Rule of Justinian in the Byzantine Empire. Dil Sh. History of the Byzantine Empire Politics of the Isaurian dynasty. Iconoclasm

Justinian I the Great (lat. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus) ruled Byzantium from 527 to 565. Under Justinian the Great, the territory of Byzantium almost doubled. Historians believe that Justinian was one of the greatest monarchs of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages.
Justinian was born around 483. in a peasant family of a provincial village in a mountainous Macedonia, near Skupi . For a long time, the opinion prevailed that he was of Slavic origin and originally wore the name of the council, this legend was very common among the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula.

Justinian was distinguished by strict Orthodoxy , was a reformer and military strategist who made the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Coming from the dark mass of the provincial peasantry, Justinian was able to firmly and firmly master two grandiose ideas: the Roman idea of world monarchy and the Christian idea of the kingdom of God. Combining both ideas and putting them into action with the help of power in a secular state that has accepted these two ideas as political doctrine of the Byzantine Empire.

Under Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine Empire reached its peak, after a long period of decline, the monarch tried to restore the empire and return it to its former greatness. It is believed that Justinian fell under the influence of the strong character of his wife Theodora, whom he solemnly crowned in 527.

Historians believe that the main goal of Justinian's foreign policy was the revival of the Roman Empire within its former borders, the empire was to turn into a single Christian state. As a result, all the wars conducted by the emperor were aimed at expanding their territories, especially to the west, on the territory of the fallen Western Roman Empire.

The main commander of Justinian, who dreamed of the revival of the Roman Empire, was Belisarius, became a general at the age of 30.

In 533 Justinian sent Belisarius' army into North Africa for conquering the kingdom of the Vandals. The war with the Vandals was successful for Byzantium, and already in 534 the commander of Justinian won a decisive victory. As in the African campaign, the commander Belisarius kept many mercenaries in the Byzantine army - wild barbarians.

Even sworn enemies could help the Byzantine Empire - it was enough to pay them. So, Huns made up a large part of the army Belisarius , which on 500 ships set off from Constantinople to North Africa.Hun cavalry , who served as mercenaries in the Byzantine army of Belisarius, played a decisive role in the war against Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. During the general battle, the opponents fled from the wild horde of the Huns and hid in the Numidian desert. Then the commander Belisarius occupied Carthage.

After the annexation of North Africa in Byzantine Constantinople, they turned their eyes to Italy, on whose territory there existed kingdom of the Ostrogoths. Emperor Justinian the Great decided to declare war Germanic kingdoms , who waged constant wars among themselves and were weakened on the eve of the invasion of the Byzantine army.

The war with the Ostrogoths was successful, and The king of the Ostrogoths had to turn to Persia for help. Justinian secured himself in the East from a blow from the rear by making peace with Persia and launched a campaign to invade Western Europe.

First thing commander Belisarius occupied Sicily, where he met little resistance. The Italian cities also surrendered one by one until the Byzantines approached Naples.

Belisarius (505-565), Byzantine general under Justinian I, 540 (1830). Belasarius refusing the crown of their kingdom in Italy offered to him by the Goths in 540. Belisarius was a brilliant general who defeated a range of enemies of the Byzantine Empire, virtually doubling its territory in the process. (Photo by Ann Ronan Pictures/Print Collector/Getty Images)

After the fall of Naples, Pope Silverius invited Belisarius to enter the holy city. The Goths left Rome , and soon Belisarius occupied Rome, the capital of the empire. The Byzantine commander Belisarius, however, understood that the enemy was only gathering strength, so he immediately began to strengthen the walls of Rome. Followed then The siege of Rome by the Goths lasted one year and nine days (537-538). The Byzantine army, defending Rome, not only withstood the attacks of the Goths, but also continued its offensive deep into the Apennine Peninsula.

Belisarius' victories allowed the Byzantine Empire to establish control over the northeastern part of Italy. Already after the death of Belisarius was created exarchate (province) with Ravenna as its capital . Although Rome was later lost to Byzantium, as Rome actually fell under the control of the pope, Byzantium retained possessions in Italy until the middle of the 8th century.

Under Justinian, the territory of the Byzantine Empire reached its largest size during the entire existence of the empire. Justinian managed to almost completely restore the former borders of the Roman Empire.

The Byzantine emperor Justinian captured all of Italy and almost the entire coast of North Africa, and the southeastern part of Spain. Thus, the territory of Byzantium doubles, but does not reach the former borders of the Roman Empire.

Already in 540 New Persian the Sassanid kingdom terminated the peace treaty with Byzantium and actively prepared for war. Justinian was in a difficult position, because Byzantium could not withstand the war on two fronts.

Domestic policy of Justinian the Great

In addition to an active foreign policy, Justinian also pursued a prudent domestic policy. Under him, the Roman system of government was abolished, which was replaced by a new one - the Byzantine one. Justinian was actively engaged in strengthening the state apparatus, and also tried to improve taxation . Under the emperor were connected civil and military positions attempts have been made reduce corruption by raising the salaries of officials.

The people of Justinian were nicknamed the "sleepless emperor", as he worked day and night to reform the state.

Historians believe that Justinian's military successes were his main merit, but domestic politics, especially in the second half of his reign, devastated the state treasury.

Emperor Justinian the Great left behind a famous architectural monument that still exists today - Saint Sophie Cathedral . This building is considered a symbol of the "golden age" in the Byzantine Empire. This cathedral is the second largest Christian church in the world and second only to St. Paul's Cathedral in the Vatican . With the construction of the Hagia Sophia, Emperor Justinian won the favor of the Pope and the entire Christian world.

During the reign of Justinian, the world's first plague pandemic broke out, which swept the entire Byzantine Empire. The largest number of victims was recorded in the capital of the empire, Constantinople, where 40% of the total population died. According to historians, the total number of victims of the plague reached about 30 million people, and possibly more.

Achievements of the Byzantine Empire under Justinian

The greatest achievement of Justinian the Great is considered to be an active foreign policy, which doubled the territory of Byzantium, almost regaining all the lost lands after the fall of Rome in 476.

As a result of numerous wars, the treasury of the state was depleted, and this led to popular riots and uprisings. However, the rebellion prompted Justinian to issue new laws for the citizens of the entire empire. The emperor abolished Roman law, repealed obsolete Roman laws and introduced new laws. The collection of these laws is called "Code of Civil Law".

The reign of Justinian the Great was indeed called the "golden age", he himself said: “Never before the time of our reign did God grant such victories to the Romans ... Thank heaven, inhabitants of the whole world: in your days a great deed has been accomplished, which God recognized as unworthy of the entire ancient world” Commemorations of the greatness of Christianity were built Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

A huge breakthrough has occurred in military affairs. Justinian managed to create the largest professional mercenary army of that period. The Byzantine army led by Belisarius brought many victories to the Byzantine emperor and expanded the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire. However, the maintenance of a huge mercenary army and endless warriors depleted the state treasury of the Byzantine Empire.

The first half of the reign of Emperor Justinian is called the "golden age of Byzantium", while the second only caused discontent on the part of the people. The outskirts of the empire covered uprisings of the Moors and Goths. A in 548 during the second Italian campaign, Justinian the Great could no longer respond to requests from Belisarius to send money for the army and to pay the mercenaries.

The last time the commander Belisarius led the troops in 559, when the Kotrigur tribe invaded Thrace. The commander won the battle and could have completely destroyed the attackers, but Justinian at the last moment decided to pay off his restless neighbors. However, the most surprising thing was that the creator of the Byzantine victory was not even invited to the festive celebrations. After this episode, the commander Belisarius finally fell into disfavor and ceased to play a prominent role at court.

In 562, several noble inhabitants of Constantinople accused the famous commander Belisarius of preparing a conspiracy against the emperor Justinian. For several months Belisarius was deprived of his property and position. Soon Justinian became convinced of the innocence of the accused and made peace with him. Belisarius died in peace and solitude in 565 AD In the same year, Emperor Justinian the Great expired.

The last conflict between the emperor and the commander served as a source of legends about the poor, weak and blind commander Belisarius, begging for alms at the walls of the temple. So - fallen into disgrace - he is portrayed by in his famous painting by the French artist Jacques Louis David.

A world state created by the will of an autocratic sovereign - such was the dream that Emperor Justinian cherished from the very beginning of his reign. By force of arms, he returned the lost old Roman territories, then he gave them a general civil law that ensures the well-being of the inhabitants, and finally - he affirmed a single Christian faith, called to unite all peoples in the worship of the one true Christian God. These are the three unshakable foundations on which Justinian built the power of his empire. Justinian the Great believed that “there is nothing higher and holier than imperial majesty”; “the creators of law themselves said that the will of the monarch has the force of law«; « he alone is capable of spending days and nights in labor and wakefulness, in order to think about the welfare of the people«.

Justinian the Great argued that the grace of the emperor's power, as "God's anointed", standing above the state and above the church, was received by him directly from God. The emperor is "equal to the apostles" (Greek ίσαπόστολος), God helps him to defeat his enemies, to issue just laws. Justinian's wars took on the character of crusades - wherever the Byzantine emperor will be master, the Orthodox faith will shine. His piety turned into religious intolerance and was embodied in cruel persecution for deviating from the faith he recognized. Every legislative act Justinian puts under the auspices of the Holy Trinity.

I. Beginning of the dynasty of Justinian.- II. The character, politics and environment of Justinian.- III. The foreign policy of Justinian.- IV. The internal rule of Justinian. - V. Byzantine culture in the VI century. - VI. Destruction of the Cause of Justinian (565-610)

I. THE BEGINNING OF THE DYNASTY OF JUSTINIAN

In 518, after the death of Anastasius, a rather obscure intrigue placed the head of the guard, Justin, on the throne. He was a peasant from Macedonia, who had come to Constantinople in search of fortune fifty years ago, brave, but completely illiterate and having no experience in state affairs as a soldier. That is why this upstart, who became the founder of the dynasty at the age of about 70, would have been very hampered by the power entrusted to him if he had not had an adviser in the person of his nephew Justinian.

A native of Macedonia, like Justin - the romantic tradition that makes him a Slav originated at a much later time and has no historical value - Justinian, at the invitation of his uncle, came to Constantinople as a young man, where he received a complete Roman and Christian education. He (29) had experience in business, had a mature mind, a developed character - everything necessary to become an assistant to the new ruler. Indeed, from 518 to 527 he actually ruled in the name of Justin, in anticipation of an independent reign, which lasted from 527 to 565.

Thus, Justinian for almost half a century controlled the fate of the Eastern Roman Empire; he left a deep mark on the era dominated by his majestic appearance, for his will alone was enough to stop the natural evolution that carried the empire to the East.

Under his influence, from the very beginning of Justin's reign, a new political orientation was determined. The first concern of the government of Constantinople was to reconcile with Rome and put an end to the schism; in order to seal the alliance and give the pope a pledge of his zeal in orthodoxy, Justinian for three years (518-521) fiercely persecuted the Monophysites throughout the East. This rapprochement with Rome strengthened the new dynasty. In addition, Justinian very far-sightedly managed to take the necessary measures to ensure the stability of the regime. He freed himself from Vitalian, his most feared adversary; he gained special popularity thanks to his generosity and love of luxury. From now on, Justinian began to dream of more: he perfectly understood the significance that an alliance with the papacy could have for his future ambitious plans; that is why, when in 525 Pope John, the first of the Roman high priests to visit the new Rome, appeared in Constantinople, he was given a solemn reception in the capital; Justinian felt how much the West liked this behavior, how inevitably it led to a comparison of the pious emperors who ruled in Constantinople with the Arian barbarian kings who dominated Africa and Italy. So Justinian cherished great plans when, after the death of Justin, which followed in 527, he became the sole ruler of Byzantium. (thirty)

II CHARACTER, POLITICS AND ENVIRONMENT OF JUSTINIAN

Justinian is not at all like his predecessors, the sovereigns of the fifth century. This upstart, seated on the throne of the Caesars, desired to be a Roman emperor, and indeed he was the last great emperor of Rome. However, despite his undeniable diligence and diligence - one of the courtiers spoke of him: "the emperor who never sleeps" - despite his genuine concern for order and sincere concern for good administration, Justinian, due to his suspicious and jealous despotism, naive ambition, restless activity, combined with an unsteady and weak will, might seem on the whole to be a very mediocre and unbalanced ruler, if he did not have a great mind. This Macedonian peasant was a noble representative of two great ideas: the idea of empire and the idea of Christianity; and because he had these two ideas, his name remains immortal in history.

Filled with memories of the greatness of Rome, Justinian dreamed of restoring the Roman Empire to what it had once been, strengthening the unshakable rights that Byzantium, the successor of Rome, had over the western barbarian kingdoms, and restoring the unity of the Roman world. Heir to the Caesars, he wanted, like them, to be a living law, the most complete embodiment of absolute power, and at the same time an infallible legislator and reformer, who cares about order in the empire. Finally, being proud of his imperial dignity, he wanted to adorn it with all the pomp, all the splendor; by the brilliance of his buildings, the splendor of his court, in a somewhat childish way to call by his name (“Justinian”) the fortresses he built, the cities he restored, the magistracies he established; he wanted to perpetuate the glory of his reign and make his subjects, as he said, feel the incomparable happiness of being born in his time. He dreamed of more. The chosen one of God, the representative and vicar of God on earth, he undertook the task (31) to be the champion of Orthodoxy, whether in the wars he undertakes, the religious nature of which is undeniable, whether in the enormous effort that he made to spread Orthodoxy throughout the world, be it in the way he ruled the church and destroyed heresies. He devoted his whole life to the realization of this magnificent and proud dream, and he was fortunate to find intelligent ministers, such as the legal adviser Tribonian and the prefect of the Praetorium, John of Cappadocia, courageous generals, like Belisarius and Narses, and especially, an excellent adviser in the person of "the most revered, God-given wife ”, the one whom he liked to call “his most tender charm”, in the Empress Theodora.

Theodora also came from the people. The daughter of a bears watchman from the hippodrome, she, according to the gossip of Procopius in The Secret History, infuriated her contemporaries with her life as a fashionable actress, the noise of her adventures, and most of all by the fact that she won the heart of Justinian, forced him to marry herself and with him took the throne.

There is no doubt that while she was alive - Theodora died in 548 - she exerted a huge influence on the emperor and ruled the empire to the same extent as he did, and perhaps even more. This happened because despite her shortcomings - she loved money, power and, in order to save the throne, often acted insidiously, cruelly and was adamant in her hatred - this ambitious woman had excellent qualities - energy, firmness, decisive and strong will, careful and clear political mind and, perhaps, saw much more correctly than her royal husband. While Justinian dreamed of reconquering the West and restoring the Roman Empire in alliance with the papacy, she, a native of the East, turned her eyes to the East with a more accurate understanding of the situation and needs of the time. She wanted to put an end to the religious quarrels there, which harmed the tranquility and power of the empire, to return the fallen peoples of Syria and Egypt through various concessions and a policy of broad religious tolerance, and, at least at the cost of a break with Rome, to recreate the lasting unity of the Eastern monarchy. And one may ask (32) oneself whether the empire of which she dreamed, more compact, more homogeneous and stronger, would not have resisted the onslaught of the Persians and Arabs better? Be that as it may, Theodora made her hand felt everywhere - in administration, in diplomacy, in religious politics; still today in the church of St. Vitalius in Ravenna, among the mosaics that adorn the apse, her image in all the splendor of royal grandeur flaunts as equal against the image of Justinian.

III FOREIGN POLICY OF JUSTINIAN

At the moment when Justinian came to power, the empire had not yet recovered from the serious crisis that had gripped it since the end of the 5th century. In the last months of Justin's reign, the Persians, dissatisfied with the penetration of imperial policy into the Caucasus, into Armenia, onto the borders of Syria, again started the war, and the best part of the Byzantine army was chained in the East. Inside the state, the struggle between the Greens and the Blues maintained an extremely dangerous political excitement, which was further exacerbated by the deplorable venality of the administration, which caused general discontent. Justinian's urgent concern was to remove these difficulties, which delayed the fulfillment of his ambitious dreams in relation to the West. Not seeing or not wanting to see the extent of the eastern danger, at the cost of significant concessions, in 532 he signed a peace with the "great king", which gave him the opportunity to freely dispose of his military forces. On the other hand, he mercilessly suppressed internal turmoil. But in January 532, a formidable uprising, which retained the name “Nika” at the call of the rebels, filled Constantinople with fires and blood for a week. During this rebellion, when it seemed that the throne was about to collapse, Justinian found himself owing his salvation mainly to the courage of Theodora and the energy of Belisarius. But in any case, the cruel suppression of the uprising, which littered the hippodrome with thirty thousand corpses, had as its result the establishment of a lasting order in the capital and the transformation (33) of the imperial power into more absolute than ever.

In 532, Justinian's hands were untied.

Restoring an empire in the West. The situation in the West favored his projects. Both in Africa and in Italy, the inhabitants, under the rule of heretic barbarians, had long called for the restoration of imperial power; the prestige of the empire was still so great that even the Vandals and Ostrogoths recognized the legitimacy of Byzantine claims. That is why the rapid decline of these barbarian kingdoms made them powerless against the advance of the armies of Justinian, and their differences did not give them the opportunity to unite against a common enemy. When, in 531, the seizure of power by Gelimer gave Byzantine diplomacy a pretext to intervene in African affairs, Justinian, relying on the formidable strength of his army, did not hesitate, striving to free the African Orthodox population from the “Arian captivity” with one blow and force the Vandal kingdom to enter the bosom of imperial unity. In 533 Belisarius sailed from Constantinople with an army of 10,000 infantry and 5,000-6,000 cavalry; the campaign was swift and brilliant. Gelimer, defeated at Decimus and Trikamar, surrounded during the retreat on Mount Pappua, was forced to surrender (534). Within a few months, several regiments of cavalry - for it was they who played the decisive role - destroyed the kingdom of Genseric against all expectations. The victorious Belisarius was given triumphal honors in Constantinople. And although it took another fifteen years (534-548) to put down the Berber uprisings and the revolts of the empire's dissolute mercenaries, Justinian could still take pride in conquering most of Africa and arrogantly assume the title of Emperor of Vandal and Africa.

The Ostrogoths of Italy did not budge when they defeated the Vandal kingdom. Soon it was their turn. The murder of Amalasunta, the daughter of the great Theoderic, by her husband Theodagatus (534) gave Justinian a pretext for intervention; this time, however, the war was more difficult and prolonged; despite the success (34) of Belisarius, who conquered Sicily (535), captured Naples, then Rome, where he1 for a whole year (March 537-March 538) besieged the new Ostrogoth king Vitiges, and then took possession of Ravenna (540) and brought a prisoner Vitiges at the feet of the emperor, the Goths again recovered under the leadership of the dexterous and energetic Totilla, Belisarius, sent with insufficient forces to Italy, was defeated (544-548); it took the energy of Narses to crush the resistance of the Ostrogoths at Tagina (552), crush the last remnants of the barbarians in Campania (553) and free the peninsula from the Frankish hordes of Levtaris and Butilin (554). It took twenty years to reconquer Italy. Once again, Justinian, with his usual optimism, too soon believed in the final victory, and perhaps that is why he did not make the necessary effort in time to break the strength of the Ostrogoths with one blow. After all, the subjugation of Italy to imperial influence was begun with a completely insufficient army - with twenty-five or barely thirty thousand soldiers. As a result, the war dragged on hopelessly.

Similarly, in Spain, Justinian took advantage of circumstances to intervene in the dynastic feuds of the Visigothic kingdom (554) and win back the southeast of the country.

As a result of these happy campaigns, Justinian could flatter himself that he had succeeded in realizing his dream. Thanks to his stubborn ambition, Dalmatia, Italy, all of East Africa, southern Spain, the islands of the western Mediterranean basin - Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands - again became parts of a single Roman Empire; the territory of the monarchy almost doubled. As a result of the capture of Ceuta, the power of the emperor extended as far as the Pillars of Hercules, and, if we exclude the part of the coast preserved by the Visigoths in Spain and Septimania and the Franks in Provence, it can be said that the Mediterranean Sea became a Roman lake again. No doubt neither Africa nor Italy entered the empire in its former extent; besides, they were already exhausted and devastated by long years of war. Nevertheless, as a result of these (35) victories, the influence and glory of the empire increased undeniably, and Justinian used every opportunity to consolidate his successes. Africa and Italy formed, as before, two prefectures of the praetorium, and the emperor tried to restore to the population its former idea of \u200b\u200bthe empire. Restorative measures partially smoothed over the military devastation. The organization of defense - the creation of large military teams, the formation of border marks (limites), occupied by special border troops (limitanei), the construction of a powerful network of fortresses - all this guaranteed the security of the country. Justinian could be proud of the fact that he had restored in the West that perfect peace, that "perfect order", which seemed to him the sign of a truly civilized state.

Wars in the East. Unfortunately, these large enterprises exhausted the empire and made it neglect the East. The East avenged itself in the most terrible way.

The first Persian war (527-532) was only a harbinger of the impending danger. Since none of the opponents went too far, the outcome of the struggle remained undecided; Belisarius' victory at Darus (530) was offset by his defeat at Callinicus (531), and both sides were forced to conclude an unstable peace (532). But the new Persian king Khosroy Anushirvan (531-579), active and ambitious, was not one of those who could be satisfied with such results. Seeing that Byzantium was occupied in the West, especially concerned about the projects of world domination, which Justinian did not hide, he rushed to Syria in 540 and took Antioch; in 541, he invaded the country of the Lazes and captured Petra; in 542 he destroyed Commagene; in 543 defeated the Greeks in Armenia; in 544 devastated Mesopotamia. Belisarius himself was unable to overcome him. It was necessary to conclude a truce (545), which was renewed many times, and in 562 to sign a peace for fifty years, according to which Justinian undertook to pay tribute to the "great king" and abandoned any attempt to preach Christianity in Persian territory; but although at this price he preserved the country of the Lazes, ancient Colchis, the Persian threat (36) after this long and devastating war did not become less frightening for the future.

At the same time in Europe the frontier on the Danube was succumbing to the pressure of the barbarians. In 540, the Huns put Thrace, Illyria, Greece to the Isthmus of Corinth and reached the approaches to Constantinople; in 547 and in 551. the Slavs devastated Illyria, and in 552 threatened Thessalonica; in 559 the Huns reappeared before the capital, saved with great difficulty thanks to the courage of old Belisarius.

In addition, Avars appear on the stage. Of course, none of these invasions established a lasting dominance of foreigners in the empire. But still the Balkan Peninsula was severely devastated. The empire paid dearly in the east for Justinian's triumphs in the west.

Defense measures and diplomacy. Nevertheless, Justinian sought to ensure the protection and security of the territory both in the west and in the east. By organizing large military commands entrusted to the masters of the army (magist ri militum), by creating military lines (limites) on all frontiers occupied by special troops (l imitanei), he restored in the face of the barbarians what was once called the "cover of the empire" (praetentura imperii) . But chiefly he erected on all frontiers a long line of fortresses, which occupied all important strategic points and formed several successive barriers against invasion; the whole territory behind them, for greater security, was covered with fortified castles. To this day, in many places, one can see the majestic ruins of the towers that towered by the hundreds in all the imperial provinces; they serve as magnificent evidence of that tremendous effort, thanks to which, according to the expression of Procopius, Justinian truly "saved the empire."

Finally, Byzantine diplomacy, in addition to military action, sought to secure the empire's prestige and influence throughout the outside world. Thanks to the clever distribution of favors and money, and the skillful ability to sow discord among the enemies of the empire, she brought under Byzantine rule the barbarian peoples who wandered on the borders of the monarchy, and made them safe. She (37) included them in the sphere of influence of Byzantium by preaching Christianity. The activities of missionaries who spread Christianity from the shores of the Black Sea to the plateaus of Abyssinia and the oases of the Sahara were one of the most characteristic features of Byzantine politics in the Middle Ages.

Thus the empire created for itself a clientele of vassals; among them were the Arabs from Syria and Yemen, the Berbers from North Africa, the Lazians and Tsans on the borders of Armenia, the Heruli, the Gepids, the Lombards, the Huns on the Danube, up to the Frankish sovereigns of distant Gaul, in whose churches they prayed for the Roman emperor. Constantinople, where Justinian solemnly received the barbarian sovereigns, seemed to be the capital of the world. And although the aged emperor did, in the last years of his reign, allow the decline of the military establishments and too much carried away by the practice of ruinous diplomacy, which, by distributing money to the barbarians, aroused their dangerous desires, nevertheless it is certain that while the empire was strong enough to defend itself, its diplomacy , acting with the support of weapons, seemed to contemporaries a miracle of prudence, subtlety and insight; despite the heavy sacrifices that Justinian’s great ambition cost the empire, even his detractors recognized that “the natural desire of an emperor with a great soul is the desire to expand the empire and make it more glorious” (Procopius).

IV INTERNAL BOARD OF JUSTINIAN

The internal management of the empire gave Justinian no less concern than the defense of the territory. His attention was occupied by urgent administrative reform. A formidable religious crisis insistently demanded his intervention.

Legislative and administrative reform. Troubles did not stop in the empire. The administration was corrupt and corrupt; disorder and poverty reigned in the provinces; legal proceedings, due to the indeterminacy of laws, were arbitrary and biased. (38) One of the gravest consequences of this state of affairs was the very faulty receipt of taxes. Justinian had too developed a love of order, a desire for administrative centralization, as well as a concern for the public good, for him to tolerate such a state of affairs. In addition, for his great undertakings, he constantly needed money.

So he undertook a double reform. In order to give the empire "firm and unshakable laws", he entrusted his minister Tribonian with a great legislative work. The commission, convened in 528 to carry out the reform of the code, collected and classified into a single code the main imperial decrees promulgated since the era of Hadrian. This was the codex of Justinian, published in 529 and republished in 534. It was followed by the Digests or Pandects, in which a new commission, appointed in 530, collected and classified the most important extracts from the works of the great jurists of the second and third centuries, - a huge work completed in 533, Institutions - a manual intended for students - summarized the principles of the new law. Finally, a collection of new edicts published by Justinian between 534 and 565 completed the imposing monument known as the Corpus juris civilis.

Justinian was so proud of this great legislative work that he forbade it to be touched in the future and changed by any commentary, and in the schools of law reorganized in Constantinople, Beirut and Rome, he made it an unshakable foundation for legal education. And indeed, despite some shortcomings, despite the haste in work that caused repetitions and contradictions, despite the pitiful appearance of passages from the most beautiful monuments of Roman law placed in the codex, it was a truly great work, one of the most fruitful for the progress of mankind. If Justinian law gave the justification for the absolute power of the emperor, it also later preserved and recreated in the medieval world the idea of the state and social organization. In addition, it injected a new spirit of Christianity into the harsh old Roman law and thus (39) introduced into the law a hitherto unknown concern for social justice, morality and humanity.

In order to reform the administration and the court, Justinian promulgated in 535 two important decrees establishing new duties for all officials and prescribing to them, above all, scrupulous honesty in the management of subjects. At the same time, the emperor abolished the sale of posts, increased salaries, destroyed useless institutions, united in a number of provinces in order to better ensure order, civil and military power there. This was the beginning of a reform that was to become significant in its consequences for the administrative history of the empire. He reorganized the judicial administration and the police in the capital; throughout the empire, he carried out extensive public works, forced the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters, churches, and with unheard-of luxury rebuilt Constantinople, partially destroyed by the uprising of 532. Finally, through a skillful economic policy, Justinian achieved the development of rich industry and trade in the empire and, according to his habit, boasted that "with his magnificent undertakings, he gave the state a new flowering." However, in reality, despite the emperor's good intentions, the administrative reform failed. The enormous burden of spending, and the consequent constant need for money, established a cruel fiscal tyranny that exhausted the empire and reduced it to poverty. Of all the great transformations, only one succeeded: in 541, for reasons of economy, the consulate was abolished.

Religious policy. Like all the emperors who succeeded Constantine to the throne, Justinian was involved in the church as much because the interests of the state demanded it, as from a personal penchant for theological disputes. To better emphasize his pious zeal, he severely persecuted heretics, in 529 he ordered the closing of the University of Athens, where there were still a few pagan teachers secretly, and fiercely persecuted schismatics. In addition, he knew how to manage the church like a master, and in exchange for the patronage and favors with which he showered her, he arbitrarily and rudely prescribed his will to her, frankly calling himself "emperor and priest." Nevertheless, he repeatedly found himself in difficulty, not knowing what line of conduct he should take. For the success of his western enterprises it was necessary for him to maintain the established agreement with the papacy; in order to restore political and moral unity in the East, it was necessary to spare the Monophysites, who were very numerous and influential in Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. Often the emperor did not know what to decide on in the face of Rome, which demanded the condemnation of dissidents, and Theodora, who advised to return to the policy of unity of Zinon and Anastasius, and his wavering will tried, despite all the contradictions, to find ground for mutual understanding and find a means for reconciling these contradictions. Gradually, to please Rome, he allowed the Council of Constantinople in 536 to anathematize dissidents, began to persecute them (537-538), attacked their citadel - Egypt, and, in order to please Theodora, gave the Monophysites the opportunity to restore their church (543) and tried at Constantinople council of 553 to obtain from the pope an indirect condemnation of the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. For over twenty years (543-565) the so-called "three-headed cause" agitated the empire and gave rise to schism in the Western church, without establishing peace in the East. The fury and arbitrariness of Justinian, directed at his opponents (his most famous victim was Pope Vigilius), did not bring any useful result. The policy of unity and religious tolerance which Theodora advised was no doubt (41) cautious and prudent; the indecisiveness of Justinian, who wavered between the disputing parties, led, despite his good intentions, only to the growth of the separatist tendencies of Egypt and Syria and to the aggravation of their national hatred of the empire.

V BYZANTINE CULTURE IN THE VI CENTURY

In the history of Byzantine art, the reign of Justinian marks an entire era. Talented writers, such historians as Procopius and Agathius, John of Ephesus or Evagrius, such poets as Paul the Silentiary, such theologians as Leontius of Byzantium, brilliantly continued the traditions of classical Greek literature, and it was at the dawn of the 6th century. Roman the Melodist, "the king of melodies", created religious poetry - perhaps the most beautiful and most original manifestation of the Byzantine spirit. Even more remarkable was the magnificence of the fine arts. At this time, in Constantinople, a slow process, prepared for two centuries in the local schools of the East, was being completed. And since Justinian loved buildings, because he managed to find outstanding masters to carry out his intentions and provide inexhaustible means at their disposal, as a result, the monuments of this century - miracles of knowledge, courage and magnificence - marked the pinnacle of Byzantine art in perfect creations.

Art has never been more varied, more mature, more free; in the VI century there are all architectural styles, all types of buildings - basilicas, for example, St. Apollinaria in Ravenna or St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki; churches representing polygons in plan, for example, the churches of St. Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople or St. Vitaly in Ravenna; buildings in the shape of a cross, crowned with five domes, like the church of St. Apostles; churches, such as St. Sophia, built by Anthimius of Trall and Isidore of Miletus in 532-537; thanks to its original plan, light, bold and precisely calculated structure, (42) skillful solution of problems of balance, harmonious combination of parts, this temple remains to this day an unsurpassed masterpiece of Byzantine art. The skilful selection of multi-coloured marble, fine sculptures, mosaic decorations on a blue and gold background inside the temple are an incomparable splendor, an idea of which can still be obtained today, in the absence of a mosaic destroyed in the church of St. Apostles or barely visible under the Turkish painting of St. Sophia, - according to the mosaics in the churches of Parenzo and Ravenna, as well as the remains of the wonderful decorations of the church of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki. Everywhere - in jewelry, in fabrics, in ivory, in manuscripts - the same character of dazzling luxury and solemn grandeur that marks the birth of a new style is manifested. Under the combined influence of the East and the ancient tradition, Byzantine art entered its golden age in the era of Justinian.

VI DESTRUCTION OF JUSTINIAN'S CASE (565 - 610)

If we consider the reign of Justinian as a whole, one cannot but admit that he managed to restore the empire to its former greatness for a short time. Nevertheless, the question arises whether this greatness was not more apparent than real, and whether, on the whole, more evil than good, these great conquests, which stopped the natural development of the eastern empire and exhausted it for the sake of the extreme ambition of one person. In all the undertakings of Justinian, there was a constant discrepancy between the end pursued and the means for its implementation; the lack of money was a constant pest that corroded the most brilliant projects and the most laudable intentions! Therefore, it was necessary to increase the fiscal oppression to the extreme limit, and since in the last years of his reign, the aged Justinian more and more left the course of affairs to the mercy of fate, the position of the Byzantine Empire when he died - in 565, at the age of 87 years - it was absolutely deplorable. Financially and militarily (43) the empire was exhausted; a formidable danger was approaching from all frontiers; in the empire itself, state power weakened - in the provinces due to the development of large feudal property, in the capital as a result of the incessant struggle of the greens and blues; deep poverty reigned everywhere, and contemporaries asked themselves in bewilderment: “Where did the wealth of the Romans disappear?” Policy change became an urgent need; it was a difficult undertaking, fraught with many disasters. It fell to the lot of Justinian's successors - his nephew Justin II (565-578), Tiberius (578-582) and Mauritius (582-602).

They decisively laid the foundation for a new policy. Turning their backs on the West, where, moreover, the invasion of the Lombards (568) took away half of Italy from the empire, Justinian's successors limited themselves to organizing a solid defense by founding the Exarchates of Africa and Ravenna. At this price, they again got the opportunity to take up position in the East and take a more independent position in relation to the enemies of the empire. Thanks to the measures taken by them to reorganize the army, the Persian war, resumed in 572 and lasted until 591, ended in a favorable peace, according to which Persian Armenia was ceded to Byzantium.

And in Europe, despite the fact that the Avars and Slavs brutally devastated the Balkan Peninsula, capturing fortresses on the Danube, besieging Thessalonica, threatening Constantinople (591) and even starting to settle on the peninsula for a long time, nevertheless, as a result of a series of brilliant successes, the war was postponed to that side of the borders, and the Byzantine armies reached up to Tisza (601).

But the internal crisis ruined everything. Justinian pursued a policy of absolute rule too firmly; when he died, the aristocracy raised its head, the separatist tendencies of the provinces began to reappear, the parties of the circus became agitated. And since the government was unable to restore the financial situation, discontent grew, which was facilitated by administrative devastation and military mutinies. Religious politics further exacerbated the general confusion. After a brief attempt at exercising religious tolerance (44), the fierce persecution of heretics began again; and although Mauritius put an end to these persecutions, the conflict that broke out between the Patriarch of Constantinople, who claimed the title of ecumenical patriarch, and Pope Gregory the Great, intensified the ancient hatred between West and East. Despite its undoubted merits, Mauritius was extremely unpopular. The weakening of political authority facilitated the success of the military coup that brought Foca to the throne (602).

The new sovereign, a rude soldier, could only hold on to terror (602 - 610); with this he ended the ruin of the monarchy. Chosroes II, assuming the role of avenger for Mauritius, resumed the war; Persians conquered Mesopotamia, Syria, Asia Minor. In 608 they ended up in Chalcedon, at the gates of Constantinople. Inside the country, uprisings, conspiracies, rebellions succeeded each other; the whole empire called for a savior. He came from Africa. In 610, Heraclius, the son of the Carthaginian exarch, deposed Phocas and founded a new dynasty. After almost half a century of unrest, Byzantium regained a leader capable of directing its fate. But during this half-century, Byzantium nevertheless gradually returned to the East. The transformation in the Eastern spirit, interrupted by the long reign of Justinian, was now to be accelerated and completed. (45)

It was during the reign of Justinian that two monks brought from China around 557 the secret of breeding silkworms, which allowed the industry of Syria to produce silk, partially freeing Byzantium from foreign imports.

This name is due to the fact that the dispute was based on extracts from the works of three theologians - Theodore of Mopsuestsky, Theodoret of Cyrus and Willow of Edessa, whose teaching was approved by the Council of Chalcedon, and Justinian, to please the Monophysites, forced to condemn.

In his foreign policy in the West, Justinian was guided primarily by the idea of restoring the Roman Empire. To implement this grandiose plan, Justinian needed to conquer the barbarian states that arose on the ruins of the Western Roman Empire. The first to fall in 534 under the blows of the Byzantine troops was the state of the Vandals in North Africa. The internal strife of the Vandal nobility, the dissatisfaction of the local Barbary tribes with the rule of the Vandals, the help of the Byzantines from the Roman slave owners and the orthodox clergy, oppressed by the Aryan vandals, ensured the victory of Justinian's commander Belisarius.

However, the restoration of slaveholding relations and the Roman tax system in the conquered province provoked a protest from the population. It was also shared by the soldiers of the Byzantine army, dissatisfied with the fact that the government did not provide them with land plots in the conquered country. In 536 the soldiers revolted, joined by local Barbary tribes and runaway slaves and columns. The uprising was led by the Byzantine soldier Stotza. Only by the end of the 40s of the VI century. North Africa was finally subject to the power of the empire.

The conquest of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy cost the empire even more sacrifices. Having landed in Sicily in the summer of 535, Belisarius quickly captured this island, crossed into southern Italy and began a successful advance into the interior of the country. Relying on the help of the Italian slave-owning nobility and the orthodox clergy (the Goths, like the Vandals, were Arians), Belisarius in 536 took possession of Rome.

But here, too, the restoration policy of Justinian and the arbitrariness of the conquerors caused a broad popular movement, which was headed by the Ostrogothic king Totila (551-552), a talented commander and far-sighted politician. As a representative of the Ostrogothic nobility, he did not at all want the abolition of the institution of slavery, he understood that without the support of the broad masses he would not be able to defeat the enemy. Therefore, Totila accepted runaway slaves and columns into his army and gave them freedom. At the same time, he supported the free landownership of the Ostrogothic and Italic peasantry and carried out the confiscation of the estates of some of the large Roman owners, especially those who opposed the Ostrogoths. This provided him with the support of all segments of the population of Italy, who suffered from the restoration policy of the government of Justinian. Totila won brilliant victories over the Byzantine troops. In 546, he took Rome, soon conquered most of Italy from the Byzantines, as well as Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica.

Totila's victories worried his rivals among the Ostrogothic nobility. Many noble Ostrogoths began to move away from him. At the same time, Totila himself was not consistent in his policy. Often he made concessions to the Ostrogothic and Italian nobility, thereby pushing the masses away from him and losing supporters. In 552, the successor of Belisarius, the commander Narses, arrived in Italy with a huge army. In June of the same year, in the battle near the town of Tagina, the army of Totila, despite the heroism shown by the Ostrogoths, suffered a severe defeat, and Totila himself fell in battle. However, the Ostrogoths continued stubborn resistance, and only by 555 Italy was completely conquered by the Byzantines.

As in North Africa, Justinian tried to maintain slaveholding relations in Italy and restore the Roman system of government. In 554, he issued the "Pragmatic Sanction", which canceled all the reforms of Totila. The lands previously confiscated from the slave-owning nobility were returned to her. Columns and slaves who received freedom were again transferred to their masters.

Simultaneously with the conquest of Italy, Justinian began a war with the Visigoths in Spain, where he managed to capture a number of strongholds in the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula.

Thus, it seemed that Justinian's dreams of restoring the Roman Empire were close to being realized. Many of the regions that had previously been part of it were reattached to the Byzantine state. However, the domination of the Byzantines caused discontent among the conquered population, and Justinian's conquests proved to be fragile.

In the East, Byzantium in the VI century. fought grueling wars with Sasanian Iran. The most important reason for the age-old dispute between them was the rich regions of Transcaucasia and, first of all, Lazika (modern Western Georgia). In addition, Byzantium and Iran have long competed in the trade of silk and other precious goods with China, Ceylon and India. Taking advantage of the fact that Byzantium was drawn into the war with the Ostrogoths, the Sasanian king Khosrov I Anushirvan attacked Syria in 540. Thus began a difficult war with Iran, which lasted intermittently until 562. According to the peace treaty, Lazika remained with Byzantium, Svaneti and other regions of Georgia - with Iran. Byzantium undertook to pay an annual tribute to Iran, but still did not allow the Persians to the coast of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Unsuccessful for Justinian were the wars on the northern borders of the empire. Almost every year, the Slavs, Avars, Huns, Proto-Bulgarians, Heruli, Gepids and other barbarian tribes and peoples crossed the Danube and attacked the territory of Byzantium. The invasions of the Slavs were especially dangerous for Byzantium.

FOREIGN POLICY OF JUSTINIAN

At the moment when Justinian came to power, the empire had not yet recovered from the serious crisis that had gripped it since the end of the 5th century. In the last months of Justin's reign, the Persians, dissatisfied with the penetration of imperial policy into the Caucasus, into Armenia, onto the borders of Syria, again started the war, and the best part of the Byzantine army was chained in the East. Inside the state, the struggle between the Greens and the Blues maintained an extremely dangerous political excitement, which was further exacerbated by the deplorable venality of the administration, which caused general discontent. Justinian's urgent concern was to remove these difficulties, which delayed the fulfillment of his ambitious dreams in relation to the West. Not seeing or not wanting to see the extent of the eastern danger, at the cost of significant concessions, in 532 he signed a peace with the "great king", which gave him the opportunity to freely dispose of his military forces. On the other hand, he mercilessly suppressed internal turmoil. But in January 532, a formidable uprising, which retained the name “Nika” at the call of the rebels, filled Constantinople with fires and blood for a week. During this rebellion, when it seemed that the throne was about to collapse, Justinian found himself owing his salvation mainly to the courage of Theodora and the energy of Belisarius. But in any case, the brutal suppression of the uprising, which littered the hippodrome with thirty thousand corpses, resulted in the establishment of a lasting order in the capital and the transformation of imperial power into more absolute than ever.

In 532, Justinian's hands were untied.

Restoration of the empire in the West. The situation in the West favored his projects. Both in Africa and in Italy, the inhabitants, under the rule of heretic barbarians, had long called for the restoration of imperial power; the prestige of the empire was still so great that even the Vandals and Ostrogoths recognized the legitimacy of Byzantine claims. That is why the rapid decline of these barbarian kingdoms made them powerless against the advance of the armies of Justinian, and their differences did not give them the opportunity to unite against a common enemy. When, in 531, the seizure of power by Gelimer gave Byzantine diplomacy a pretext to intervene in African affairs, Justinian, relying on the formidable strength of his army, did not hesitate, striving to free the African Orthodox population from the “Arian captivity” with one blow and force the Vandal kingdom to enter the bosom of imperial unity. In 533 Belisarius sailed from Constantinople with an army of 10,000 infantry and 5,000-6,000 cavalry; the campaign was swift and brilliant. Gelimer, defeated at Decimus and Trikamar, surrounded during the retreat on Mount Pappua, was forced to surrender (534). Within a few months, several regiments of cavalry - for it was they who played the decisive role - destroyed the kingdom of Genseric against all expectations. The victorious Belisarius was given triumphal honors in Constantinople. And although it took another fifteen years (534-548) to put down the Berber uprisings and the revolts of the empire's dissolute mercenaries, Justinian could still take pride in conquering most of Africa and arrogantly assume the title of Emperor of Vandal and Africa.

The Ostrogoths of Italy did not budge when they defeated the Vandal kingdom. Soon it was their turn. The murder of Amalasunta, the daughter of the great Theoderic, by her husband Theodagatus (534) gave Justinian a pretext for intervention; this time, however, the war was more difficult and prolonged; despite the success of Belisarius, who conquered Sicily (535), captured Naples, then Rome, where he1 for a whole year (March 537-March 538) besieged the new Ostrogoth king Vitiges, and then took possession of Ravenna (540) and brought the captive Vitiges to the feet emperor, the Goths recovered again under the leadership of the dexterous and energetic Totilla, Belisarius, sent with insufficient forces to Italy, was defeated (544-548); it took the energy of Narses to crush the resistance of the Ostrogoths at Tagina (552), crush the last remnants of the barbarians in Campania (553) and free the peninsula from the Frankish hordes of Levtaris and Butilin (554). It took twenty years to reconquer Italy. Once again, Justinian, with his usual optimism, too soon believed in the final victory, and perhaps that is why he did not make the necessary effort in time to break the strength of the Ostrogoths with one blow. After all, the subjugation of Italy to imperial influence was begun with a completely insufficient army - with twenty-five or barely thirty thousand soldiers. As a result, the war dragged on hopelessly.

Similarly, in Spain, Justinian took advantage of circumstances to intervene in the dynastic feuds of the Visigothic kingdom (554) and win back the southeast of the country.

As a result of these happy campaigns, Justinian could flatter himself that he had succeeded in realizing his dream. Thanks to his stubborn ambition, Dalmatia, Italy, all of East Africa, southern Spain, the islands of the western Mediterranean basin - Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands - again became parts of a single Roman Empire; the territory of the monarchy almost doubled. As a result of the capture of Ceuta, the power of the emperor extended as far as the Pillars of Hercules, and, if we exclude the part of the coast preserved by the Visigoths in Spain and Septimania and the Franks in Provence, it can be said that the Mediterranean Sea became a Roman lake again. No doubt neither Africa nor Italy entered the empire in its former extent; besides, they were already exhausted and devastated by long years of war. Nevertheless, as a result of these victories, the influence and glory of the empire increased undeniably, and Justinian used every opportunity to consolidate his successes. Africa and Italy formed, as before, two prefectures of the praetorium, and the emperor tried to restore to the population its former idea of \u200b\u200bthe empire. Restorative measures partially smoothed over the military devastation. The organization of defense - the creation of large military teams, the formation of border marks (limites), occupied by special border troops (limitanei), the construction of a powerful network of fortresses - all this guaranteed the security of the country. Justinian could be proud of the fact that he had restored in the West that perfect peace, that "perfect order", which seemed to him the sign of a truly civilized state.

Wars in the East. Unfortunately, these large enterprises exhausted the empire and made it neglect the East. The East avenged itself in the most terrible way.

The first Persian war (527-532) was only a harbinger of the impending danger. Since none of the opponents went too far, the outcome of the struggle remained undecided; Belisarius' victory at Darus (530) was offset by his defeat at Callinicus (531), and both sides were forced to conclude an unstable peace (532). But the new Persian king Khosroy Anushirvan (531-579), active and ambitious, was not one of those who could be satisfied with such results. Seeing that Byzantium was occupied in the West, especially concerned about the projects of world domination, which Justinian did not hide, he rushed to Syria in 540 and took Antioch; in 541, he invaded the country of the Lazes and captured Petra; in 542 he destroyed Commagene; in 543 defeated the Greeks in Armenia; in 544 devastated Mesopotamia. Belisarius himself was unable to overcome him. It was necessary to conclude a truce (545), which was renewed many times, and in 562 to sign a peace for fifty years, according to which Justinian undertook to pay tribute to the "great king" and abandoned any attempt to preach Christianity in Persian territory; but although at this price he preserved the country of the Lazes, ancient Colchis, the Persian threat, after this long and devastating war, did not become less frightening for the future.

Defense measures and diplomacy. Nevertheless, Justinian sought to ensure the protection and security of the territory both in the west and in the east. By organizing large military commands entrusted to the masters of the army (magist ri militum), by creating military lines (limites) on all frontiers occupied by special troops (l imitanei), he restored in the face of the barbarians what was once called the "cover of the empire" (praetentura imperii) . But chiefly he erected on all frontiers a long line of fortresses, which occupied all important strategic points and formed several successive barriers against invasion; the whole territory behind them, for greater security, was covered with fortified castles. To this day, in many places, one can see the majestic ruins of the towers that towered by the hundreds in all the imperial provinces; they serve as magnificent evidence of that tremendous effort, thanks to which, according to the expression of Procopius, Justinian truly "saved the empire."

Finally, Byzantine diplomacy, in addition to military action, sought to secure the empire's prestige and influence throughout the outside world. Thanks to the clever distribution of favors and money, and the skillful ability to sow discord among the enemies of the empire, she brought under Byzantine rule the barbarian peoples who wandered on the borders of the monarchy, and made them safe. She included them in the sphere of influence of Byzantium by preaching Christianity. The activities of missionaries who spread Christianity from the shores of the Black Sea to the plateaus of Abyssinia and the oases of the Sahara were one of the most characteristic features of Byzantine politics in the Middle Ages.

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Justinian sought to return to the empire, revived by him, as he believed, for a long time, the order, prosperity and good government inherent in it in the best days of Rome. The measures taken can be summarized in two main areas: legislative activity and administrative reform.

Rome became the founder of legal science. Thanks to her, the state gained order and unity, and the emperor - the basis of his absolute power. Justinian appreciated the significance of this heritage, the role that it could still play, and realized the need to preserve it. The legislative activity of Justinian - successful due to the correct vision of the task and sufficient will for its complete solution, as well as the ability to find people capable of bringing the ideas of the ruler to life - is the most famous and indeed the most remarkable part of his deeds. What was later called the Corpus juris civilis (“Code of civil law”) consists of four parts: the Justinian Code itself, that is, the code of all imperial institutions from Hadrian to 534; "Digest", or "Pandekt" - a collection of works of famous lawyers and a summary of all Roman jurisprudence; "Institutions" - a practical law textbook for students, and, finally, "Novels" - 154 laws adopted by Justinian after 534. It is interesting to note that the "Code", "Pandects" and "Institutions" were written in Latin, as a large part of the "Novels" in Greek, so that, according to Justinian himself, everyone could read them - a confession that must have been worth a lot from the lips of an emperor who did not like Hellenism and was reluctant to use the Greek language.

It is impossible to overestimate the significance of everything done in this area, primarily for Byzantium, which acquired the most important of what constituted the civilizational heritage of Rome. But it is also enduring for the history of mankind, because in the XII century. The Justinian code, often used as it was written down and still the basis of civil law, returned to the West the knowledge of the principles of society and the operation of the state. At that time, thanks to the wise guardian, which was Byzantium, "Roman law was resurrected for a new life and united the world for the second time" (I. Pokrovsky, quoted by A. Vasiliev).

Administrative reform

In a narrow sense, Justinian's administrative reform boils down to two decrees of 535, in which the emperor gave general instructions to his officials. In a broad sense, this is the whole range of measures taken by Justinian to improve the internal life of the country.

The terrible rebellion that broke out in Constantinople in 532 and known under the name "Nika" (the Greek word meaning "victory" or "conquer", which the rebels shouted), clearly testified to the need for reforms, that the arbitrariness of officials and the policy of the emperor as a whole overflowed the cup of patience of the people. Since ancient times, people in each Byzantine city were divided into groups - "dima", the most numerous of which were "blue" and "green", but now they were something like political parties. Both of them gathered at the hippodrome, the only place where it was possible to express public opinion. However, this did not go beyond the established custom: when the emperor wanted to speak with the people, he did this in the circus from the height of his box; historians have brought to us some very curious dialogues between the heralds of the emperor and the rebels. The mutiny, which began in the circus, engulfed the entire city. For six days, the rebels looted and burned everything that came to hand. Promises to dismiss Tribonian and John of Cappadocia, two ministers especially hated because of the cruelty of government, were not enough to calm the rebels. Belisarius had to resort to force - he locked the rebels in the hippodrome and committed a terrible massacre, during which at least 30 thousand people died. The massacre quelled the rebellion, but Justinian learned his lesson.

Two short stories of 535, supplemented in subsequent years by special decrees, concerned the reform of the bureaucratic machine. Measures such as the abolition of useless posts, the abolition of the system of selling hereditary positions, an increase in salaries, the obligatory oath of office for incumbents, the establishment of positions of special representatives, or "Justinians", endowed with civil and military powers, were supposed to make officials more independent of those whom they ruled, and more dependent on the emperor.

Justinian added to this persistent calls for a right court (he reformed the judicial administration at the same time), for justice, honesty, and goodwill. Another series of measures is perhaps even more significant, since with its help Justinian tried to eliminate the abuses of large landowners. He felt that among the landed nobility, boasting of their privileges and independent of the central government, his opponents were hiding. By directing a blow against them, he punished not only the most dangerous enemies of the middle class, but also the worst taxpayers, which in general protected the welfare of the entire state. Justinian was right in persecuting unscrupulous officials and rebellious nobles. But what was the result of his efforts? A complete failure, the main culprit of which was himself, forced to break his own laws and set an example of bad management due to the constant and increasing need for money. Justinian's expenses for the war and especially for construction were enormous. Hardly in one decree did he take the side of the people strangled by taxes, as in the next he gave his representatives the order to collect as much gold as possible by any means. Justinian sold positions, introduced new taxes, reduced the weight of coins. He made officials personally responsible for the collection of taxes, which freed the hands of excesses, until recently severely condemned. The official again turned into a ruthless and dishonest "publican", and taxpayers, in order to avoid this disaster, replenished the clientele of large nobles, whose power the emperor tried to weaken.

Religious policy

Striving for the revival of the Roman Empire, Justinian, naturally, needed agreement with the papacy. This was noticeable even at the beginning of the reign of Justin, when in 518 - under the influence of Justinian - he reconciled with Rome, put an end to the schism of Akakios * and, having accepted the conditions of the pope, deleted from the diptychs the names of the patriarch and his successors, as well as Zeno and Anastasius - two emperors leaning towards monophysitism. In the first two years of his reign (527 and 528), Justinian issued extremely severe decrees that, in a certain sense, outlawed heretics, and in 529 ordered the closure of the Academy of Athens, the last refuge of paganism. The victories in the West were accompanied by the persecution of the Arians and numerous manifestations of respect for the papacy.

However, Theodora, unlike the emperor, was not at all blinded by the mirage of the West. She understood that the empire remained primarily eastern and that its strength was in the eastern provinces. And they (Egypt and Syria - the richest of them) were decisively on the side of the Monophysites. For political reasons, as well as for her conviction, Theodora acted as a defender of the Monophysites all her life. Under her influence, Justinian pursued a policy of tolerance towards them, received their representatives in Constantinople, and in 535 allowed Bishop Anthimus, who shared their views, to ascend the patriarchal throne. Pope Agapit's answer was not long in coming: he deposed Anthim, forced the Council of Constantinople to anathematize the Monophysites (536), and forced Justinian to carry out these decisions. Terrible persecution fell on the Monophysites everywhere, right up to Egypt.

Theodora took revenge. Despite the reprisals and the most severe measures, heresy did not disappear, its inspirers
were in Constantinople, and even lived in the palace of the Empress. Through fervent propaganda,
to which the emperor turned a blind eye, dispersed communities again spread throughout
East. In 543, in an attempt to compromise the Council of Chalcedon, Justinian went so far as to
forced the so-called "Council of Three Chapters" to stigmatize the definitions he adopted. In order to obtain the consent of Pope Vigilius, the emperor ordered him to be kidnapped from Rome and brought to
Constantinople, where by requests and threats he obtained a statement confirming the decision of the “Council on
three chapters."

It seemed that the Monophysites won the final victory, but in 548 Theodora died. The stormy protest of the West against the weakness shown by the pope left him no choice but to withdraw his statement. Justinian, once again resorting to violence, forced the new council to confirm the decision of the “Council of Three Chapters” and, also by force, to force the implementation of these decisions, but he only achieved that he caused a split in the West between his supporters and those who could not come to terms with his position. Moreover, he did not satisfy the demands of the Monophysites in the East. The defeat was complete, and again its main cause was the Western policy of the emperor. It was because of her that Justinian did not have the strength to resist the enemy attacking from the East. It was because of this policy, which drained the country's finances, that the administrative reform failed. And again, because of it, the last opportunity was lost to come to the Christian East to religious unity, a huge need for which will arise a century later - in the face of the Arab invasion.

economic life

I will talk about it briefly, noting only some new aspects. One of the most significant, not only economic, but also social, factors of that time was the widespread development of monasticism, which was favored, as if competing with each other, by Justinian and Theodora, who sincerely admired the hermits of Egypt and Palestine. Many characteristic features of the Byzantine state are associated with monasticism, including those that undermined its foundations. The monks behaved too freely, occupied too much place in the political life of the country up to the imperial court. They were too numerous and thereby reduced the number of recruits for the military, subsequently they began to speak of these figures themselves as “three heads”, which is not entirely true, since only Theodore was convicted in the end, and in the case of Theodoret and Iva, only some of them were condemned. service essays.

Of particular danger were donations to monasteries - fortunes almost never taxed. The lands also passed into the hands of the monks, and along with large landed master's possessions, a new category of privileged property arose. The scope of construction and the importance attached to this type of activity is another characteristic feature of the Justinian economy, especially in the first years of his reign: roads, bridges, defensive structures, aqueducts, churches are being built throughout the empire. At times, at the cost of huge expenses, prosperity seemed to be achieved, but then financial hardships stopped this take-off and taxes again fell upon the population with all their weight.

As for large-scale trade, it was surprisingly active in several privileged centers (such as Constantinople), through which trade between East and West was carried out. But trade relations with the Far East have turned into a big problem - we are talking about goods from India and China (primarily silk). They were delivered by land to Sogdiana or by sea to Ceylon, where they were placed at the disposal of the Persians, who took them to the Byzantine border. Justinian, hoping to get rid of a costly and burdensome Persian intermediary, sought a bypass north of Persia via the Caspian and Black Seas, but was unsuccessful. He tried to bypass Persia from the south, instructing the Christian inhabitants of Yemen and Abyssinia to get directly to India and China, but here he was disappointed - the empire was not able to get rid of economic dependence on Persia.

Justinian civilization

But only legislative activity testifies to posterity in favor of the emperor, nicknamed "great"? Let's not forget that Justinian really had a truly imperial sense of grandeur and his influence on the era was deep enough for the civilization of the 6th century, one of the most brilliant in the history of Byzantium, to rightly bear the name of "Justinian". The powerful personality of the emperor, his activities are reflected not only in any manifestations of spiritual life, but also in two examples scattered throughout.

In Ravenna, the churches of San Vitale (St. Vitali) and St. Apollinaris should be noted, striking with the most beautiful mosaics of the 6th century. Thus, in the magnificent mosaic compositions of San Vitale, depicting the emperor and empress among the highest courtiers, all the greatness and all the splendor of the imperial court under Justinian vividly appear. In Constantinople there were many creations of the era of Justinian, but only one was preserved in almost original form: we are talking about the symbol of his entire reign - St. Sophia. The first basilica built by Constantine was destroyed in 532 during the Nika revolt. Restoring it, Justinian decided to give the new church an unprecedented size and grandeur and turn it into the cathedral of the entire empire. The architects Anthimius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, invited by him from Asia Minor, erected a church on the foundation of the basilica, crowning it with a dome with a diameter of almost 31 meters, raised 50 meters above the ground.

The emperor allocated huge funds for decorations, sculptures, mosaics, paving floors and wall cladding with marble. It was said that on the day of the grand opening - December 25, 537, which marked the apogee of his reign, Justinian, entering the new church, exclaimed, alluding to the great Jerusalem temple: "I defeated you, Solomon!" In the Middle Ages, St. Sophia began to be called the Great Church, which distinguished it from all the others. It is truly a masterpiece and at the same time a synthesis of the art of the empire, which took shape in the 6th century, harmoniously combining elements borrowed from Rome, Greece, the East, and Christianity. Although Justinian often acted wrongly, and in a certain sense his entire reign was a great mistake for the fate of the empire, it must be admitted that greatness was still inherent in him. The beginning of Byzantine civilization proper should be dated to the time of Justinian.

Justinian's successors

Justinian died in 565. The years of his reign, who always lacked money, were so difficult, fatigue and poverty were so great that the people accepted the death of the emperor with relief. The subsequent period, during which Justin II (565-578), Tiberius (578-582), Mauritius (582-602) and Phocas (602-610) succeeded one after another on the throne, clearly revealed everything that
was artificial and excessive in the activities of Justinian. In foreign policy, Byzantium abandoned the Western orientation. Almost all of Italy was conquered by the Lombards. Left to the mercy of fate, Rome could only rely on the energy of Pope Gregory the Great. In order to save what could still be saved, Mauritius created an exarchate in Italy with a center in Ravenna, and in Africa - the Carthaginian exarchate, where all civil and military power was concentrated in the hands of one person, the exarch.

In the East, conflicts resumed on the Persian and Danube borders. The Persian war, catastrophic for the empire under Justinian, ended under Mauritius with a favorable treaty for Byzantium, but under Fock, the battles unfolded again. Detachments of the Slavs, having united with the Avars, a tribe, apparently of Turkic origin, constantly violated the Danube border. The Slavs failed to take Thessalonica, but they devastated the country and reached the Peloponnese. Some of them, of course, settled in these places, which gave rise to the famous and extremely exaggerated theory of Fallmerayer, according to which all of Greece at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 7th century. was slavicized.

Domestic politics continued to focus on financial problems, which no emperor ever solved. In addition, after the death of Justinian, opposition to imperial absolutism sharply intensified - both in Constantinople, where the conspirators sowed confusion, and in the provinces, where the landed nobility was worried. Contradictions between Pope Gregory the Great and the Patriarch of Constantinople, provoked by the claims of Patriarch John the Faster to the title of Ecumenical Patriarch, suddenly escalated in religious life. All this ended with the scandalous reign of Phocas, a junior officer who received the throne thanks to the support of the rebellious people and the army. Phocas ruled like a bloody and mediocre tyrant: the Persian army reached Constantinople without interference. When in 610 a small fleet under the command of the son of the Carthaginian exarch Heraclius anchored at the walls of the capital, the people who raised Phocas to the throne put him to death and proclaimed Heraclius emperor.

Rule of Justinian in the Byzantine Empire. Dil Sh. History of the Byzantine Empire Politics of the Isaurian dynasty. Iconoclasm

I. THE BEGINNING OF THE DYNASTY OF JUSTINIAN