Make up a biological term from all the letters. Tasks: biological terms and concepts. Vegetative and generative organs

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Biology(from Greek. bios- life, logos- word, science) is a complex of sciences about wildlife.

The subject of biology is all manifestations of life: the structure and functions of living beings, their diversity, origin and development, as well as interaction with the environment. The main task of biology as a science is to interpret all the phenomena of living nature on a scientific basis, taking into account that the whole organism has properties that are fundamentally different from its components.

The term "biology" is found in the works of the German anatomists T. Roose (1779) and K. F. Burdach (1800), but it was not until 1802 that it was first used independently by J. B. Lamarck and G. R. Treviranus to refer to the science that studies living organisms.

Biological Sciences

At present, biology includes a number of sciences that can be systematized according to the following criteria: by subject and prevailing methods of research and by the level of organization of living nature being studied. According to the subject of study, biological sciences are divided into bacteriology, botany, virology, zoology, mycology.

Botany is a biological science that comprehensively studies plants and the vegetation cover of the Earth. Zoology- a branch of biology, the science of diversity, structure, life, distribution and relationship of animals with the environment, their origin and development. Bacteriology- biological science that studies the structure and vital activity of bacteria, as well as their role in nature. Virology is the biological science that studies viruses. The main object of mycology are fungi, their structure and features of life. Lichenology- biological science that studies lichens. Bacteriology, virology and some aspects of mycology are often considered as part of microbiology - a branch of biology, the science of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and microscopic fungi). Systematics, or taxonomy, is a biological science that describes and classifies into groups all living and extinct creatures.

In turn, each of the listed biological sciences is subdivided into biochemistry, morphology, anatomy, physiology, embryology, genetics and taxonomy (of plants, animals or microorganisms). Biochemistry- this is the science of the chemical composition of living matter, chemical processes occurring in living organisms and underlying their vital activity. Morphology- biological science that studies the shape and structure of organisms, as well as the patterns of their development. In a broad sense, it includes cytology, anatomy, histology and embryology. Distinguish the morphology of animals and plants. Anatomy- This is a branch of biology (more precisely, morphology), a science that studies the internal structure and shape of individual organs, systems and the body as a whole. Plant anatomy is considered as part of botany, animal anatomy is considered as part of zoology, and human anatomy is a separate science. Physiology- biological science that studies the processes of vital activity of plant and animal organisms, their individual systems, organs, tissues and cells. There are physiology of plants, animals and humans. Embryology (developmental biology)- a section of biology, the science of the individual development of an organism, including the development of an embryo.

object genetics are patterns of heredity and variability. Currently, it is one of the most dynamically developing biological sciences.

According to the level of organization of living nature studied, molecular biology, cytology, histology, organology, biology of organisms and supraorganismal systems are distinguished. Molecular biology is one of the youngest branches of biology, a science that studies, in particular, the organization of hereditary information and protein biosynthesis. Cytology, or cell biology, is a biological science, the object of study of which is the cells of both unicellular and multicellular organisms. Histology- biological science, a section of morphology, the object of which is the structure of tissues of plants and animals. The field of organology includes the morphology, anatomy and physiology of various organs and their systems.

Biology of organisms includes all sciences that deal with living organisms, for example, ethology the science of the behavior of organisms.

The biology of supraorganismal systems is subdivided into biogeography and ecology. The distribution of living organisms studies biogeography, whereas ecology- organization and functioning of supraorganismal systems at various levels: populations, biocenoses (communities), biogeocenoses (ecosystems) and the biosphere.

According to the prevailing research methods, one can single out descriptive (for example, morphology), experimental (for example, physiology) and theoretical biology.

Revealing and explaining the regularities of the structure, functioning and development of living nature at various levels of its organization is a task general biology. It includes biochemistry, molecular biology, cytology, embryology, genetics, ecology, evolutionary science and anthropology. evolutionary doctrine studies the causes, driving forces, mechanisms and general patterns of evolution of living organisms. One of its sections is paleontology- science, the subject of which are the fossil remains of living organisms. Anthropology- a section of general biology, the science of the origin and development of man as a biological species, as well as the diversity of populations of modern man and the patterns of their interaction.

Applied aspects of biology are assigned to the field of biotechnology, breeding and other rapidly developing sciences. Biotechnology called the biological science that studies the use of living organisms and biological processes in production. It is widely used in food (baking, cheese-making, brewing, etc.) and pharmaceutical industries (obtaining antibiotics, vitamins), for water treatment, etc. Selection- the science of methods for creating breeds of domestic animals, varieties of cultivated plants and strains of microorganisms with the properties necessary for a person. Selection is also understood as the process of changing living organisms, carried out by man for his needs.

The progress of biology is closely related to the success of other natural and exact sciences, such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science, etc. For example, microscopy, ultrasound (ultrasound), tomography and other processes occurring in living systems would be impossible without the use of chemical and physical methods. The use of mathematical methods allows, on the one hand, to identify the presence of a regular connection between objects or phenomena, to confirm the reliability of the results obtained, and on the other hand, to model a phenomenon or process. Recently, computer methods, such as modeling, have become increasingly important in biology. At the intersection of biology and other sciences, a number of new sciences have arisen, such as biophysics, biochemistry, bionics, etc.

Achievements in biology

The most important events in the field of biology that influenced the entire course of its further development are: the establishment of the molecular structure of DNA and its role in the transmission of information in living matter (F. Crick, J. Watson, M. Wilkins); deciphering the genetic code (R. Holly, H. G. Koran, M. Nirenberg); the discovery of the structure of the gene and the genetic regulation of protein synthesis (A. M. Lvov, F. Jacob, J. L. Monod, and others); formulation of the cell theory (M. Schleiden, T. Schwann, R. Virchow, K. Baer); study of the patterns of heredity and variability (G. Mendel, H. de Vries, T. Morgan, and others); formulation of the principles of modern systematics (C. Linnaeus), evolutionary theory (C. Darwin) and the doctrine of the biosphere (V. I. Vernadsky).

The significance of the discoveries of the last decades has yet to be assessed, however, the most important achievements of biology have been recognized as: deciphering the genome of humans and other organisms, determining the mechanisms for controlling the flow of genetic information in the cell and the developing organism, the mechanisms for regulating cell division and death, cloning of mammals, as well as the discovery of pathogens " mad cow disease (prions).

The work on the "Human Genome" program, which was carried out simultaneously in several countries and was completed at the beginning of this century, led us to understand that a person has about 25-30 thousand genes, but information from most of our DNA is never read , since it contains a huge number of sections and genes encoding features that have lost their significance for humans (tail, body hair, etc.). In addition, a number of genes responsible for the development of hereditary diseases, as well as drug target genes, have been deciphered. However, the practical application of the results obtained during the implementation of this program is postponed until the genomes of a significant number of people are decoded, and then it becomes clear what is their difference. These goals are set for a number of leading laboratories around the world working on the implementation of the ENCODE program.

Biological research is the foundation of medicine, pharmacy, and is widely used in agriculture, forestry, food industry and other branches of human activity.

It is well known that only the "green revolution" of the 1950s made it possible to at least partially solve the problem of providing the rapidly growing population of the Earth with food, and animal husbandry with feed through the introduction of new plant varieties and advanced technologies for their cultivation. Due to the fact that the genetically programmed properties of agricultural crops have almost been exhausted, the further solution of the food problem is associated with the widespread introduction of genetically modified organisms into production.

The production of many food products, such as cheeses, yogurts, sausages, bakery products, etc., is also impossible without the use of bacteria and fungi, which is the subject of biotechnology.

Knowledge of the nature of pathogens, the processes of the course of many diseases, the mechanisms of immunity, the laws of heredity and variability made it possible to significantly reduce mortality and even completely eradicate a number of diseases, such as smallpox. With the help of the latest achievements of biological science, the problem of human reproduction is also being solved.

A significant part of modern medicines is produced on the basis of natural raw materials, and also thanks to the success of genetic engineering, such as insulin, which is so necessary for patients with diabetes mellitus, is mainly synthesized by bacteria that have transferred the corresponding gene.

Biological research is no less significant for the preservation of the environment and the diversity of living organisms, the threat of extinction of which casts doubt on the existence of mankind.

Of greatest importance among the achievements of biology is the fact that they even underlie the construction of neural networks and the genetic code in computer technology, and are also widely used in architecture and other industries. Without a doubt, the 21st century is the century of biology.

Methods of knowledge of wildlife

Like any other science, biology has its own arsenal of methods. In addition to the scientific method of cognition, which is used in other branches, such methods as historical, comparative descriptive, etc. are widely used in biology.

The scientific method of cognition includes observation, formulation of hypotheses, experiment, modeling, analysis of results and derivation of general patterns.

Observation- this is a purposeful perception of objects and phenomena with the help of sensory organs or instruments, due to the task of activity. The main condition for scientific observation is its objectivity, that is, the possibility of verifying the data obtained by repeated observation or the use of other research methods, such as experiment. The facts obtained as a result of observation are called data. They can be like quality(describing smell, taste, color, shape, etc.), and quantitative, and quantitative data are more accurate than qualitative ones.

Based on the observational data, we formulate hypothesis- a hypothetical judgment about the regular connection of phenomena. The hypothesis is tested in a series of experiments. experiment called scientifically staged experience, the observation of the phenomenon under study under controlled conditions, allowing to identify the characteristics of this object or phenomenon. The highest form of experimentation is modeling- study of any phenomena, processes or systems of objects by building and studying their models. In essence, this is one of the main categories of the theory of knowledge: any method of scientific research, both theoretical and experimental, is based on the idea of modeling.

The results of the experiment and simulation are subjected to a thorough analysis. Analysis called the method of scientific research by decomposing an object into its component parts or mental dismemberment of an object by logical abstraction. Analysis is inextricably linked with synthesis. Synthesis- this is a method of studying the subject in its integrity, in the unity and interconnection of its parts. As a result of analysis and synthesis, the most successful research hypothesis becomes working hypothesis, and if it can resist attempts to refute it and still successfully predict previously unexplained facts and relationships, then it can become a theory.

Under theory understand such a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic view of the patterns and essential connections of reality. The general direction of scientific research is to achieve higher levels of predictability. If no facts can change a theory, and the deviations from it that occur are regular and predictable, then it can be elevated to the rank law- a necessary, essential, stable, recurring relationship between phenomena in nature.

As the body of knowledge increases and research methods improve, hypotheses and well-established theories can be challenged, modified, and even rejected, since scientific knowledge itself is dynamic in nature and is constantly subject to critical rethinking.

historical method reveals patterns of appearance and development of organisms, formation of their structure and function. In a number of cases, with the help of this method, hypotheses and theories that were previously considered false acquire new life. So, for example, it happened with Charles Darwin's assumptions about the nature of signal transmission through the plant in response to environmental influences.

Comparative descriptive method provides for an anatomical and morphological analysis of the objects of study. It underlies the classification of organisms, identifying patterns of emergence and development of various forms of life.

Monitoring- this is a system of measures for monitoring, evaluating and predicting changes in the state of the object under study, in particular the biosphere.

Conducting observations and experiments often requires the use of special equipment, such as microscopes, centrifuges, spectrophotometers, etc.

Microscopy is widely used in zoology, botany, human anatomy, histology, cytology, genetics, embryology, paleontology, ecology and other branches of biology. It allows you to study the fine structure of objects using light, electron, X-ray and other types of microscopes.

organism is a complete system capable of independent existence. According to the number of cells that make up organisms, they are divided into unicellular and multicellular. The cellular level of organization in unicellular organisms (common amoeba, green euglena, etc.) coincides with the organismic level. There was a period in the history of the Earth when all organisms were represented only by unicellular forms, but they ensured the functioning of both biogeocenoses and the biosphere as a whole. Most multicellular organisms are represented by a combination of tissues and organs, which in turn also have a cellular structure. Organs and tissues are adapted to perform certain functions. The elementary unit of this level is an individual in its individual development, or ontogenesis, therefore the organismal level is also called ontogenetic. An elementary phenomenon of this level is the changes in the organism in its individual development.

Population-species level

population- this is a collection of individuals of the same species, freely interbreeding with each other and living apart from other similar groups of individuals.

In populations, there is a free exchange of hereditary information and its transmission to descendants. The population is the elementary unit of the population-species level, and the elementary phenomenon in this case are evolutionary transformations, such as mutations and natural selection.

Biogeocenotic level

Biogeocenosis is a historically established community of populations of different species, interconnected with each other and the environment through the metabolism and energy.

Biogeocenoses are elementary systems in which the material-energy cycle is carried out, due to the vital activity of organisms. The biogeocenoses themselves are elementary units of a given level, while elementary phenomena are energy flows and cycles of substances in them. Biogeocenoses make up the biosphere and determine all the processes occurring in it.

biospheric level

Biosphere- the shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms and transformed by them.

The biosphere is the highest level of organization of life on the planet. This shell covers the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper layer of the lithosphere. The biosphere, like all other biological systems, is dynamic and actively transformed by living beings. It itself is an elementary unit of the biospheric level, and as an elementary phenomenon, they consider the processes of circulation of substances and energy that occur with the participation of living organisms.

As mentioned above, each of the levels of organization of living matter contributes to a single evolutionary process: the cell not only reproduces the inherent hereditary information, but also changes it, which leads to the emergence of new combinations of signs and properties of the organism, which in turn are subjected to the action of natural selection at the population-species level, etc.

Biological systems

Biological objects of varying degrees of complexity (cells, organisms, populations and species, biogeocenoses and the biosphere itself) are currently considered as biological systems.

A system is a unity of structural components, the interaction of which generates new properties in comparison with their mechanical combination. Organisms are made up of organs, organs are made up of tissues, and tissues make up cells.

Characteristic features of biological systems are their integrity, the level principle of organization, as mentioned above, and openness. The integrity of biological systems is largely achieved through self-regulation, functioning on the principle of feedback.

TO open systems include systems between which and the environment there is an exchange of substances, energy and information, for example, plants in the process of photosynthesis capture sunlight and absorb water and carbon dioxide, releasing oxygen.

One of the fundamental concepts in modern biology is the idea that all living organisms have a cellular structure. Science deals with the study of the structure of the cell, its vital activity and interaction with the environment. cytology now commonly referred to as cell biology. Cytology owes its appearance to the formulation of the cell theory (1838–1839, M. Schleiden, T. Schwann, supplemented in 1855 by R. Virchow).

cell theory is a generalized idea of the structure and functions of cells as living units, their reproduction and role in the formation of multicellular organisms.

The main provisions of the cell theory:

A cell is a unit of structure, life activity, growth and development of living organisms - there is no life outside the cell. A cell is a single system consisting of many elements that are naturally connected with each other, representing a certain integral formation. Cells of all organisms are similar in their chemical composition, structure and functions. New cells are formed only as a result of division of mother cells (“cell from cell”). The cells of multicellular organisms form tissues, and organs are made up of tissues. The life of an organism as a whole is determined by the interaction of its constituent cells. The cells of multicellular organisms have a complete set of genes, but differ from each other in that they have different groups of genes, which results in a morphological and functional diversity of cells - differentiation.

Thanks to the creation of the cellular theory, it became clear that the cell is the smallest unit of life, an elementary living system, which has all the signs and properties of living things. The formulation of the cellular theory became the most important prerequisite for the development of views on heredity and variability, since the identification of their nature and their inherent laws inevitably suggested the universality of the structure of living organisms. Revealing the unity of the chemical composition and structural plan of cells served as an impetus for the development of ideas about the origin of living organisms and their evolution. In addition, the origin of multicellular organisms from a single cell during embryonic development has become a dogma of modern embryology.

About 80 chemical elements are found in living organisms, but only 27 of these elements have their functions in the cell and organism. The rest of the elements are present in trace amounts, and appear to be ingested through food, water, and air. The content of chemical elements in the body varies significantly. Depending on the concentration, they are divided into macronutrients and microelements.

The concentration of each macronutrients in the body exceeds 0.01%, and their total content is 99%. Macronutrients include oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and iron. The first four of these elements (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen) are also called organogenic, since they are part of the main organic compounds. Phosphorus and sulfur are also components of a number of organic substances, such as proteins and nucleic acids. Phosphorus is essential for the formation of bones and teeth.

Without the remaining macronutrients, the normal functioning of the body is impossible. So, potassium, sodium and chlorine are involved in the processes of excitation of cells. Potassium is also needed for many enzymes to function and to retain water in the cell. Calcium is found in the cell walls of plants, bones, teeth, and mollusk shells, and is required for muscle contraction and intracellular movement. Magnesium is a component of chlorophyll - a pigment that ensures the flow of photosynthesis. It also takes part in protein biosynthesis. Iron, in addition to being a part of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in the blood, is necessary for the processes of respiration and photosynthesis, as well as for the functioning of many enzymes.

trace elements are contained in the body in concentrations of less than 0.01%, and their total concentration in the cell does not even reach 0.1%. Trace elements include zinc, copper, manganese, cobalt, iodine, fluorine, etc. Zinc is part of the pancreatic hormone molecule insulin, copper is required for photosynthesis and respiration. Cobalt is a component of vitamin B12, the absence of which leads to anemia. Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of thyroid hormones, which ensure the normal course of metabolism, and fluorine is associated with the formation of tooth enamel.

Both deficiency and excess or disturbance of the metabolism of macro- and microelements lead to the development of various diseases. In particular, a lack of calcium and phosphorus causes rickets, a lack of nitrogen causes severe protein deficiency, an iron deficiency causes anemia, and a lack of iodine causes a violation of the formation of thyroid hormones and a decrease in metabolic rate. Reducing the intake of fluoride with water and food to a large extent causes a violation of the renewal of tooth enamel and, as a result, a predisposition to caries. Lead is toxic to almost all organisms. Its excess causes irreversible damage to the brain and central nervous system, which is manifested by loss of vision and hearing, insomnia, kidney failure, seizures, and can also lead to paralysis and diseases such as cancer. Acute lead poisoning is accompanied by sudden hallucinations and ends in coma and death.

The lack of macro- and microelements can be compensated by increasing their content in food and drinking water, as well as by taking medications. So, iodine is found in seafood and iodized salt, calcium in eggshells, etc.

plant cells

Plants are eukaryotic organisms, therefore, their cells necessarily contain a nucleus at least at one of the stages of development. Also in the cytoplasm of plant cells there are various organelles, however, their distinguishing feature is the presence of plastids, in particular chloroplasts, as well as large vacuoles filled with cell sap. The main storage substance of plants - starch - is deposited in the form of grains in the cytoplasm, especially in the storage organs. Another essential feature of plant cells is the presence of cellulose cell membranes. It should be noted that in plants, formations, the living contents of which have died off, are also commonly called cells, but the cell walls remain. Often, these cell walls are impregnated with lignin during lignification, or with suberin during corking.

Plant tissues

Unlike animals, in plants the cells are glued together by a carbohydrate median lamina; between them there can also be intercellular spaces filled with air. During life, tissues can change their functions, for example, xylem cells first perform a conducting function, and then a supporting one. In plants, there are up to 20–30 types of tissues, uniting about 80 types of cells. Plant tissues are divided into educational and permanent.

Educational, or meristematic, tissues take part in plant growth processes. They are located at the tops of shoots and roots, at the bases of internodes, form a layer of cambium between the bast and wood in the stem, and also underlie the cork in lignified shoots. The constant division of these cells supports the process of unlimited plant growth: the educational tissues of the tips of the shoot and root, and in some plants, internodes, ensure the growth of plants in length, and the cambium in thickness. When a plant is damaged, from the cells that are on the surface, wound educational tissues are formed that fill the gaps that have arisen.

permanent fabrics plants specialize in performing certain functions, which is reflected in their structure. They are incapable of division, but under certain conditions they can again acquire this ability (with the exception of dead tissues). Permanent tissues include integumentary, mechanical, conductive and basic.

Integumentary tissues plants protect them from evaporation, mechanical and thermal damage, the penetration of microorganisms, and ensure the exchange of substances with the environment. Integumentary tissues include skin and cork.

Skin, or epidermis, is a single-layer tissue devoid of chloroplasts. The peel covers the leaves, young shoots, flowers and fruits. It is riddled with stomata and can carry various hairs and glands. The top of the skin is covered cuticle of fat-like substances that protect plants from excessive evaporation. Some hairs on its surface are also intended for this, while glands and glandular hairs can secrete various secrets, including water, salts, nectar, etc.

stomata- these are special formations through which water evaporates - transpiration. In stomata, the guard cells surround the stomatal opening, with free space below them. The guard cells of the stomata are most often bean-shaped, they contain chloroplasts and starch grains. The inner walls of the guard cells of the stomata are thickened. If the guard cells are saturated with water, then the inner walls stretch and the stomata open. Saturation of the guard cells with water is associated with the active transport of potassium ions and other osmotically active substances in them, as well as the accumulation of soluble carbohydrates in the process of photosynthesis. Through the stomata, not only the evaporation of water occurs, but also gas exchange in general - the supply and removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide, which penetrate further through the intercellular spaces and are consumed by cells in the process of photosynthesis, respiration, etc.

Cells traffic jams, which mainly covers lignified shoots, is impregnated with a fat-like substance suberin, which, on the one hand, causes cell death, and on the other hand, prevents evaporation from the plant surface, thereby providing thermal and mechanical protection. In the cork, as well as in the skin, there are special formations for ventilation - lentils. Cork cells are formed as a result of the division of the cork cambium that underlies it.

mechanical fabrics plants perform supporting and protective functions. These include collenchyma and sclerenchyma. Collenchyma is a living mechanical tissue with elongated cells with thickened cellulose walls. It is characteristic of young, growing plant organs - stems, leaves, fruits, etc. Sclerenchyma- this is a dead mechanical tissue, the living content of the cells of which dies due to the lignification of the cell walls. In fact, only thickened and lignified cell walls remain from sclerenchyma cells, which in the best possible way contributes to the performance of their respective functions. Cells of mechanical tissue are most often elongated and are called fibers. They accompany the cells of the conductive tissue in the composition of the bast and wood. Single or in groups stony cells sclerenchyma round or star-shaped are found in the immature fruits of pear, hawthorn and mountain ash, in the leaves of water lilies and tea.

By conductive tissue substances are transported throughout the body of the plant. There are two types of conductive tissue: xylem and phloem. Part xylem, or wood, includes conductive elements, mechanical fibers and cells of the main tissue. The living contents of the cells of the conducting elements of the xylem - vessels And tracheid- dies off early, only lignified cell walls remain from them, as in sclerenchyma. The function of the xylem is the upward transport of water and mineral salts dissolved in it from the root to the shoot. Phloem, or bast, is also a complex tissue, since it is formed by conductive elements, mechanical fibers and cells of the main tissue. Cells of conductive elements - sieve tubes- living, but the nuclei disappear in them, and the cytoplasm is mixed with cell sap to facilitate the transport of substances. The cells are located one above the other, the cell walls between them have numerous holes, which makes them look like a sieve, which is why the cells are called sieve. The phloem transports water and organic substances dissolved in it from the aerial parts of the plant to the root and other organs of the plant. Loading and unloading of sieve tubes is provided by adjacent companion cells. Main fabric not only fills the gaps between other tissues, but also performs nutritional, excretory and other functions. The nutritional function is performed by photosynthetic and storage cells. For the most part this parenchymal cells, i.e. they have almost the same linear dimensions: length, width and height. The main tissues are located in leaves, young stems, fruits, seeds and other storage organs. Some types of basic tissue are capable of performing a suction function, such as cells of the hairy layer of the root. The selection is carried out by a variety of hairs, glands, nectaries, resin passages and receptacles. A special place among the main tissues belongs to lactic cells, in the cell juice of which rubber, gutta, and other substances accumulate. In aquatic plants, the intercellular spaces of the main tissue may grow, as a result of which large cavities are formed, with the help of which ventilation is carried out.

plant organs

Vegetative and generative organs

Unlike animals, the body of plants is divided into a small number of organs. They are divided into vegetative and generative. Vegetative organs support the vital activity of the organism, but do not participate in the process of sexual reproduction, while generative organs perform exactly this function. The vegetative organs include the root and shoot, and the generative (in flowering) - flower, seed and fruit.

Root

Root- this is an underground vegetative organ that performs the functions of soil nutrition, fixing the plant in the soil, transport and storage of substances, as well as vegetative propagation.

Root morphology. The root has four zones: growth, absorption, conduction and root cap. root cap protects the cells of the growth zone from damage and facilitates the movement of the root among the solid soil particles. It is represented by large cells that can become slimy and die over time, which facilitates root growth.

growth zone is made up of cells capable of dividing. Some of them, after division, increase in size as a result of stretching and begin to perform their inherent functions. Sometimes the growth zone is divided into two zones: division And stretching.

IN suction zone root hair cells are located, performing the function of absorbing water and minerals. Root hair cells do not live long, desquamating 7–10 days after formation.

IN the venue, or lateral roots, substances are transported from the root to the shoot, and branching of the root also occurs, i.e., the formation of lateral roots, which contributes to the anchoring of the plant. In addition, in this zone, it is possible to store substances and lay buds, with the help of which vegetative propagation can occur.

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1. What does anatomy study?

Human anatomy is the science of the form, structure and development of the human body in accordance with gender, age and individual characteristics.

Anatomy studies the external forms and proportions of the human body and its parts, individual organs, their design, microscopic structure. The tasks of anatomy include the study of the main stages of human development in the process of evolution, the structural features of the body and individual organs at different age periods, as well as in environmental conditions.

2. What does physiology study?

Physiology - (from the Greek physis - nature and logos - word, doctrine), the science of life processes and the mechanisms of their regulation in the human body. Physiology studies the mechanisms of various functions of a living organism (growth, reproduction, respiration, etc.), their relationship with each other, regulation and adaptation to the external environment, origin and formation in the process of evolution and individual development of an individual. Solving fundamentally common problems, the physiology of animals and humans and the physiology of plants have differences due to the structure and functions of their objects. So, for the physiology of animals and humans, one of the main tasks is the study of the regulatory and integrating role of the nervous system in the body. The greatest physiologists participated in solving this problem (I.M. Sechenov, N.E. Vvedensky, I.P. Pavlov, A.A. Ukhtomsky, G. Helmholtz, K. Bernard, C. Sherrington, etc.). Plant physiology, which emerged from botany in the 19th century, is traditionally the study of mineral (root) and air (photosynthesis) nutrition, flowering, fruiting, etc. It serves as the theoretical basis for plant growing and agronomy. The founders of Russian plant physiology - A.S. Famintsyn and K.A. Timiryazev. Physiology is associated with anatomy, cytology, embryology, biochemistry, and other biological sciences.

3. What does hygiene study?

Hygiene - (from other Greek ? geinyu "healthy", from? gyaeb "health") - the science of the influence of the environment on human health.

As a result, hygiene has two objects of study - environmental factors and the reaction of the body, and uses the knowledge and methods of physics, chemistry, biology, geography, hydrogeology and other sciences that study the environment, as well as physiology, anatomy and pathophysiology.

Environmental factors are diverse and are divided into:

Physical - noise, vibration, electromagnetic and radioactive radiation, climate, etc.

Chemical - chemical elements and their compounds.

· Factors of human activity - the regime of the day, the severity and intensity of labor, etc.

· Social.

Within the framework of hygiene, the following main sections are distinguished:

Environmental hygiene - studying the impact of natural factors - atmospheric air, solar radiation, etc.

· Occupational health - studying the impact of the working environment and factors of the production process on a person.

Communal hygiene - within the framework of which requirements are developed for urban planning, housing, water supply, etc.

· Nutritional hygiene - studying the meaning and impact of food, developing measures to optimize and ensure nutritional safety (often this section is confused with dietetics).

· Hygiene of children and adolescents - studying the complex impact of factors on a growing organism.

· Military hygiene -- aimed at maintaining and improving the combat capability of personnel.

Personal hygiene - a set of hygiene rules, the implementation of which contributes to the preservation and promotion of health.

Also some narrow sections: radiation hygiene, industrial toxicology, etc.

The main tasks of hygiene:

study of the influence of the external environment on the state of health and performance of people. At the same time, the external environment should be understood as the whole complex complex of natural, social, domestic, industrial and other factors.

· scientific justification and development of hygienic standards, rules and measures to improve the environment and eliminate harmful factors;

· scientific justification and development of hygienic standards, rules and measures to increase the body's resistance to possible harmful environmental influences in order to improve health and physical development, increase efficiency. This is facilitated by rational nutrition, physical exercises, hardening, a properly organized work and rest regimen, and observance of personal hygiene rules.

4. What factors disturbing the balance between the environment and the organism are toxins?

In the body of each person there is a certain amount of harmful substances, which are called toxins (from the Greek. toxikon - poison). They are divided into two large groups.

Exotoxins are harmful substances of chemical and natural origin that enter the body from the external environment with food, air or water. Most often, these are nitrates, nitrites, heavy metals and many other chemical compounds that are present in almost everything that surrounds us. Living in large industrial cities, working in hazardous industries, and even taking medications containing toxic substances are all, to one degree or another, factors of poisoning the body.

Endotoxins are harmful substances that are formed during the life of the body. Especially a lot of them appear in various diseases and metabolic disorders, in particular, with poor bowel function, abnormal liver function, with tonsillitis, pharyngitis, influenza, acute respiratory infections, kidney diseases, allergic conditions, even stress.

Toxins poison the body and disrupt its coordinated work - most often they undermine the immune, hormonal, cardiovascular and metabolic systems. This leads to a complication of the course of various diseases and prevents recovery. Toxins lead to a decrease in the body's resistance, deterioration of the general condition and loss of strength.

One theory of aging suggests that it is caused by the accumulation of toxins in the body. They inhibit the work of organs, tissues, cells, disrupt the course of biochemical processes in them. This ultimately leads to a deterioration in their functions and, as a result, to aging of the whole organism.

Almost any disease is much easier and easier to treat if toxins do not accumulate and are quickly eliminated from the body.

Nature has endowed man with various systems and organs capable of destroying, neutralizing and removing harmful substances from the body. These are, in particular, the systems of the liver, kidneys, lungs, skin, gastrointestinal tract, etc. In modern conditions, it is becoming increasingly difficult to cope with aggressive toxins, and a person needs additional reliable and effective help.

5. What factors does radiation refer to?

Radioactivity is called the instability of the nuclei of some atoms, which manifests itself in their ability to spontaneous transformation (according to scientific - decay), which is accompanied by the release of ionizing radiation (radiation). The energy of such radiation is large enough, so it is able to act on the substance, creating new ions of different signs. It is impossible to cause radiation with the help of chemical reactions, this is a completely physical process.

There are several types of radiation:

· Alpha particles are relatively heavy particles, positively charged, are helium nuclei.

Beta particles are ordinary electrons.

· Gamma radiation - has the same nature as visible light, but much greater penetrating power.

· Neutrons are electrically neutral particles that occur mainly near a working nuclear reactor, access there should be limited.

· X-rays are similar to gamma rays, but have less energy. By the way, the Sun is one of the natural sources of such rays, but the Earth's atmosphere provides protection from solar radiation.

Sources of radiation -- nuclear installations (particle accelerators, reactors, x-ray equipment) and radioactive substances. They can exist for a considerable time without manifesting themselves in any way, and you may not even suspect that you are near an object of strong radioactivity.

The body reacts to the radiation itself, and not to its source. Radioactive substances can enter the body through the intestines (with food and water), through the lungs (during breathing) and even through the skin in medical diagnostics with radioisotopes. In this case, internal radiation occurs. In addition, a significant effect of radiation on the human body is exerted by external exposure, i.e. The radiation source is outside the body. The most dangerous, of course, is internal exposure.

The effect of radiation on the human body is called irradiation. During this process, the energy of the radiation is transferred to the cells, destroying them. Irradiation can cause all sorts of diseases: infectious complications, metabolic disorders, malignant tumors and leukemia, infertility, cataracts and much more. Radiation is especially acute on dividing cells, so it is especially dangerous for children.

Radiation refers to those factors of physiological effects on the human body, for the perception of which it has no receptors. He is simply not able to see, hear, or feel it by touch or taste.

The absence of direct cause-and-effect relationships between radiation and the body's response to its effects allows us to constantly and quite successfully exploit the idea of the danger of the impact of small doses on human health.

6. What factors are viruses?

Viruses (derived from the Latin virus - "poison") are the smallest microorganisms that do not have a cellular structure, a protein-synthesizing system and are capable of reproducing only in the cells of highly organized life forms. To designate an agent capable of causing an infectious disease, it was first used in 1728.

The origin of viruses in the evolutionary tree of life is unclear: some of them may have originated from plasmids, small DNA molecules that can be transferred from one cell to another, while others may have originated from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which determines genetic diversity.

Viruses spread in many ways: plant viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant sap, such as aphids; Animal viruses can be spread by blood-sucking insects, such organisms are known as vectors. The influenza virus is spread through the air through coughs and sneezes. Norovirus and rotavirus, which commonly cause viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the fecal-oral route through contact with contaminated food or water. HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and through transfusion of infected blood. Each virus has a specific host specificity, determined by the types of cells it can infect. The host range may be narrow or, if the virus infects many species, wide.

Viruses, although very small, they cannot be seen, are the object of study of the sciences:

For physicians, viruses are the most common causative agents of infectious diseases: influenza, measles, smallpox, tropical fevers.

For a pathologist, viruses are the etiological agents (cause) of cancer and leukemia, the most frequent and dangerous pathological processes.

For a veterinary worker, viruses are the culprits of epizootics (mass diseases) of foot-and-mouth disease, bird plague, infectious anemia and other diseases that affect farm animals.

For an agronomist, viruses are the causative agents of spotted banding of wheat, tobacco mosaic, yellow potato dwarfism and other diseases of agricultural plants.

For the grower, viruses are the factors that cause the amazing colors of tulips to appear.

For the medical microbiologist, viruses are agents that cause the appearance of toxic (poisonous) varieties of diphtheria or other bacteria, or factors that contribute to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

For an industrial microbiologist, viruses are pests of bacteria, producers, antibiotics, and enzymes.

For a geneticist, viruses are carriers of genetic information.

For a Darwinist, viruses are important factors in the evolution of the organic world.

For an ecologist, viruses are factors involved in the formation of conjugated systems of the organic world.

For a biologist, viruses are the simplest forms of life, possessing all of its main manifestations.

For a philosopher, viruses are the clearest illustration of the dialectics of nature, a touchstone for polishing such concepts as living and nonliving, part and whole, form and function.

Viruses are the causative agents of the most important diseases of humans, farm animals and plants, and their importance is constantly increasing as the incidence of bacterial, protozoal and fungal diseases decreases.

7. What is homeostasis?

Life is possible only with a relatively small range of deviations of various characteristics of the internal environment - physicochemical (acidity, osmotic pressure, temperature, etc.) and physiological (arterial pressure, blood sugar, etc.) - from a certain average value. The constancy of the internal environment of a living organism is called homeostasis (from the Greek words homoios - similar, identical and stasis - state).

Under the influence of environmental factors, the vital characteristics of the internal environment may change. Then reactions occur in the body aimed at restoring them or preventing such changes. These reactions are called homeostatic. When blood is lost, for example, vasoconstriction occurs, preventing a drop in blood pressure. With an increase in sugar consumption during physical work, its release into the blood from the liver increases, which prevents a drop in blood sugar levels. With an increase in heat production in the body, the skin vessels expand, and therefore heat transfer increases, which prevents the body from overheating.

Homeostatic reactions are organized by the central nervous system, which regulates the activity of the autonomic and endocrine systems. The latter already directly affect the tone of blood vessels, the intensity of metabolism, the work of the heart and other organs. The mechanisms of the same homeostatic reaction and their effectiveness can be different and depend on many factors, including hereditary ones.

Homeostasis is also called the preservation of the constancy of the species composition and the number of individuals in biocenoses, the ability of a population to maintain a dynamic balance of the genetic composition, which ensures its maximum viability (genetic homeostasis).

8. What is a cytolemma?

The cytolemma is the universal skin of the cell, it performs barrier, protective, receptor, excretory functions, transfers nutrients, transmits nerve impulses and hormones, connects cells into tissues.

This is the thickest (10 nm) and complexly organized cell membrane. It is based on a universal biological membrane, covered on the outside with a glycocalyx, and on the inside, from the side of the cytoplasm, with a submembrane layer. The glycocalyx (3-4 nm thick) is represented by the outer, carbohydrate sections of complex proteins - glycoproteins and glycolipids that make up the membrane. These carbohydrate chains play the role of receptors that ensure that the cell recognizes neighboring cells and intercellular substance and interacts with them. This layer also includes surface and semi-integral proteins, the functional sites of which are located in the supramembrane zone (for example, immunoglobulins). The glycocalyx contains histocompatibility receptors, receptors for many hormones and neurotransmitters.

The submembrane, cortical layer is formed by microtubules, microfibrils and contractile microfilaments, which are part of the cell cytoskeleton. The submembrane layer maintains the shape of the cell, creates its elasticity, and provides changes in the cell surface. Due to this, the cell participates in endo- and exocytosis, secretion, and movement.

The cytolemma performs many functions:

1) delimiting (the cytolemma separates, delimits the cell from the environment and ensures its connection with the external environment);

2) recognition by this cell of other cells and attachment to them;

3) recognition by the cell of the intercellular substance and attachment to its elements (fibers, basement membrane);

4) transport of substances and particles into and out of the cytoplasm;

5) interaction with signaling molecules (hormones, mediators, cytokines) due to the presence of specific receptors for them on its surface;

6) provides cell movement (formation of pseudopodia) due to the connection of the cytolemma with the contractile elements of the cytoskeleton.

Numerous receptors are located in the cytolemma, through which biologically active substances (ligands, signal molecules, first mediators: hormones, mediators, growth factors) act on the cell. Receptors are genetically determined macromolecular sensors (proteins, glyco- and lipoproteins) built into the cytolemma or located inside the cell and specialized in the perception of specific signals of a chemical or physical nature. Biologically active substances, when interacting with the receptor, cause a cascade of biochemical changes in the cell, while transforming into a specific physiological response (change in cell function).

All receptors have a common structural plan and consist of three parts: 1) supramembrane, which interacts with a substance (ligand); 2) intramembrane, carrying out signal transfer; and 3) intracellular, immersed in the cytoplasm.

9. What is the importance of the core?

The nucleus is an obligatory component of the cell (exception: mature erythrocytes), where the bulk of DNA is concentrated.

Two important processes take place in the nucleus. The first of these is the synthesis of the genetic material itself, during which the amount of DNA in the nucleus doubles (for DNA and RNA, see Nucleic acids). This process is necessary so that during subsequent cell division (mitosis) the same amount of genetic material appears in two daughter cells. The second process - transcription - is the production of all types of RNA molecules, which, migrating into the cytoplasm, provide the synthesis of proteins necessary for the life of the cell.

The nucleus differs from the cytoplasm surrounding it in terms of the refractive index of light. That is why it can be seen in a living cell, but usually special dyes are used to identify and study the nucleus. The Russian name "nucleus" reflects the spherical shape most characteristic of this organoid. Such nuclei can be seen in liver cells, nerve cells, but in smooth muscle and epithelial cells, the nuclei are oval. There are kernels and more bizarre shapes.

The most dissimilar nuclei are composed of the same components, i.e. have a common building plan. In the nucleus, there are: nuclear envelope, chromatin (chromosome material), nucleolus and nuclear juice. Each nuclear component has its own structure, composition and functions.

The nuclear membrane includes two membranes located at some distance from each other. The space between the membranes of the nuclear envelope is called the perinuclear space. There are holes in the nuclear membrane - pores. But they are not end-to-end, but are filled with special protein structures, which are called the nuclear pore complex. Through the pores, RNA molecules exit the nucleus into the cytoplasm, and proteins move towards them into the nucleus. The membranes of the nuclear envelope themselves ensure the diffusion of low molecular weight compounds in both directions.

Chromatin (from the Greek word chroma - color, paint) is the substance of chromosomes, which are much less compact in the interphase nucleus than during mitosis. When cells are stained, they are stained brighter than other structures.

The nucleolus is clearly visible in the nuclei of living cells. It has the appearance of a calf of a rounded or irregular shape and stands out clearly against the background of a rather homogeneous nucleus. The nucleolus is a formation that occurs in the nucleus on those chromosomes that are involved in the synthesis of RNA ribosomes. The region of the chromosome that forms the nucleolus is called the nucleolar organizer. In the nucleolus, not only RNA synthesis takes place, but also the assembly of ribosome subparticles. The number of nucleoli and their sizes can be different. The products of the activity of chromatin and the nucleolus initially enter the nuclear juice (karyoplasm).

The nucleus is essential for cell growth and reproduction. If the main part of the cytoplasm is separated experimentally from the nucleus, then this cytoplasmic lump (cytoplast) can exist without a nucleus for only a few days. The nucleus, surrounded by the narrowest rim of the cytoplasm (karyoplast), completely retains its viability, gradually ensuring the restoration of organelles and the normal volume of the cytoplasm. However, some specialized cells, such as mammalian erythrocytes, function for a long time without a nucleus. It is also deprived of platelets - platelets, which are formed as fragments of the cytoplasm of large cells - megakaryocytes. Spermatozoa have a nucleus, but it is completely inactive.

10. What is fertilization?

Fertilization is the fusion of a male reproductive cell (sperm) with a female (ovum), leading to the formation of a zygote, which gives rise to a new organism. Fertilization is preceded by complex processes of egg maturation (oogenesis) and spermatozoon (spermatogenesis). Unlike spermatozoa, the egg does not have independent mobility. A mature egg leaves the follicle in the abdominal cavity in the middle of the menstrual cycle at the time of ovulation and enters the fallopian tube due to its suction peristaltic movements and the flickering of cilia. The period of ovulation and the first 12-24 hours. after it are the most favorable for fertilization. If it does not happen, then in the following days regression and death of the egg occur.

During sexual intercourse, semen (semen) enters the woman's vagina. Under the influence of the acidic environment of the vagina, part of the spermatozoa dies. The most viable of them penetrate through the cervical canal into the alkaline environment of its cavity and 1.5-2 hours after sexual intercourse reach the fallopian tubes, in the ampullary section of which fertilization occurs. Many spermatozoa rush to the mature egg, however, as a rule, only one of them penetrates through the shiny membrane covering it, the nucleus of which merges with the nucleus of the egg. From the moment of the fusion of germ cells, pregnancy begins. A unicellular embryo is formed, a qualitatively new cell - a zygote, from which, as a result of a complex process of development during pregnancy, a human body is formed. The sex of the unborn child depends on the type of sperm that fertilized the egg, which is always the carrier of the X chromosome. In the event that the egg was fertilized by a sperm with the X (female) sex chromosome, a female embryo (XX) occurs. When an egg is fertilized by a sperm with a Y (male) sex chromosome, a male embryo (XY) develops. There is evidence that spermatozoa containing the Y chromosome are less durable and die faster compared to spermatozoa containing the X chromosome. Obviously, in this regard, the likelihood of conceiving a boy increases if the fertilizing sexual intercourse occurred during ovulation. In the event that sexual intercourse was a few days before ovulation, there is a greater chance that fertilization will occur. Eggs are spermatozoa containing the X chromosome, i.e., a higher probability of having a girl.

The fertilized egg, moving along the fallopian tube, undergoes crushing, passes through the stages of blastula, morula, blastocyst, and on the 5-6th day from the moment of fertilization reaches the uterine cavity. At this point, the embryo (embryoblast) is covered on the outside with a layer of special cells - the trophoblast, which provides nutrition and implantation (introduction) into the uterine mucosa, which is called decidual during pregnancy. The trophoblast secretes enzymes that dissolve the uterine ileus, which facilitates the immersion of the fertilized egg into its thickness.

11. What characterizes the crushing stage?

Cleavage is a series of rapid divisions of the zygote without intermediate growth.

After combining the genomes of the egg and sperm, the zygote immediately proceeds to mitotic division - the development of a multicellular diploid organism begins. The first stage of this development is called fragmentation. It has a number of features. First of all, in most cases cell division does not alternate with cell growth. The number of cells of the embryo increases, and its total volume remains approximately equal to the volume of the zygote. During cleavage, the volume of the cytoplasm remains roughly constant, while the number of nuclei, their total volume, and especially their surface area, increase. This means that during the period of crushing, normal (ie, characteristic of somatic cells) nuclear-plasma relations are restored. Mitoses in the course of crushing especially quickly follow one after another. This occurs due to the shortening of the interphase: the Gx period falls out completely, and the G2 period also shortens. Interphase is practically reduced to the S-period: as soon as the entire DNA doubles, the cell enters mitosis.

Cells formed during crushing are called blastomeres. In many animals, they divide synchronously for quite a long time. True, sometimes this synchrony is disturbed early: for example, in roundworms at the stage of four blastomeres, and in mammals the first two blastomeres already divide asynchronously. In this case, the first two divisions usually occur in the meridian planes (pass through the animal-vegetative axis), and the third division - in the equatorial (perpendicular to this axis).

Another characteristic feature of crushing is the absence of signs of tissue differentiation in blastomeres. Cells can already "know" their future fate, but they do not yet have signs of nerve, muscle or epithelial.

12. What is implantation?

physiology cytolemma zygote

Implantation (from Latin in (im) - in, inside and plantatio - planting, transplantation), attachment of the embryo to the wall of the uterus in mammals with intrauterine development and in humans.

There are three types of implantation:

Central implantation - when the embryo remains in the lumen of the uterus, attaching to its wall or the entire surface of the trophoblast, or only part of it (in bats, ruminants).

Eccentric implantation - the embryo penetrates deep into the fold of the uterine mucosa (the so-called uterine crypt), the walls of which then fuse over the embryo and form an implantation chamber isolated from the uterine cavity (in rodents).

Interstitial implantation - characteristic of higher mammals (primates and humans) - the embryo actively destroys the cells of the uterine mucosa and is introduced into the resulting cavity; the defect of the uterus heals, and the embryo is completely immersed in the wall of the uterus, where its further development takes place.

13. What is gastrulation?

Gastrulation is a complex process of morphogenetic changes, accompanied by reproduction, growth, directed movement and differentiation of cells, resulting in the formation of germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) - sources of rudiments of tissues and organs. The second stage of ontogenesis after crushing. During gastrulation, the movement of cell masses occurs with the formation of a two-layer or three-layer embryo from the blastula - the gastrula.

The type of blastula determines the mode of gastrulation.

The embryo at this stage consists of clearly separated layers of cells - germ layers: outer (ectoderm) and inner (endoderm).

In multicellular animals, except for intestinal cavities, in parallel with gastrulation or, like in the lancelet, after it, a third germ layer appears - the mesoderm, which is a collection of cellular elements located between the ectoderm and endoderm. Due to the appearance of the mesoderm, the embryo becomes three-layered.

In many groups of animals, it is at the stage of gastrulation that the first signs of differentiation appear. Differentiation (differentiation) is the process of the emergence and growth of structural and functional differences between individual cells and parts of the embryo.

From the ectoderm, the nervous system, sensory organs, skin epithelium, tooth enamel are formed; from the endoderm - the epithelium of the middle intestine, digestive glands, the epithelium of the gills and lungs; from the mesoderm - muscle tissue, connective tissue, circulatory system, kidneys, sex glands, etc.

In different groups of animals, the same germ layers give rise to the same organs and tissues.

Gastrulation methods:

Invagination - occurs by invagination of the blastula wall into the blastocoel; characteristic of most groups of animals.

· Delamination (characteristic of coelenterates) - the cells located outside are transformed into the epithelial layer of the ectoderm, and the endoderm is formed from the remaining cells. Usually, delamination is accompanied by divisions of blastula cells, the plane of which passes "at a tangent" to the surface.

Immigration - migration of individual cells of the blastula wall into the blastocoel.

Unipolar - on one section of the blastula wall, usually on the vegetative pole;

· Multipolar - on several parts of the blastula wall.

Epiboly - fouling of some cells by rapidly dividing other cells or fouling of cells of the internal mass of the yolk (with incomplete crushing).

· Involution - screwing inside the embryo of the outer layer of cells increasing in size, which spreads along the inner surface of the cells remaining outside.

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Analysis of typical tasks No. 1 USE in biology

After reviewing all the tasks offered by the open bank, we can distinguish two classifications of tasks for ourselves: according to the thematic section and according to the form of the question.

By subject area

Arranged in order from largest to smallest, we get:

Botany
human anatomy
Cytology
General biology
Genetics
Evolution

Let's look at examples of tasks for each section.

Botany

Consider the proposed diagram of the structure of the organs of a flowering plant. Write in the answer the missing term, indicated in the diagram with a question mark.

The stem, buds and leaves together make up the ground part of the plant - the shoot.

Answer: escape.

human anatomy

Consider the proposed scheme of the structure of the skeleton of the upper limb. Write in the answer the missing term, indicated in the diagram with a question mark.

The arm belongs to the free upper limb. If you don’t go into details with the bones that make it up yet, then you just need to remember the three sections: shoulder, forearm, hand.

The shoulder begins at the shoulder joint and ends at the elbow joint.

The forearm, respectively, should end with the elbow, and start from the wrist inclusive.

Brush-bones that make up the palm and phalanges of the fingers.

Answer: shoulder.

Cytology

First, you need to familiarize yourself with the concept of "cytology" in order to understand what is at stake.

Cytology is a branch of biology that studies living cells, their organelles, their structure, functioning, processes of cell reproduction, aging and death. The terms cell biology, cell biology are also used.

The word "cytology" includes two roots from the Greek language: "cytos" - cell, "logos" - science, as in biology - "bio" - living, "logos" - science. Knowing the roots, you can easily assemble a definition.

Consider the proposed classification scheme for organelles. Write in the answer the missing term, indicated by a question mark in the diagram.

From this diagram, it becomes clear that organelles are divided into three types according to the number of membranes. Here, only one window is allocated for each type, but this does not mean that only one organoid corresponds to each type. In addition, plant and animal cells have differences in cell structure.

Plants, unlike animals, have:

Cellulose cell wall
Chloroplasts essential for photosynthesis
Large digestive vacuole. The older the cell, the larger the vacuoles

According to the number of membranes, organelles are divided into:

Single-membrane organelles: endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes.
Two-membrane organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, plastids (leukoplasts, chloroplasts, chromoplasts).
Non-membrane organelles: ribosomes, centrioles, nucleolus.

In the diagram, the question is about two-membrane organelles. We know that mitochondria and plastids are two-membrane. We argue: there is only one pass, and there are two options. It's not just like that. You need to read the question carefully. There are two types of cells, but we are not told which one we are talking about, so the answer must be universal. Plastids are characteristic only of plant cells, therefore, mitochondria remain.

Answer: mitochondria, or mitochondrion.

(Both options are listed in the open bank)

Genetics

Again, let's look at the definition:

Genetics is the science of the laws of heredity and variability.

Let's break the definition into definitions:

Heredity - The totality of the natural properties of an organism received from parents, predecessors.

Variability - a variety of characters among representatives of a given species, as well as the property of offspring to acquire differences from parental forms.

Consider the proposed classification scheme for the types of variability. Write in the answer the missing term, indicated in the diagram with a question mark.

Since the property of acquiring differences from parental forms is embedded in the concept of variability, this gives us the term "heredity". A healthy person has 46 chromosomes. 23 from mom, 23 from dad. This means that the child is a combination of traits acquired from parents, moreover, mom and dad also carry the traits of their parents in their genetic code. In the course of permutations, some appear in the offspring, and some can simply be transferred to the genome. Those that appear are dominant, and those that are simply registered in the genome are recessive. Such variability does not bring major changes against the background of the whole species.

Answer: combinative.

Evolution

Evolution in biology is the irreversible historical development of living nature.

It is aimed at the survival of the species. There is no need to think that evolution is just a complication of the organism, some species have taken the path of degeneration, that is, simplification, in order to survive.

Biological regression obviously has no options. Those who could not adapt to changing environmental conditions came to regression, which means they died out. Biologists know that it is not the fittest who survive, but the fittest.

Biological progress has three paths, let's start simple:

Adaptation is the main goal. In another way, "adapt" can be said to "adapt".

The next way is idioadaptation.

Idioadaptation is the acquisition of useful traits for life.

Or scientifically: Idioadaptation is the direction of evolution, which consists in the acquisition of new features while maintaining the level of organization of ancestral forms.

Everyone knows what an anteater looks like. He has an elongated muzzle, and all this is necessary in order to get his food, small insects. Such a change in the shape of the muzzle did not make fundamental changes in the life of anteaters, but it became more convenient for them to eat than from ancestors with a less elongated muzzle.

Aromorphosis is the occurrence in the course of evolution of signs that significantly increase the level of organization of living organisms.

For example, the emergence of angiosperms has significantly increased survival rates.

Answer: idioadaptation.

So, we have analyzed one example of tasks from different sections asked in the first task.

Second classification: according to form the question asked. Although there are schemes everywhere in the first task, the question can still be posed in different ways.

Question Forms

1. Missing term in the scheme

You just need to enter the missing term in the diagram, as in the tasks above. Most of these questions.

Consider the proposed scheme of evolution directions. Write in the answer the missing term, indicated by a question mark in the diagram.

We discussed this option above, so we write the answer right away.

Answer: idioadaptation.

2. Answer the question from the chart

The scheme is complete, based on your knowledge, you need to answer the question according to the scheme.

Look at the picture for examples of chromosomal mutations. Under the number 3, it indicates a chromosomal rearrangement ... (write down the term in your answer)

There are several types of chromosome rearrangements that you need to know:

Duplication is a type of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of a chromosome is doubled.

Deletions are the loss of a portion of a chromosome.

Inversion - a change in the structure of the chromosome, caused by a 180 ° turn of one of its internal sections.

Translocation is the transfer of a part of a chromosome to another.

The third figure clearly shows that there are more sections of chromosomes. The first four sections of the chromosome doubled, they became 9, instead of 5, as it was. This means that a duplication of a part of the chromosome has occurred.

Answer: duplication.

3. Answer to the question about the circuit part

The scheme is complete, but there is a question regarding some part of it:

Consider the proposed scheme for the reaction between amino acids. In response, write down the concept denoting the name of the chemical bond marked in the diagram with a question mark.

This diagram depicts the reaction between two amino acids, which is known from the question. There are peptide bonds between them. You will get to know them in more detail when studying DNA and RNA.

A peptide bond is a chemical bond that occurs between two molecules as a result of a condensation reaction between the carboxyl group (-COOH) of one molecule and the amino group (-NH2) of another molecule, with the release of one molecule of water (H2O).

Answer: peptide or peptide bond.

According to FIPI, the first task is basic, so it is not particularly difficult for a graduate. It covers many topics, but is rather superficial. After studying all the topics, it is better to look at all the available schemes for this assignment, since the answer is not always obvious. And don't forget to read the question carefully, it's not always the same.

The part of the nervous system that innervates the internal organs. The autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic parts.

Adrenaline is a hormone of the adrenal medulla, the secretion of which is enhanced in stressful situations.

Axon - a process of a neuron, through which excitation is transmitted to other neurons or to a working organ.

Alveolus - bubble-like formation in the lungs, braided with blood capillaries.

Analyzers are complex systems of sensitive nerve formations that perceive information from the environment and analyze it (visual, auditory, gustatory, etc.). Each analyzer consists of three sections: peripheral (receptors), conductor (nerve) and central (corresponding zone of the cerebral cortex). Currently, along with the term analyzer, the concept of "sensory system" is used.

Androgens are male sex hormones produced mainly by the testes, as well as by the adrenal cortex and ovaries.

Antigens - substances that are perceived by the body as foreign and cause a specific immune response.

Antibodies are human plasma proteins that have the ability to bind antigens. Interacting with microorganisms, antibodies prevent their reproduction and/or neutralize the toxic substances they release.

The aorta is the main artery of the circulatory system; supplies blood to all tissues and organs of the body.

Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the organs and tissues of the body.

The tympanic membrane is a thin membrane that separates the external auditory canal from the tympanic cavity in the human ear.

Unconditioned reflexes are relatively constant, innate reactions of the body to the influences of the outside world, carried out with the help of the nervous system. For example, blinking, sucking, sneezing in newborns.

Pregnancy is a physiological process in a woman's body, in which a fetus develops from a fertilized egg. It lasts an average of 280 days. It ends with childbirth - the birth of a child.

Myopia is a lack of vision in which close objects are clearly seen and distant objects are poorly seen.

The vagus nerve is a large parasympathetic nerve that slows down the rhythm and force of the heart contractions.

The bronchi are the airways that connect the trachea and the lungs.

Veins are blood vessels that carry blood from organs and tissues to the heart.

Vitamins are low molecular weight organic compounds that have high biological activity and are involved in metabolism. A person must receive vitamins from food. With their deficiency, beriberi develops - diseases associated with metabolic disorders. There are water-soluble (C, B1, B6, etc.) and fat-soluble (A, E, D, etc.) vitamins.

Taste analyzer - perceives and analyzes soluble chemical irritants acting on the organ of taste (tongue).

The inner ear is a system of communicating, fluid-filled canals and cavities in the cartilaginous or bony labyrinth in vertebrates and humans. In the inner ear are located the perceiving parts of the organs of hearing and balance - the cochlea and the vestibular apparatus.

Excitability - the ability of organs and tissues to respond to the action of stimuli with a specific reaction - excitation, in which a living system passes from a state of rest to activity.

Villi are microscopic outgrowths of the intestinal mucosa, which greatly increase the absorption surface.

Inflammation is a complex adaptive vascular tissue response of the body to the effects of various pathogens: physical, chemical, biological.

Absorption is a set of processes that ensure the transfer of substances from the digestive tract to the internal environment of the body (blood and lymph).

Isolation (excretion) - removal from the body into the environment of the end products of metabolism - water, salts, etc.

Higher nervous activity - the activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system, providing the most perfect adaptation of a person to the environment. The basis of higher nervous activity is conditioned reflexes. The doctrine of higher nervous activity was created by IP Pavlov.

Gamete is a sex cell.

A ganglion is a ganglion located outside the central nervous system. Formed by a cluster of bodies of neurons.

Hemoglobin is the red respiratory pigment of human blood. A protein that contains iron (II). Found in erythrocytes. Carries oxygen from the respiratory organs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the respiratory organs. Co-

The amount of hemoglobin in human blood is 130-160 g / l, in women it is somewhat less than in men.

Hygiene is a field of medicine that studies the influence of living and working conditions on human health. Develops measures to prevent diseases, ensure optimal living conditions, maintain health and prolong life.

The hypothalamus is a part of the diencephalon in which the centers of the autonomic nervous system are located. Closely related to the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus regulates metabolism, the activity of the cardiovascular, digestive, excretory systems and endocrine glands, the mechanisms of sleep, wakefulness, and emotions. It connects the nervous and endocrine systems.

The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland that produces hormones that affect the growth and development of the body, as well as metabolic processes. The pituitary gland regulates the activity of other endocrine glands. Damage to the pituitary gland leads to various diseases - dwarfism, gigantism, etc.

Glycogen is a polysaccharide made up of glucose molecules. It is synthesized and deposited in the cytoplasm of liver and muscle cells. Glycogen is sometimes referred to as animal starch because it serves as a reserve nutrient.

The pharynx is the part of the digestive canal that connects the oral cavity with the esophagus, and the nasal cavity with the larynx.

Homeostasis is the relative dynamic constancy of the composition and properties of the internal environment of the body, as well as the mechanisms that ensure this stability.

The brain is a part of the central nervous system located in the cranial cavity. Includes 5 departments: oblong, posterior (bridge and cerebellum), middle, intermediate (thalamus and hypothalamus) and telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres and corpus callosum).

Gonads are the sex glands in humans and animals.

Hormones are biologically active substances produced in the body by special cells or organs (endocrine glands) and released into the blood. Hormones have a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues. With their help, humoral regulation of body functions is carried out.

The larynx is the initial section of the airways, protecting them from food ingress.

Thorax - a set of thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum, forming a strong support for the shoulder girdle. The space inside the chest (thoracic cavity) is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. Inside the chest cavity are the lungs and the heart.

Humoral regulation - coordination of vital processes in the body, carried out through liquid media (blood, lymph, tissue fluid) with the help of hormones and various metabolic products.

Farsightedness is a lack of vision that makes it difficult to see clearly at close range. Depends on the weak refractive power of the cornea and lens or too short anterior-posterior axis of the eye.

Dendrites are branching processes of neurons that conduct nerve impulses to the body of a nerve cell.

Dermis is the connective tissue part of the skin of vertebrates and humans, located under the outer layer - the epidermis.

The diaphragm is a muscular septum that completely separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.

Dominant - a strong, persistent focus of excitation that occurs in the central nervous system. The dominant focus has an inhibitory effect on the activity of other nerve centers.

Respiration is a set of processes that ensure the entry of oxygen into the body, its use for the oxidation of organic substances with the release of energy and the release of carbon dioxide into the environment.

The respiratory center is a collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata and other parts of the brain that provide the rhythmic activity of the respiratory muscles.

Glands are organs that secrete special substances (secrets) that are involved in metabolism. There are glands of external, internal and mixed secretion.

External secretion glands - usually have excretory ducts and secrete secrets on the surface of the body (sweat, sebaceous) or in the cavity of internal organs (salivary, intestinal, etc.).

Endocrine glands - do not have excretory ducts and secrete the substances they produce into the blood or lymph (pituitary, epiphysis, thymus, thyroid and parathyroid glands, etc.).

Glands of mixed secretion - have intra- and exocrine secretion (pancreas and genital - ovaries and testes).

The macula is an area on the retina located along the optical axis of the eye, where the largest number of cones is concentrated.

Gastric juice is a colorless liquid that contains digestive enzymes, mucus and hydrochloric acid solution.

Bile is a secret produced by liver cells. Contains water, bile salts, pigments, cholesterol. Bile promotes emulsification and

absorption of fats, increased contractions of the muscles of the intestine, activates the enzymes of pancreatic juice.

Vital capacity is the sum of tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, and inspiratory reserve volume. measured with a spirometer.

A zygote is a fertilized egg. The initial stage of development of the embryo.

The visual analyzer is a set of visual receptors, the optic nerve and parts of the brain that perceive and analyze visual stimuli.

Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist the action of damaging agents, while maintaining its integrity and biological individuality. Protective reaction of the body.

The immune system is a group of organs (red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, etc.) involved in the formation of immune cells.

Infectious diseases are diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms.

Artificial respiration - therapeutic techniques used to stop natural breathing. The caregiver actively blows (exhales) his own air into the lungs of the victim. In the absence of palpitations, it is combined with an indirect heart massage.

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels through the walls of which the exchange of substances and gases between the blood and tissues of the body is carried out.

Caries is the gradual destruction of tooth tissues. One of the most common human diseases, manifested in the formation of a defect in enamel and dentin.

Valves - folds that separate the sections of the heart and prevent the reverse flow of blood (in humans - tricuspid, bicuspid, or mitral, two semilunar).

Cones are light-sensitive flask-shaped cells (photoreceptors) located in the human retina. Provide color vision.

The cerebral cortex is a layer of gray matter covering the cerebral hemispheres. The highest department of the central nervous system, which regulates and coordinates all the vital functions of the body in its interaction with the environment.

The organ of Corti is the receptor part of the auditory analyzer, located in the inner ear and represented by hair cells in which nerve impulses arise.

Blood is a tissue of the internal environment, the intercellular substance of which is represented by a liquid (plasma). The composition of blood, in addition to plasma, includes formed elements - erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets.

Blood pressure is the pressure of blood on the walls of blood vessels and chambers of the heart, resulting from its contractions and vascular resistance. The pressure at the time of ventricular contraction is systolic, and during diastole it is diastolic.

Circulation - the movement of blood through the system of blood vessels (large and small circles of blood circulation), mainly due to contractions of the heart.

Leukocytes are white human blood cells. They play an important role in protecting the body from infections - they produce antibodies and absorb bacteria.

Lymph is a fluid that circulates through the vessels and nodes of the lymphatic system. Contains a small amount of proteins and lymphocytes. It performs a protective function, and also ensures the exchange of substances between body tissues and blood.

The lymphatic system is a collection of lymphatic vessels and nodes through which lymph moves.

Lymphocytes are a form of non-granular leukocytes. Participate in the development and maintenance of immunity.

A mediator is a chemical substance whose molecules are capable of reacting with specific receptors on the plasma membrane of a cell. In this case, its permeability for certain ions changes and an active electrical signal arises. Mediators are involved in the transfer of excitation from one cell to another. The role of mediators is carried out by adrenaline, acetylcholine, norepinephrine, etc.

Slow-wave sleep is a phase of sleep characterized by a decrease in all functions of the human body, the absence of dreams.

Tonsils - accumulations of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx, performing a protective role.

Myocardium is the muscular layer of the heart.

Myofibrils are contractile fibers made up of protein filaments.

The cerebellum is part of the human hindbrain. Plays a leading role in maintaining body balance and coordination of movements.

The mammary glands are paired human skin glands. Develop in women by the period of puberty. After childbirth, they begin to produce milk.

Urine is a excretory product of animals and humans, produced by the kidneys. Consists of water (96%) and the salts contained in it, as well as final

products of protein metabolism (urea, uric acid, etc.). In the process of urine formation, the primary urine is first obtained, and then the final urine.

The adrenal glands are paired endocrine glands. The cortical layer of the adrenal glands secretes corticosteroids, as well as partially male and female sex hormones; medulla - adrenaline and norepinephrine. They play an important role in the regulation of metabolism and in the adaptation of the body to adverse conditions.

The outer ear is the outer part of the auditory analyzer.

A neuron is a nerve cell, the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system. There are sensory, intercalary and motor neurons. They consist of a body and processes - dendrites and axons that are involved in the transmission of excitation.

Neurohumoral regulation - joint regulation of body functions by nervous and humoral mechanisms.

Nervous regulation is the coordinating influence of the nervous system on cells, tissues and organs, bringing their activity in line with the needs of the body.

Nerve fibers - processes of nerve cells that conduct nerve impulses.

Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers covered by a common sheath.

The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidneys. It has the appearance of a cup-shaped capsule with a tubule extending from it.

Metabolism - a set of chemical transformations of substances, including the processes of their entry into the body, changes, accumulation and removal of metabolic products. Metabolism is carried out with the participation of enzymes and includes the reactions of synthesis and splitting.

Olfactory sensory system - performs the perception and analysis of chemical stimuli. It is represented by the epithelium of the nasal cavity, the olfactory nerve and the olfactory centers of the cerebral cortex.

Fertilization is the process of fusion of female and male sex cells. As a result of fertilization, a zygote is formed.

Posture is the body position habitual for each person when walking, standing and sitting.

Touch - provides the ability to perceive and distinguish the shape, size and nature of the surface of an object.

Rods are light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors) in the retina. Provides twilight vision. Unlike cones, they are more sensitive, but do not perceive colors.

The parasympathetic nervous system is a division of the autonomic nervous system, the centers of which are located in the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, and midbrain. Together with the sympathetic nervous system, it is involved in the regulation of the activity of all internal organs and glands.

The forebrain is the anterior part of the brain of vertebrates, subdivided into the final (large hemispheres of the brain) and diencephalon.

The pericardium is a pericardial sac, a connective tissue sac that surrounds the heart.

The liver is a digestive gland. In addition to the synthesis of bile, it is involved in the metabolism of proteins, etc. It performs a barrier function.

Nutrition - the entry into the human body and the assimilation of substances necessary to replenish energy costs, build and renew tissues. Through nutrition as an integral part of metabolism, the body is connected with the external environment. Insufficient and excessive nutrition leads to metabolic disorders (dystrophy, obesity).

Plasma is the liquid part of blood and lymph.

The placenta, a child's place, is an organ that communicates the fetus with the mother's body. Through the placenta, oxygen and nutrients are supplied from the mother, and metabolic products are removed from the body of the fetus. It also performs hormonal and protective functions.

A fetus is a human embryo in the period of intrauterine development after the laying of the main organs and systems (from the 9th week of pregnancy until birth).

Flat feet - flattening of the arch of the foot, causing pain.

The pancreas is a gland of mixed secretion. Its exocrine function is to produce enzymes involved in digestion, and its intrasecretory function is to secrete hormones (insulin, glucagon) that regulate carbohydrate metabolism.

Subcutaneous adipose tissue is a type of connective tissue. Serves as an energy depot of the body.

Sweat glands - external secretion glands involved in the release of metabolic products, thermoregulation. located in the skin.

The kidney is an organ of excretion. Nitrogen-containing metabolic products are excreted through the kidneys in the urine.

Conductivity - the ability of nerve and muscle cells not only to produce, but also to conduct an electrical impulse.

The medulla oblongata is a section of the brain stem located between the pons and the spinal cord. The medulla oblongata contains centers for breathing, circulation, sneezing, coughing, swallowing, etc.

The diencephalon is a part of the brain stem that includes several areas (including the hypothalamus). In the diencephalon are the higher centers of the autonomic nervous system.

Pulse - periodic oscillations of the walls of the arteries, occurring synchronously with the contractions of the heart.

The iris (iris) is a thin movable diaphragm of the eye with a pupillary opening in the center. Contains pigment cells that determine eye color.

Irritability is the ability of cells, tissues or the whole organism to respond to changes in the external or internal environment.

Rational nutrition is a nutrition system that maximally satisfies the current energy and plastic needs of the body.

The Rh factor is a protein (antigen) found in people's blood. About 85% of the world's population have the Rh factor (Rh+), the rest do not have it (Rh-). The presence or absence of the Rh factor is taken into account during blood transfusion.

Reflex - a response of the body to a change in the conditions of the external or internal environment, carried out with the participation of the nervous system. There are unconditioned and conditioned reflexes.

Reflex arc - a set of nerve formations involved in the reflex. Includes receptors, sensory fibers, nerve center, motor fibers, executive organ (muscle, gland, etc.).

Receptor - a formation that perceives irritation. Receptors can be nerve endings or specialized cells (eg, rods and cones in the retina). Receptors convert the energy of the stimulus acting on them into nerve impulses.

The cornea is the anterior transparent part of the sclera that transmits light rays.

Childbirth is a complex physiological act of expulsion of the fetus and afterbirth (placenta, membranes and umbilical cord) from the uterine cavity.

Sebaceous glands are glands located in the skin that secrete a secret that makes the skin and hair water-repellent and elastic.

Self-regulation - the ability of a biological system to independently maintain various physiological indicators (blood pressure, body temperature, blood sugar, etc.) at a relatively constant level.

Blood clotting is a protective reaction of the body, expressed in stopping bleeding (formation of a clot) when a vessel is damaged.

Secretion is the process of formation and secretion of special substances from gland cells - secrets.

The spleen is an unpaired organ of vertebrates and humans, located in the abdominal cavity. Participates in hematopoiesis, metabolism, performs immunobiological and protective functions.

The testicles (testicles) are the male sex glands in which spermatozoa are produced.

A cardiac cycle is a period that includes one contraction and one relaxation of the heart.

The heart is the main organ of the circulatory system. Consists of two halves, each of which includes an atrium and a ventricle.

The retina is the inner shell of the eye, which contains light-sensitive receptors - rods and cones.

Sympathetic nervous system - a section of the autonomic nervous system, including nerve cells of the thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord and nerve cells of the border sympathetic trunk, solar plexus, mesenteric nodes, the processes of which innervate all organs. The sympathetic nervous system is involved in the regulation of a number of body functions: impulses are carried through its fibers, causing increased metabolism, increased heart rate, vasoconstriction, dilated pupils, etc.

Synapse - a zone of functional contact between neurons and other formations.

Systole is the contraction of the atria or ventricles of the heart.

The sclera is the outer opaque membrane that covers the eyeball and passes in front of the eye into the transparent cornea. Performs protective and shaping functions.

Auditory analyzer - performs the perception and analysis of sounds. Consists of the inner, middle and outer ear.

Salivary glands are external secretion glands that open into the oral cavity and produce saliva.

Contractility - the property of muscle fibers to change their shape and size - to perform a motor function.

The somatic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system that innervates the musculoskeletal system and skin.

Sperm - produced by the male gonads. Consists of

matozoids (male sex cells) and seminal fluid, which ensures their mobility.

The middle ear is a part of the organ of hearing, consisting of an air-filled tympanic cavity and three auditory ossicles - the malleus, anvil and stirrup. Separated from the external auditory canal by the tympanic membrane.

The vitreous body is a gelatinous mass that fills the cavity of the eye. It is part of the optical system of the eye.

Joint - a movable connection of bones, which allows the bones to move in different planes. There are uniaxial (only flexion - extension), biaxial (also adduction and abduction) and triaxial (rotation) joints.

Thermoregulation - regulation in the body of the processes of formation and release of heat.

Tissue fluid is one of the components of the internal environment of the body. Fills intercellular spaces in tissues and organs of animals and humans. Serves as a medium for cells, from which they absorb nutrients and into which they give metabolic products.

Inhibition is an active physiological process, manifested in the cessation or weakening of current activity. Along with excitation, it ensures the coordinated work of all organs and systems.

Trachea - part of the respiratory tract, located between the larynx and bronchi. Consists of cartilaginous semirings connected by ligaments. It branches into two bronchi.

Thrombocytes (red platelets) are blood cells involved in clotting.

Conditioned reflexes are reflexes developed under certain conditions (hence the name) during the life of an animal and a person. They are formed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes.

Phagocytes are leukocytes capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies (phagocytosis). Participate in the development of immunity.

Enzymes are biological catalysts, substances of a protein nature.

Fibrin is an insoluble protein formed from fibrinogen during blood clotting.

Fibrinogen is a soluble protein that is constantly present in the blood. Able to turn into fibrin.

Formed elements of blood - erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets.

Photoreceptors - rods and cones of the retina - light-sensitive formations that convert light energy into nerve impulses.

The lens is a structure of the eye that looks like a biconvex lens and is located behind the iris. It is part of the optical system of the eye. Provides refraction and focusing of light rays on the retina.

The central nervous system (CNS) is the main division of the nervous system, represented by the spinal cord and brain.

A suture is a method of fixed connection of bones, in which numerous protrusions of one bone enter the corresponding recesses of another (for example, the bones of the skull).

The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland that secretes hormones that affect the growth and development of the body, as well as the intensity of metabolism.

Embryo - the embryo of animals and humans.

Endocrine glands - endocrine glands that do not have excretory ducts and secrete hormones directly into the blood (pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus gland, adrenal glands, etc.). Hormones secreted by the endocrine glands are involved in the neurohumoral regulation of body functions.

The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin.

Epithelium - a layer of closely spaced cells covering the surface of the body (for example, skin), lining all its cavities and performing mainly protective, excretory and absorbing functions. Most of the glands are made up of epithelium.

Erythrocytes are red blood cells containing hemoglobin. They carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. Human erythrocytes do not have a nucleus.

The ovaries are a paired female sex gland, in which eggs (female sex cells) are formed and mature. The ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity and produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone.

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Glossary of basic biological terms and concepts

ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT - a set of inorganic conditions (factors) for the habitat of organisms. These include the composition of atmospheric air, the composition of sea and fresh water, soil, air and soil temperature, lighting and other factors.

AGROBIOCENOSIS - a set of organisms living on lands occupied by crops and planting crops. In agriculture, the vegetation cover is created by man and usually consists of one or two cultivated plants and accompanying weeds.

AGROECOLOGY is a branch of ecology that studies the patterns of organization of artificial plant communities, their structure and functioning.

NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA - bacteria capable of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen with the formation of nitrogen compounds available for use by other organisms. Among A.b. there are both freely living in the soil, and coexisting with mutual benefit with the roots of higher plants.

ANTIBIOTICS are specific chemical substances formed by microorganisms and capable of exerting a selective effect on other microorganisms and malignant tumor cells even in small quantities. In a broad sense, A. also includes antimicrobial substances in the tissues of higher plants (phytoncides). The first A. was obtained in 1929 by Fleming (although penicillium was used by Russian doctors much earlier). The term "A." proposed in 1942 by Z. Waksman.

ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS - factors of human influence on the environment. Human influence on plants can be both positive (plant cultivation, pest control, protection of rare species and biocenoses) and negative. The negative impact of a person can be direct - deforestation, collecting flowering plants, trampling vegetation in parks and forests, indirect - through environmental pollution, the destruction of pollinating insects, etc.

BACTERIA is the kingdom of living organisms. They differ from organisms of other kingdoms in the structure of the cell. Single-celled or grouped microorganisms. Motionless or mobile - with flagella.

BACTERICIDITY - the ability of plant juices, animal blood serum and some chemicals to kill bacteria.

BIO-INDICATORS - organisms whose developmental characteristics or number serve as indicators of natural processes or anthropogenic changes in the environment. Many organisms can exist only within certain, often narrow limits of changes in environmental factors (the chemical composition of soil, water, atmosphere, climatic and weather conditions, the presence of other organisms). For example, lichens and some coniferous trees serve B. to keep the air clean. Aquatic plants, their species composition and abundance are B. the degree of water pollution.

BIOMASS - the total mass of individuals of a species, group of species or community of organisms. It is usually expressed in units of mass (grams, kilograms) per unit area or volume of habitat (hectare, cubic meter). About 90% of biospheres of the entire biosphere are terrestrial plants. The rest is aquatic vegetation.

BIOSPHERE - the area of distribution of life on Earth, the composition, structure and energy of which are determined by the joint activity of living organisms.

BIOCENOSIS - a set of plants and animals in the food chain that has developed in the process of evolutionary development, affecting each other in the course of the struggle for existence and natural selection (plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit the lake, river valley, pine forest).

VIEW - the basic unit in the taxonomy of living organisms. A set of individuals that have a number of common characteristics and are capable of interbreeding with the formation of fertile offspring, inhabiting a certain territory.

germination - the ability of seeds to produce normal seedlings within a specified period under certain conditions. Express germination as a percentage.

HIGHER PLANTS - complex multicellular organisms with well-defined vegetative organs, adapted, as a rule, to life in a terrestrial environment.

GAMETE - sex cell. Provides transmission of hereditary information from parents to descendants.

Gametophyte - sexual generation in the life cycle of plants that develop with alternation of generations. Formed from spores, produces gametes. In higher plants, only in mosses, hyphae is represented by a leafy plant. In others, it is poorly developed and short-lived. In club mosses, horsetails, and ferns, G. is a growth that produces both male and female gametes. In angiosperms, the female G. is the embryo sac, and the male is pollen. They grow along the banks of rivers, in swamps and wet fields (reed, cattail).

GENERATIVE ORGANS - organs that perform the function of sexual reproduction. In flowering plants - flowers and fruits, more precisely - a speck of dust and an embryo sac.

HYBRIDIZATION - combining the hereditary material of different cells into one. In agriculture, the crossing of different varieties of plants. See also Selection.

Hygrophytes - plants of wet habitats. They grow in swamps, in water, in tropical rainforests. They have a poorly developed root system. Wood and mechanical fabrics are poorly developed. They can absorb moisture from the entire surface of the body.

HYDROPHYTES - aquatic plants attached to the ground and immersed in water only at the bottom. Unlike hygrophytes, they have well-developed conductive and mechanical tissues, a root system. But there are many intercellular spaces and air cavities.

GLYCOGEN - carbohydrate, polysaccharide. Its branched molecules are built from glucose residues. Energy reserve of many living organisms. When it is broken down, glucose (sugar) is formed and energy is released. Found in the liver and muscles of vertebrates, in fungi (yeast), in algae, in the grain of some varieties of corn.

GLUCOSE - grape sugar, one of the most common simple sugars. In green plants, it is formed from carbon dioxide and water as a result of photosynthesis. Participates in many metabolic reactions.

Gymnosperms are the most ancient of seed plants. Most are evergreen trees and shrubs. Representatives of gymnosperms are coniferous plants (spruce, pine, cedar, fir, larch).

MUSHROOMS - the kingdom of living organisms. Combine signs of both plants and animals, and also have special signs. There are both unicellular and multicellular fungi. The body (mycelium) consists of a system of branching filaments.

HUMUS (HUMUS) - a complex of specific dark-colored organic substances of the soil. It is obtained as a result of the transformation of organic residues. To a large extent determines the fertility of the soil.

Dioecious plants - plant species in which male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers are on different individuals (willow, poplar, sea buckthorn, actinidia).

DIFFERENTIATION - the emergence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues.

WOOD is the water-conducting tissue of plants. The main conducting element is the vessels: dead lignified sex cells. It also includes fibers that perform a supporting function. It is characterized by annual increments: there are early (spring) and late (summer) wood.

BREATHING is one of the main vital functions, a set of processes that ensure the supply of oxygen to the body, its use in chemical reactions, as well as the removal of carbon dioxide and some other metabolic products from the body.

AND

ANIMALS - the kingdom of living organisms. Unlike most plants, animals feed on ready-made organic substances and have a limited body growth in time. Their cells do not have a cellulose membrane. In the process of evolution, animals developed organ systems: digestive, respiratory, circulatory, etc.

PLANT LIFE FORM - the general appearance of a plant. There are trees, shrubs, shrubs, herbs.

VENATION OF LEAVES - a system of conducting bundles in leaf blades, along which substances are transported. There are parallel, arcuate, palmate, pinnate Zh.l.

RESERVES - small areas of a temporarily protected area with limited economic activity and visits of people. Individual species of plants or animals are preserved in sanctuaries.

RESERVES - large areas where the entire natural complex is preserved in a natural state. Any human activity is prohibited here.

GEM - an organism in the early period of development.

ZYGOTE - a cell formed as a result of the fusion of two gametes.

ZONAL VEGETATION - natural vegetation that characterizes natural belts and zones (tundra, taiga, steppe, desert, etc.).

AND

IMMUNITY - immunity, resistance, the body's ability to protect its integrity. A particular manifestation of I. is immunity to infectious diseases.

INDICATORS - See indicator plants and Bioindicators.

INDICATOR PLANTS - plants or plant communities that are closely associated with certain environmental conditions and allow them to be qualitatively and quantitatively assessed by the presence of these plants or communities. I.r. are used in assessing the mechanical composition, the degree of acidity and salinity of soils, in the search for fresh water in deserts and some minerals. For example, the content of lead in the soil is indicated by the species of fescue and bent grass; zinc - types of violet and yarutka; copper and cobalt - resins, many cereals and mosses.

EVAPORATION - the transition of water into a gaseous state. The main organ that evaporates water from a plant through stomata is the leaf. Together with root pressure, it provides a constant flow of water through the roots, stems and leaves. Evaporation prevents the plant from overheating.

Calcephiles - plants that live in alkaline soils rich in calcium. Alkaline soils can be identified by vegetation: forest anemone, six-petal meadowsweet, larch.

CALCEPHOBS - plants that avoid limestone soils. These plants are able to bind heavy metals, the excess of which in acidic soils does not harm them. For example, peat mosses.

CAMBIA - a single-row layer of cells of the educational tissue, forming wood cells inward from itself, and bast cells outward.

Carotenes are orange-yellow pigments. synthesized by plants. K. is rich in green leaves (especially spinach), carrot roots, rose hips, currants, and tomatoes. K. - accompanying pigments of photosynthesis. The oxidized derivatives of K. are xanthophylls.

GLUTEN - proteins contained in wheat grain and, accordingly, in flour. They remain in the form of an elastic clot after the removal of starch from wheat dough. Baking qualities of wheat flour largely depend on the properties of K..

A CELL is the basic unit of all living organisms, an elementary living system. It can exist as a separate organism (bacteria, some algae and fungi, protozoan plants and animals) or as part of the tissues of multicellular organisms.

CONE OF GROWTH - the apical zone of the shoot or root, formed by the cells of the educational tissue. Provides shoot and root growth in length. Ph.D. the shoot is protected by rudimentary leaves, and the tip of the root growth is protected by a root cap.

CONCENTRATION - the amount of a substance in a unit of volume or mass.

ROOT SYSTEM - the totality of the roots of one plant. The degree of development of K.s. depends on the environment. A person can influence the development of K.s. plants (hilling, picking, tillage). There are rod and fibrous K.s.

rhizome - a perennial underground shoot that allows the plant to survive adverse conditions.

STARCH (STARCH) CROPS - cultivated plants that are cultivated to produce starch (potatoes, corn). Starch accumulates in tubers or fruits.

STARCH GRAINS - inclusions in plastids of plant cells. Growth K.z. occurs by imposing new layers of starch on the old ones, so the grains have a layered structure.

SILICA - silicon dioxide (quartz, quartz sand).

CROWN - elevated (above the stem) branched part of the tree.

Xanthophylls - natural pigments from the group of carotenes, their oxygen-containing derivatives. Contained in leaves, flowers, fruits and buds of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms. Participate in photosynthesis as additional pigments. In combination with other pigments, they create leaf color in autumn.

Xerophytes - plants of dry habitats, capable of withstanding overheating and dehydration due to a number of adaptive features.

CUTICLE - a layer of fatty substance that covers leaves, stems or fruits with a film. Low permeability to water, pathogens.

TILLERING - branching, in which lateral shoots appear from buds located near the surface of the earth and underground.

LITMUS is a coloring matter obtained from some lichens. The water infusion of L. is violet in color, turning blue from the action of alkalis and reddening from the action of acids. As an indicator in chemistry, "litmus paper" is used - filter paper dyed with a solution of L. With the help of L., the acidity of the water infusion of the soil can be determined.

LANDSCAPE - 1) type of terrain, 2) geographical landscape - a territory within which the relief, climate, vegetation and wildlife form typical outlines that give the entire territory unity and distinguish it from neighboring territories.

LEUKOPLASTS - colorless plastids of a plant cell. They may have different shapes. One of the main functions is the synthesis and supply of nutrients: starch, oils. They can turn into chloroplasts.

LEAF MOSAIC - an arrangement of leaves that provides illumination for each shoot leaf. Perhaps due to the ability of the leaf petiole to grow for a long time and turn the leaf blade towards the light.

LEAF POSITION - the arrangement of leaves on a stem. There are alternate, opposite and whorled L.

LUB is a plant tissue that provides transport of photosynthesis products from leaves to places of consumption and storage. The main conducting element is living sieve tubes. L.'s fibers carry out mechanical function. Reserve nutrients are also deposited in the main cells of L..

OIL CROPS - cultural plants that are cultivated to produce fatty oils (sunflower, soybeans, mustard, castor beans, oil flax, sesame, etc.). Most M.K. accumulate oil in seeds and fruits.

INTERNODE - The section of a stem between two adjacent nodes. In rosette plants (dandelion, daisy), short shoots of trees (apple tree, birch), and some inflorescences (umbel, basket) M. are very short or absent.

INTERCELLULAR - spaces between cells. May be filled with air or water (more rarely).

INTERCELLULAR SUBSTANCE - a substance that connects cells to each other. The connection can be dense (in the integumentary tissue) or loose (in the storage tissue).

MESOPHITES - plants that live in conditions with sufficient, but not excessive soil moisture. Most of the plants in central Russia are found in the tropics and subtropics.

MYCOLOGY is a branch of biology that studies fungi.

MICROBIOLOGY - a branch of biology that studies microorganisms. The main object of M. is bacteria. However, the term "bacteriology" is used mainly in medicine. Yeast (the kingdom of fungi) also serves as a traditional object of M..

PERMANENT PLANTS - trees, shrubs, shrubs and herbaceous plants that live more than two years. They can bloom and bear fruit.

MOLECULE - the smallest particle of a substance that has the basic chemical properties of this substance. Consists of the same or different atoms.

PLANT MORPHOLOGY - the science that studies the structure of a plant and its forms.

UROUS ROOT SYSTEM - is formed with weak growth or death of the main root and intensive development of adventitious roots (buttercup, plantain, wheat).

MOSS (MOSSIVE) - department of higher plants. Most often these are terrestrial perennials. The body consists of a stem and leaves.

MULCHING - covering the surface of the soil with different materials in order to control weeds, preserve soil moisture and structure. For M., organic materials are used: peat chips, small manure, straw, as well as paper, cardboard, etc. M. helps to increase the yield of crops.

ABOVE-GROUND SEED GERMINATION - a method of seed germination, in which the cotyledons are brought to the surface (radish, buckwheat, beans, linden).

NATIONAL PARKS - large areas, usually located in picturesque places, where natural complexes of special value have been preserved. Unlike nature reserves, most of the N. p. open to the public.

LOWER PLANTS - a sub-kingdom of plants. Body N.R. (thallus or thallus) is not divided into root, stem and leaf. Such organisms have a special structure of cells, metabolism. K N.r. include only algae (see thallus). Previously, bacteria, lichens, algae, and fungi were included; all organisms except higher plants and animals.

NUCLEIC ACIDS are complex organic compounds whose biological role is to store and transmit hereditary information.

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