thanks to the horseshoes, the horse could carry a heavily armed knight clad in iron, who, leaning on the stirrups, struck the enemy with a spear and sword.
The knight became a formidable force , but each such warrior and his horse now had to be supported by dozens of people. Mass militias are being replaced by small detachments of professional warriors. The feudal order ensured the existence of a sufficiently reliable military force to protect the entire society.
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Three estates of feudal society.
In the Middle Ages people were divided into estates those who pray (clergy, monks), those who fight (the aristocracy, knights) and those who work. These classes differed in their rights and responsibilities, which were established by laws and customs.
The class of warriors (feudal lords) included the descendants of noble people of barbarian tribes and noble inhabitants of the Western Roman Empire they conquered. The position of the combatants was different. The richest owned entire regions, and some simple knights were sometimes very poor. However, only feudal lords had the right to own land and rule other people.
The working class included both the descendants of impoverished free people from among the barbarians and Roman citizens, as well as the descendants of slaves and colons . The vast majority of those who worked were peasants. They were divided into two categories. Some peasants remained free people, but lived on the lands of feudal lords. The feud was divided into master's land and peasant plots. It was believed that these plots were provided to the peasants by the feudal lord. For this, the peasants worked on the master's land (corvée) and paid taxes to the feudal lord (quitrent). The feudal lord promised the population of his feud and levied fines for breaking the laws. Another category of peasants was called serfs. They were considered “attached” to their plots and could not leave them. The duties of the serfs (corvée, quitrent) were heavier than those of the free. They were personally dependent on the feudal lords; they were bought and sold along with the land. The property of serfs was considered the property of the lord. Serf servants were actually in the position of slaves.
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| Gregory of Tours (c.538/539-593/594) complained that monks spent more time in taverns than praying in their cells. In 847, a council of prelates decreed that any member of a religious order who regularly became drunk must perform penance for forty days, which in this case meant abstinence from meat, beer and wine. Drunkenness and wine drinking were also dealt with in the penitentiaries, manuals for clergy of the era, which listed the types of penance that Christians should bear when they committed sins. In general, the punishments imposed on clergy, who were expected to exercise greater self-discipline, were more severe than those imposed on the laity, and high-ranking clerics bore greater responsibility than ordinary monks and parish priests. One early eighth-century penitentiary, attributed to Bede the Venerable (c.672/673-735), prescribed punishment for drunkenness to such an extent that “wine deprives a man of his reason, his speech becomes incoherent, and his eyes wild, and subsequently he suffers for nausea, indigestion and pain throughout the body.” These symptoms in themselves seem to be sufficient punishment, but in addition to this, the offender was forbidden to consume wine and meat for three days for a layman, seven days for a priest, two weeks for a monk, three weeks for a deacon, four weeks for a presbyter. http://gorbutovich.livejournal.com/68961.html Information search - Alexandra Logvinova |
In addition to the fighting and working people, there was a class of praying people. He was considered the main one and was called the first. It was believed that a feudal lord or a peasant was unable to fully comprehend the full depth of Christ’s teachings and independently communicate with God. In addition, people are constantly tempted by the devil. Only the Christian church and its ministers - the clergy - could explain the divine laws to everyone, connect a person with God, protect him from the machinations of the devil and atone for his sins before God.
The main duty of the worshiping class was worship. Priests they also baptized children, married newlyweds, received confession from penitents and absolved them of their sins, and gave communion to the dying.
Unlike those who fought and worked, the clergy was an open class. People from the other two classes could become priests. To support the first estate, workers were charged a tax in the amount of a tenth of their income (church tithe). The church directly owned considerable lands.
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|  Pieter Aertsen, 1551. |
Peasants.
Peasants in the Middle Ages in addition to agriculture and cattle breeding, they hunted, fished, collected honey and wax from forest bees. They sewed clothes and shoes for themselves, built houses and baked bread, laid roads and erected bridges, dug canals and drained swamps. But agriculture remained their main business. The needs of its development turned many rural residents into true inventors. The successes of agriculture are largely associated with the invention by peasants of a heavy plow with a coulter - a device for dumping earth. They also came up with a horse collar. He allowed these animals to be used to plow the fields.
It was mastered by the peasants three-field . Winter varieties of plants that are resistant to winter cold have been developed. Manure and other fertilizers began to be applied to the fields. The cultivation of vegetables and fruits has become widespread. Vineyards gradually spread not only in the southern, but also in relatively northern regions, right up to England.
Each peasant family cultivated its own plot. This put on was a long strip of land in a large field. Nearby were the plots of other families, as well as strips of the master's land. After the harvest, the cattle were driven out onto a large field. He not only grazed, but also fertilized the arable land. Therefore, work on the plots had to be carried out by village residents at the same time, and everyone had to plant the same crops. Fellow villagers helped neighbors in trouble, jointly defended fields and herds from robbers, cleared new fields, and used forests and meadows.
Village residents decided on the most important issues at meetings, elected headman - head of the peasant community . The community was necessary for the peasants and their relationship with the feudal lord. The headman monitored the completeness of payment quitrent and at the same time ensuring that they do not take more than the norm from the peasants.
Miniature from the "Magnificent Book of Hours of the Duke of Berry", XV century
Feudal lords.
Near the village there was a fortified dwelling of its lord - lock . Castles were built simultaneously with the formation of feudalism itself. In IX-X century. they were erected for protection from the Normans, Arabs and Hungarians . 13 castles sheltered residents of the entire area. At first, castles were built from wood, then from stone. These fortresses were often surrounded by a moat with water, over which a drawbridge was thrown. The most impregnable place in the castle was multi-storey tower - donjon . Upstairs in the donjon lived a feudal lord with his family, and downstairs lived his servants. There was a dungeon in the basement. Each floor of the donjon, if necessary, turned into a small fortress. From the top floor in the wall of the tower, a secret spiral staircase was often laid to the basement. From the cave there was an underground passage leading to a distant place. Therefore, even if the castle was captured, the feudal lord could avoid death or capture. However, it was almost impossible to take the castle by storm. Only after a long siege could the defenders surrender due to starvation. But large supplies of food were usually stored in the castle.
Chivalry.
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The entire life of the belligerent class was spent in campaigns and battles. The sons of feudal lords began to prepare for knightly service from childhood. Without many years of training, it was impossible not only to fight in the heavy armor of a knight, but even to move in it. From 7 years old the boys were becoming pages , ac 14 years - squires knights. Knights came to serve the lord with pages and squires, with lightly armed servants. This a small detachment led by a knight was called a “spear” , the feudal army consisted of such units. In battle, a knight fought with a knight, a squire fought with a squire, and the rest of the warriors showered the enemy with arrows. At the age of 18, squires became knights . Senior wherein handed him a belt, sword and spurs.
Gradually formed rules of knightly honor . One of the clay qualities was considered loyalty to the lord and generosity to the vassals. An even more important quality was valor. A valiant knight must constantly strive for exploits, show courage and even recklessness in battle, and despise death. Associated with valor is nobility and courtesy towards the enemy. A real knight will never attack secretly, but, on the contrary, will warn the enemy about the upcoming battle, during a duel with him he will have the same weapon, etc. Military friendship was sacred to the knights, as was revenge for insults.
The rules of knightly honor prescribed the protection of the church and its ministers, as well as all the weak - widows, orphans, beggars. There were many other rules. True, in real life they were very often violated. Among the knights there were many unbridled, cruel and greedy people.
The favorite pastimes of the feudal lords were hunting and tournaments - military competitions of knights in the presence of spectators. True, the church condemned tournaments. After all, the knights spent their time and energy on them, which were necessary to fight the enemies of Christianity.
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Source: Artemov V.V., Lubchenkov Yu.N.. History. 0000
Self-test questions
- Name the three main classes in the Middle Ages
- What kind of farming did peasants do in the Middle Ages?
- What were the rules of knightly honor?
Preparing questions: Pochernyaev N.S.
Additional literature on the topic
DAILY LIFE OF A MEDIEVAL CASTLE IN MINIATURES. 15 MANUSCRIPTS OF THE CENTURY.VASSAL(French and English vassal, from Celtic gwa-sawl - employee, hence Middle-Century-Latin vassus, vasallus, vassallus). In Western Europe, in the Middle Ages, the owner of land property, who paid various duties (service in the army, etc.) to the overlord, i.e., the one who owned all the land, for the right of ownership.
Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/dic_fwords/37581/VASSAL
SENIOR(from Latin senior - senior) - in Western Europe in the Middle Ages: a) feudal lord, land owner (owner of the seigneury), depending on whom the peasants (and often the townspeople) were dependent; b) a feudal lord, on whom smaller feudal lords - vassals - were personally dependent
Large legal dictionary. - M.: Infra-M. 2003.t http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/lower/18167
KNIGHT(German Ritter - originally - horseman), in Zap. and Center. In Europe in the Middle Ages, a feudal lord, a heavily armed mounted warrior. For a knight, moral standards were considered mandatory: courage, fidelity to duty, nobility towards a woman. Hence - in a figurative sense - a knight is a selfless, noble person.
Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2000. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc3p/260518
Squire
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a noble (in this case - necessarily equestrian) student of a knight, lord, less often of a father, if he was a major lord, or in the absence of such students, a commoner sergeant.
In the case of nobility, apprenticeship usually lasted from age 14 until age 21 (coming of age), after which the youth was knighted. An exception could be the Royal Squires, who sometimes remained squires all their lives.
A commoner, as a rule, served as a squire for life, while at the same time being a sergeant. Only in very rare cases could a commoner be knighted for special merits, and it was from the descendants of such commoners that the class of ministerials emerged in the Holy Roman Empire.
Wikipedia http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/ruwiki/148164
PAGE(French le page, from Greek pais - child, boy). 1) in the Middle Ages, young nobles who were in the service of rulers. Currently, they remain at courts, as a necessary setting in various kinds of ceremonies. 2) in Russia, a student of the page corps. 3) a belt with hooks or a cord for women to support the dress during mud.
Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. - Chudinov A.N., 1910. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/dic_fwords/25280/PAGE
ESTATE, a social group of many pre-capitalist societies, possessing rights and responsibilities enshrined in custom or law and inherited by inheritance.
Modern encyclopedia. 2000. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc1p/44678
DONJON- ((French donjon - master's tower, from Middle Latin dominionus). Formerly the main tower in ancient castles and fortresses; now a fortification tower for defense; like a turret, a pavilion on houses.
Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/dic_fwords/10781/DONJON
Trekhpolye three-field, three-field crop rotation with alternation of crops: fallow, winter, spring. Characteristic of the steam farming system of feudal times.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: 1969. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/bse/141012/Trekhpolye
ALLOTMENT- a plot of land provided for the use of a peasant by a landowner or the state for various duties (allotment land use). In Russia, after the peasant reform of 1861, it turned into communal or household peasant property
Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2000. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc3p/207354
OBROC, rent in kind and money collected from peasants by landowners and the state.
Illustrated encyclopedic dictionary. - M.:.
