V.A. Ivanov Essence, classification of innovations and their specificity in the agricultural sector. Guidelines for students The essence of the concept of "innovation"

V.A. Ivanov

The article considers the existing points of view on the essence of the concept of "innovation", based on the generalization of the definition of this term, the author's approach to the economic content of the term "innovation" is developed. The author revealed the specifics and classification of innovations in agro-industrial production, proposed priority areas for the development of innovative processes in the regional agro-industrial complex.

The essence of the concept of "innovation"

Interest in the problems of innovation theory has recently increased dramatically, as evidenced by the ever-increasing volume of publications. At the same time, the conceptual apparatus of innovation has not been fully developed in the literature. At the same time, the same term is interpreted in different ways, or is identified. This indicates the relevance of clarifying the essence of innovation.

The concept of "innovation" first appeared in the scientific research of culturologists back in the 19th century. And it meant the introduction of some elements of one culture into another. Usually, it was about the infiltration of European customs and ways of organizing into traditional Asian and African societies. It was only at the beginning of the 20th century that the regularities of technical innovations began to be studied.

J. Schumpeter is considered the founder of the theory of innovation. He, in his work "The Theory of Economic Development", published in 1912, considered innovation (new combinations) as a means of entrepreneurship for profit. The author called entrepreneurs "economic entities whose function is precisely the implementation of new combinations and who act as its active element" .

Later, in the 30s, J. Schumpeter identified five typical changes in economic development:

Use of new equipment, new technological processes or new market support for production (purchase and sale);

Introduction of products with new properties;

Use of new raw materials;

Changes in the organization of production and its logistics;

Emergence of new markets.

A significant contribution to the study of innovation was made by N.D. Kondratiev, who substantiated the theory of large cycles lasting 50-60 years, developed models of conjuncture cycles. He proved that the transition to a new cycle is associated with an expansion of the stock of capital goods that create conditions for the mass introduction of accumulated inventions. N.D. Kondratiev linked the transition to a new cycle with technical progress: “Before the beginning of the upward wave of each large cycle, and sometimes at its very beginning,” he wrote, there are significant changes in the conditions of the economic life of society. These changes are usually expressed in one or another combination, in significant technical inventions and discoveries, in profound changes in the technique of production and exchange. The main role in the changes in the economic life of society N.D. Kondratiev assigned to scientific and technical innovations.

In the world economic literature, "innovation" is interpreted as the transformation of potential scientific and technological progress into real, embodied in new products and technologies.

In the studies of domestic economists, the term "innovation" began to be widely used with the transition of the economy to market relations. Prior to this, in the domestic economic literature, the issues of innovation were widely covered in the framework of research on scientific and technological progress (STP), the development of science and technology.

In order to effectively manage innovation, it is necessary to clearly understand the meaning and meaning of the term "innovation". In the dictionaries of S.I. Ozhegov and V.I. Dahl does not have the concept of "innovation". At S.I. Ozhegov is the term "innovation" - something new, innovation, "innovation" - a new order, a new custom, a new method of invention, a new phenomenon. In the dictionary of V.I. Dahl - "innovation", used as an introduction of novelty, new customs, orders. In the "Great Soviet Encyclopedia" the concept of "innovation" is also absent.

In English terminological dictionaries, the term "innovation" is synonymous with innovation or innovation. In a number of encyclopedic dictionaries published in Russia in recent years, innovation is also identified with innovation, innovation.

Based on the study of the concept of "innovation" in the economic literature of recent years, it can be argued that there are many definitions of it. The systematization of interpretations of the concept of "innovation" is given in Table.

Analysis of the above definitions of the term "innovation" allows us to state that three points of view are widespread. First, innovation is identified with innovation, novelty. The second point of view, innovation is seen as the process of creating new products, technologies, innovation in the field of organization, economics and production management. The third one is innovation as a process of introduction into production of new products, elements, approaches that are qualitatively different from the previous analogue.

Table 1

Definition of "innovation"

Definition
ANDInnovation is such a social - technical - economic process that, through the practical use of ideas and inventions, leads to the creation of products and technologies that are better in their properties.	Santo B. Innovation as a means ..., 1990, p. 24.
PAn innovation (innovation) usually means an object introduced into production as a result of a research or discovery made, qualitatively different from the previous analogue.	Utkin E.A., Morozova N.I., Morozova G.I. Innovation Management…, 1996, p. 10.
ANDInnovation is the process of implementing a new idea in any sphere of human life, contributing to the satisfaction of an existing need in the market and bringing an economic effect.	Bezdudny F.F., Smirnova G.A., Nechaeva O.D. The essence of the concept ..., 1998, p. 8.
ANDinnovation - the use of the results of scientific research and development aimed at improving the process of production, economic, legal and social relations in the field of science, culture, education and other areas of activity.	Suvorova A.L. Innovation management, 1999, p. 15.
ANDInnovation is the result of updating, transforming previous activities, leading to the replacement of some elements with others, or the addition of new ones to existing ones.	Kokurin D.I. Innovative activity, 2001, p. 10.
ANDinnovation (innovation) is the result of practical or scientific and technical development of innovation.	Avsyannikov N.M. Innovation management, 2002, p. 12.
PAn innovation is an object introduced into production as a result of a scientific research or discovery made, which is qualitatively different from the previous analogue.	Medynsky V.G. Innovation management, 2002, p. five.
ANDInnovation is understood as the end result of scientific research or discovery, qualitatively different from the previous analogue and introduced into production. The concept of innovation applies to all innovations in organizational, production and other areas of activity, to any improvements that reduce costs.	Minnikhanov R.N., Alekseev V.V., Fayzrakhmanov D.I., Sagdiev M.A. Innovation management…, 2003, p. 13.
ANDInnovation is the process of development, development, exploitation and exhaustion of the production, economic and social potential underlying innovation.	Morozov Yu.P., Gavrilov A.I., Gorodkov A.G. Innovation Management, 2003, p. 17.
ANDinnovation as a result of the creative process in the form of created (or implemented) new use values, the use of which requires the individuals or organizations using them to change the usual stereotypes of activities and skills. The concept of innovation extends to a new product or service, a method of their production, an innovation in organizational, financial, research and other areas, any improvement that provides cost savings or creates conditions for such savings.	Zavlin P.N. Fundamentals of innovation management ..., 2004, from. 6.
ANDinnovation - a new or improved product (good, work, service), method (technology) of its production or application, innovation or improvement in the organization and (or) economics of production, and (or) product sales, providing economic benefits, creating conditions for such benefits or improving the consumer properties of products (goods, works, services).	Kulagin A.S. A little about the term…, 2004, p. 58.
ANDinnovation is new or improved technologies, types of products or services being created, as well as decisions of an industrial, administrative, financial, legal, commercial or other nature, which have a positive effect on the economic entities involved as a result of their implementation and subsequent practical application.	Stepanenko D.M. Classification of innovations…, 2004, p. 77.
FROMthe word "innovation" is synonymous with innovation or novelty, and can be used along with them.	Avrashkov L.Ya. Innovation Management, 2005, p. five.
ANDinnovation is the end result of introducing innovation in order to change the object of management and obtain an economic, social, environmental, scientific, technical or other type of effect.	Fatkhutdinov R.A. Innovation Management, 2005, p. 15.
ANDinnovations in relation to the agro-industrial complex are new technologies, new equipment, new varieties of plants, new breeds of animals, new fertilizers and means of protecting plants and animals, new methods for the prevention and treatment of animals, new forms of organization, financing and crediting of production, new approaches to training, retraining and advanced training of personnel, etc.	Shaitan B.I. Innovations in the agro-industrial complex…, 2005, p. 207.
ANDinnovation is the involvement in the economic circulation of the results of intellectual activity containing new, including scientific, knowledge in order to meet social needs and (or) make a profit.	Volynkina N.V. Legal entity…, 2006, p. 13.
INin accordance with international standards (Frascati Guide - a new version of the document adopted by the OECD in 1993 in the Italian city of Frascati), innovation is defined as the end result of innovation, embodied in the form of a new or improved product introduced on the market, a new or improved technological process, used in practice, or in a new approach to social services.	Science statistics…, 1996, p. 30-31.
ANDinnovation (innovation) - the end result of innovative activity, realized in the form of a new or improved product sold on the market, a new or improved technological process used in practice.	The concept of innovative ..., 1998.
ANDinnovation - an innovation in the field of engineering, technology, labor organization and management, based on the use of scientific achievements and best practices, as well as the use of these innovations in various fields and fields of activity.	Raizberg B.A. Lozovsky L.Sh. Starodubtseva E.B. Modern economic ..., 1999, p. 136.
ANDInnovation: 1. Innovation, innovation. 2. A set of measures aimed at introducing new equipment, technologies, inventions, etc. into the economy; modernization.	Big sensible ..., 2003, p. 393.
ANDinnovation is an innovation in the production and non-production spheres, in the field of economic, social, legal relations, science, culture, education, healthcare, in the field of public finance, in business finance, in the budget process, in banking, in the financial market, in insurance etc.	Financial and credit ..., 2004, p. 367.
ANDinnovation - obtaining great economic results through the introduction of innovations; the essence of a progressive development strategy for the organization of the state as opposed to the bureaucratic type of development.	Rumyantseva E.E. New Economic..., 2005, p. 162.

We shared the position of those researchers who consider it inappropriate to equate the concepts of "innovation" and "innovation". Innovation, according to Prof. R.A. Fatkhutdinov is a formalized result of fundamental, applied research, development or experimental work in any area of activity to improve efficiency. Innovations can take the form of: discoveries; inventions; patents; trademarks; rationalization proposals; documentation for a new or improved product, technology, management or production process; organizational, production or other structure; know-how; concepts; scientific approaches or principles; document (standard, recommendations, methodology, instructions, etc.); marketing research results, etc. Investing in the development of innovation is half the battle. The main thing is to introduce innovation, to turn innovation into a form of innovation, i.e. complete the innovation activity and get a positive result, then continue the diffusion of innovation. These stages refer to innovation as a process.

Thus, innovation acts as a specific result of scientific research and development in the form of new products, equipment, technology, information, methods, etc. In turn, innovation is the process of introducing innovation in order to change the object of management and obtain a scientific, technical, economic and social effect.

The analysis of currently existing definitions contains a number of shortcomings. For example, the current international standards on innovation established by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, developed in relation to new products, technical changes and social services, do not cover innovations in the field of organization and management. A similar shortcoming in the definition of innovation is contained in the Concept of the Innovation Policy of the Russian Federation for 1998-2000.

In our opinion, innovation should have the following properties: be novel, applicable in any field of human activity, implemented on the market, bring economic and other types of effect.

Summarizing the above definitions of this term, we can give the following formulation of the concept of innovation. Innovation is the commercialization of scientific knowledge that has been embodied in the form of new or improved products (services), equipment, technology, organization of production, management and brings various types of effect.

With regard to the agro-industrial complex (agro-industrial complex), innovations are the implementation in economic practice of the results of research and development in the form of new varieties of plants, breeds and species of animals and poultry crosses, new or improved food products, materials, new technologies in crop production, animal husbandry and processing industry, new fertilizers and means of protecting plants and animals, new methods of prevention and treatment of animals and poultry, new forms of organization and management of various sectors of the economy, new approaches to social services that improve production efficiency.

Classification of innovations

In the scientific literature, innovations are usually classified according to a number of criteria - according to the degree of radicalness, significance in economic development, subdividing them into basic, improving and pseudo-innovations (rationalizing).

According to the direction of results, innovations are divided into product and process ones. Product innovation covers the introduction of new or improved products. They include the use of new materials, new semi-finished products and components, obtaining new products. Process innovations are divided into technological - new technologies for the production of products; organizational and managerial - new methods of organizing production, transport, marketing and supply, new organizational structures of management and social - improving working conditions, recreation, meeting human needs in health care, education, culture ..

A fairly complete classification of innovations was proposed by A.I. Prigogine.

1. By prevalence:

Single;

Diffuse.

2. By place in the production cycle:

Commodity;

Providing (binding);

Grocery.

3. By succession:

Substitute;

canceling;

Returnable;

opening;

Retro introductions.

4. By coverage of the expected market share:

Local;

Systemic;

Strategic.

5. By innovative potential and degree of novelty:

Radical;

Combinatorial;

Improvers.

The fourth and fifth directions of the classification, taking into account the scale and novelty of innovations, the intensity of innovative change, express the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of innovations to the greatest extent and are important for the economic assessment of their consequences and the justification of managerial decisions.

P.N. Zavlin proposes to classify innovations according to 12 criteria: by significance; by direction; by sectoral structure of the life cycle; by the depth of change; in relation to development; on the scale of distribution; by role in the production process; by the nature of the needs met; according to the degree of novelty; time to market; for reasons of occurrence; by subject and scope of application (Fig. 1) .

The decrease in allocations for science during the years of reforms has led to an outflow of young scientists.

One of the features of agriculture is that here, along with industrial means of production, living organisms - animals and plants - take an active part in the reproduction process. Their development is subject to the action of natural laws and depends on such natural factors as climate, weather, heat, moisture, light and food. V.R. Williams wrote: “Plants require for their prosperity an uninterrupted presence or an uninterrupted influx of four groups of factors - light, heat, water and nutrients, under the continuous condition of the simultaneous and joint presence of all four factors in optimal quantities with unconditional equivalence and independence of them. .

Expanded reproduction in agriculture takes place in the interaction of economic and natural biological processes. Therefore, when managing innovations, it is necessary to take into account the requirements of not only economic laws, but also the laws of nature: equivalence, irreplaceability and the totality of life factors, the laws of minimum, optimum and maximum. The operation of the law of indispensability of factors of production is manifested in the fact that, for example, selection cannot compensate for fertilizers, varieties cannot compensate for the gaps in agricultural technology, and breeding cannot replace feed. According to the law of the minimum, the growth of production is constrained by the factor that is at a minimum. For example, the level of livestock productivity is determined by the substance, the largest amount of which is in the feed ration; in accordance with the law of maximum, the excess of any one nutrient in excess of the animal's need will not lead to an increase in its productivity. The complex nature of innovation in the agro-industrial complex imposes specific requirements on the innovation mechanism (legal and regulatory framework for innovation development, organization and management, innovation marketing, development of the innovation structure).

In agriculture, even the slightest omission is fraught with undesirable consequences. K.A. Timiryazev pointed out: “Nowhere, perhaps in no other activity, is it necessary to weigh so many various conditions for success, nowhere is such multilateral information required, nowhere can a fascination with a one-sided point of view lead to such a failure as in agriculture.”

The complexity of agricultural production and its features predetermine the originality of approaches and methods of managing the innovation process, the combination of various types of innovation, and the strengthening of the role of the state in stimulating innovation.

It should be noted that the complexity and features of agricultural production are characterized by a high level of risks of innovative processes in the agricultural sector. The risk of financing research and production results, the risk of a temporary gap between costs and results, the uncertainty of demand for innovative products do not interest private investors to invest in the development of agriculture.

Rice. 3. Conditions and factors influencing the innovative development of the agro-industrial complex

To activate innovation processes, it is necessary to provide conditions for expanded reproduction in the agricultural sector, first of all, to improve the financial condition of organizations. Most agricultural enterprises of the Republic of Komi have long lost their own working capital, their accounts payable exceeded the annual proceeds from the sale of products, they cannot take new loans, which counters the normal production process. Even taking into account subsidies and compensations from the budget in 2005, 56% of agricultural enterprises of the republic were unprofitable. With a lack of financial resources, they are primarily directed to current purposes.

The conditions and factors hindering the development of innovations in the agro-industrial complex also include a contraction in domestic demand for food, a reduction in state support for the agricultural sector and state financing of scientific and technical programs, an underdeveloped lending system, high interest rates on loans, a lack of innovation infrastructure and a state innovation policy and strategy, insufficient level of training of personnel of agricultural organizations in the field of innovation management.

One of the main obstacles to the transition of the agrarian economy to the path of innovative development is the acute shortage of qualified managers and specialists. Currently, over 300 positions remain vacant in agricultural organizations of the Komi Republic, including 32 positions of chief agronomist, 52 of chief engineer, 41 of chief veterinarian, 49 of chief economist. Only 56% of heads of organizations have higher education, and 12% do not even have a secondary vocational education. The number of managers and specialists who left agriculture exceeds the number of those accepted.

The innovative type of development of the agrarian economy is largely determined by the scientific and technical policy of the region, the formation of a regional innovation mechanism. The subjects play an important role in the implementation of the anti-crisis program, using innovations of the selection-genetic, technological, organizational, managerial and social types.

The priorities for the development of innovative processes in the regional agro-industrial complex include:

Technological re-equipment of the organizations of the complex;

Energy and resource-saving technologies for the production, storage and processing of agricultural products;

Reproduction of soil fertility, prevention of all types of their degradation, development of adaptive technologies for agroecosystems and agrolandscapes;

Development of production of organic agricultural products. In the zone of the North there is a unique opportunity to focus on the production of environmentally friendly products on their vast land resources, to work out the technologies of organic farming;

Creation of a modern system of information and infrastructure support for innovation in the agro-industrial complex;

Development of state innovation policy and strategy at the federal and regional levels, aimed at the formation of progressive technological structures;

Formation of the organizational and economic mechanism for the functioning of the agro-industrial complex on an innovative basis;

Strengthening the role of state organizations in enhancing innovation activities;

Development of regional and municipal innovative programs for the development of the agro-industrial complex;

Improving the system of training personnel in the field of innovation, providing an increase in the innovative activity of organizations and the commercialization of scientific research results.

LITERATURE

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Innovation management: textbook Mukhamedyarov A. M.

11.1. Risks in innovation activity

Innovation activity is associated with various types of risk. In general terms, the risk in innovation is defined as the probability of losses arising from investing in the development and production of innovations. The types of risks that arise in the innovative activities of enterprises and organizations include: the risk of erroneous selection of projects, marketing risks, the risk of increased competition, the risk of failure to provide projects with sufficient financial resources, the risk of unforeseen costs, the risk of non-execution of contracts, etc. influence such risks as credit, investment, foreign economic, incompleteness and inaccuracy of information.

Such a gradation of risks will make it possible to clearly define the place of each risk in their overall system and create conditions for the effective application of appropriate methods and techniques for managing these risks. For effective risk management, it is important to clearly understand the causes of their occurrence. The reasons for the erroneous selection of projects are the unreasonable determination of the priorities of the financial and economic development of the organization, the vagueness of the choice of the type of innovation strategy (offensive or defensive); inadequate choice of different types of innovations (technological or product, fundamentally new or modernized).

For innovative activities, especially small innovative businesses, the risk is the risk of increased competition. The reasons for the emergence of such a risk may be: incomplete and unreliable information about competitors, lengthening the development and mastering of innovations, which led to lagging behind competitors; leakage of confidential information as a result of industrial espionage; dishonesty of competitors, their raider approach; expansion to the regional (local) market by foreign exporters and other regions of the country. In the functioning of innovative enterprises, an important role is played by the risk of non-execution of economic contracts (contracts). This risk is manifested in the refusal of partners to conclude an agreement after negotiations, the conclusion of agreements with insolvent partners, the failure of partners to fulfill their contractual obligations within the prescribed period, and the threat of environmental pollution.

Reasonable ways to minimize risks can be identified on the basis of their more detailed classification. Risks can be classified according to the following criteria:

According to the degree of risk - acceptable, critical or super-critical (catastrophic);

By type of activity - research, experimental or pilot production activities;

By type of risk - technical, industrial, informational, economic (commercial), environmental or political;

By risk level - high, medium or low;

By economic content - operational, credit, inflationary, currency or innovation-investment;

By objects (by place of origin) - country, regional or sectoral.

A special place is occupied by innovation and investment risk - this is the probability of not obtaining the final result, competitive products, profits and, ultimately, cash flows from specific innovative investments. The specificity of investment risk lies in the fact that investments, if they are accompanied by the introduction of fundamental innovations, practically have an impact on all aspects of the enterprise's activities and are reflected in its economic growth, capital growth and profitability.

Analysis and risk assessment involve the use of a set of methods. These methods include:

Statistical methods, in particular the method of risk factor analysis;

Method of analogies;

The method of complex analysis of the financial condition of the enterprise, diagnostics of its financial stability;

Risk modeling method;

Multiplicative method based on the calculation of individual coefficients (multipliers) that allow characterizing the probability of technical and commercial risk;

Normative method;

The method of computer simulation of the risk of an innovative enterprise;

According to these methods, quantitative levels of risks are assessed to one degree or another. The accuracy of assessing the level of risks is increased by using a number of methods, the results of calculations for which require a qualified analysis of specialists.

Forms of protection against increased risks in the activities of innovative enterprises include risk avoidance (i.e., simple avoidance of decisions that are clearly associated with a large risk), risk retention (leaving the risk to the investor), transferring the risk to another organization (for example, an insurance company), reducing the degree (minimization) of risk, reducing the probability and reducing the volume of losses. In innovation, it is important to clearly understand the ways to reduce risk, to minimize it. In managerial and analytical practice, various ways of reducing risk are used.

The most effective of them is a qualified and competent choice of a management decision, especially an innovative investment decision (project). Acquiring additional information is a relatively new way, because more complete information allows you to make an accurate forecast and reduce risk. Limiting as a way to reduce risk is the establishment of a limit on the maximum amount of expenses. The most important way to reduce risks is to diversify the portfolio of innovations. Effective diversification of the innovation portfolio often leads to a significant reduction in individual risks caused by industry specifics and the specifics of a particular enterprise (company, association, small innovative enterprise). As a result of diversification, the total risk (individual and market) can be determined only by the amount of market risk, independent of the activity of the enterprise.

One of the ways to minimize risk is to transfer part of the risk (in particular, financial) to other enterprises and organizations, such as venture (risk) ones, which, in case of failure, assume part of the losses. Ways to reduce risk include self-insurance, which provides for the creation of in-kind and cash insurance funds directly at enterprises, especially those whose activities are exposed to various risks. One of the most common ways to minimize risk is insurance, which is the protection of the property interests of enterprises (firms) in the event of insured events, the creation of funds formed from insurance premiums to compensate for possible damage. Sometimes reinsurance is applied. Distribution receives a relatively new way to reduce risk - hedging, which means the creation of counter production, scientific, technical, commercial, currency requirements and obligations.

Risk, being a complex and multifaceted category, underlies the adoption of all scientific, technical, production and financial management decisions. After all, even in favorable conditions of economic growth for each enterprise (regardless of the form of ownership and its financial condition) there is always the possibility of the onset of special undesirable events, crisis phenomena. Such an opportunity is always associated with risk.

To reduce the risks of innovation, it is necessary first of all to carefully select projects (topics) proposed for implementation. The importance of selecting innovative projects (topics) at an early, pre-project stage is determined by the following circumstances:

Large scale and high rates of costs for innovative developments;

Limited funds allocated to certain areas of innovative developments or topics;

The desire, based on the choice of more promising and relevant topics, to obtain the maximum effect (economic, social, etc.);

A large number of topics offered by customers and directly by scientific and technical workers;

The need to reduce scientific, technical and economic risk, to achieve (or maintain) a world-class level in promising areas of exploratory research and innovative development;

The need to match the results of innovative developments with the strategy of enterprises.

The most important tasks of selecting topics for innovative developments are: the right choice of the most promising, relevant and effective topics; rejection of absurd, fantastic and technically unfeasible topics in the foreseeable future; clarification of the reasons (factors) that reduce the scientific, technical and economic level of the proposed innovations; determining the number of topics that can be accepted and approved based on the possibilities of financing innovations; accumulation of actual (statistical) materials in order to clarify and refine the methodological recommendations for selection.

The experience of long-term and thematic planning of scientific and technical organizations (research institutes, design bureaus, PCTI), NGOs and associations (enterprises) shows the impossibility of developing and applying a general universal method for selecting topics and building a unified system of indicators that would equally successfully allow evaluation in all cases. A set of methods and a differentiated system of indicators are needed that take into account the multi-purpose nature of projects, the diversity of the results of their implementation (economic, social, etc.), the reliability of the initial data and the sources of the formation of topics, as well as industry and regional characteristics. Nevertheless, the basic principles for the selection of topics, factors and groups of indicators, the selection procedure and organizational forms for its implementation can and should be general, intersectoral. In practice, when selecting topics, they can be supplemented with specific indicators and methods for calculating them, as well as more specific selection methods that reflect industry (sub-sectoral) and regional characteristics, purpose (new products, advanced technological process, technical and organizational level of production, improvement environmental situation), sources of formation of topics.

The definition of the composition, groups of indicators and their weight for the selection of promising projects (topics) is carried out on the basis of a number of principles. The most important principle that should be the basis for the selection of topics is the focus on the final results of the implementation of innovative developments. When determining the system of indicators for the selection of topics, it is necessary to take into account the principle of compliance of the nature and content of developments with the production, technical, financial and economic capabilities of enterprises in the industry. An important principle for selecting promising topics is the complexity of the approach. When choosing indicators, the principle of a rational correlation of individual indicators belonging to different groups (cost, natural, labor, temporary) and the principle of distinguishing indicators into result and performance indicators are taken into account. The principle of adjustability of the system of indicators suggests that, depending on the main goal, the range of indicators that are different in their significance either expands or narrows. Moreover, one should bear in mind the possibility of an increase or decrease in the relative value (weight) of individual indicators.

The following requirements are imposed on the indicators: logical linkage with the ultimate goals of the selected topics, objectivity, simplicity and accessibility of measurement (calculation), specificity and unambiguity of the results obtained, consistency, adaptability to existing forms of reporting and accounting. Taking into account the above principles for constructing a system of indicators and the requirements for them, the following groups of indicators (factors) can be used to select promising and relevant projects (topics):

Scientific and technical;

Production and technological;

Financial and economic;

Socio-ecological;

Industry (regional);

legal;

Temporary;

Market (marketing).

Each group of indicators is characterized by a set of private indicators, the composition, structure, number and significance of which depend on the specifics of the industry and the profile of individual innovative organizations, the objectives of the selection of topics, the stages of implementation and the sources of their formation. These groups of factors and the composition of private indicators are reflected in the methods of project selection. A set of requirements is imposed on the methods for selecting topics: a strict selection of the most promising and effective topics, the coincidence of the results of the selected topics with the goals of the production and economic and scientific and production systems, the focus of the selected topics; a high degree of reliability of the assessment - primarily in relation to the achievement of the expected results, taking into account the source and nature of the formation of topics (contractual, initiative, etc.); taking into account industry and regional characteristics, etc.

Accounting for the totality of these requirements is carried out through the integrated use of various methods. The methods used in the selection of topics (projects) can be divided into qualitative and quantitative. At the early stages of scientific and technical developments, the following are used in the selection: 1) a qualitative method based on intuition, personal experience and qualifications and which has found application in the practice of innovation planning. Improving its objectivity is ensured by well-organized expert assessments and the use of mathematical apparatus (mathematical and statistical processing, probability theory); 2) graphic-analytical method; 3) a quantitative method based on the use of a set of calculated indicators using a multi-level system for their evaluation.

When applying the graphic-analytical method of selecting topics, first of all, factors (groups of indicators) are specifically formulated and fixed, the results of which are taken into account when choosing topics. From the point of view of the uniformity of the methodology of the approach, a single set of factors is used for all methods of selecting topics. To characterize the influence of each factor (group of indicators) on the chosen topic, various ratings are used (excellent, satisfactory, etc.). In each specific case, only one estimate is selected. In table. 11.1 presents an approximate list of indicators related to scientific and technical factors, and their assessment is given.

For a general assessment of the impact of scientific and technical indicators on the topic in terms of its feasibility, the average score is calculated (for the indicators given in Table 11.1, it is about 4). Similarly, the theme is evaluated according to other factors (groups of indicators): economic, socio-environmental, etc. The estimates obtained are summarized in a general table (Table 11.2), on the basis of which the issue of selecting the proposed topics (projects) is finally decided.

Comparing various topics (projects) according to the obtained general indicators, one can obtain a qualitative and approximate quantitative assessment of the advantages of a particular innovative topic. Periodically, new charts-tables for topics adopted and in progress are compared with the original forecasts (sometimes new and initial estimates are presented on the same chart).

Table 11.1

Indicators related to scientific and technical factors and their evaluation

Table 11.2

Factors (groups of indicators) and their evaluation

Ultimately, the actual results are compared with the original estimates. Such comparisons give a picture of positive and undesirable changes in individual indicators. They can also be useful in terms of the credibility of the opinions of experts evaluating topics and the involvement of the most qualified of them in the selection of topics.

Qualitative and graph-analytical methods, which are widely used, are relatively simple and make it possible to use graphs to control the implementation of topics. However, they are not sufficient for an objective assessment, therefore, quantitative methods are used in addition to them. When applying the quantitative method for each specific topic, the primary, main indicators and their weight, comparative value are determined. An approximate list of some quantitative indicators is given in Table. 11.3. Note that given in Table. 11.1 and 11.2, the list of indicators is not universal and, depending on the goals of a particular innovative project, can be expanded. Each innovative organization or enterprise (company) can use those project selection indicators that it considers to be the most profitable and valuable.

Table 11.3

Quantitative indicators for evaluating innovative projects

According to the general (integral) indicator, the topics are distributed in descending order of the total assessment they received, and the place of each topic is determined. At the same time, the distribution of topics to increase the level of reliability of the assessment can be supplemented by their classification into categories (highest, first, second) depending on the amount of points received. On this basis, a preliminary selection of topics is carried out.

This text is an introductory piece. author

6.1. Goals and objectives of financing innovation activities