The surname of Alexander 3. Alexander III is a peacemaker. rare photographs of the great emperor. Russian army and navy towards the end of the reign of Alexander III

Alexander III Alexandrovich (February 26 (March 10), 1845, Anichkov Palace, St. Petersburg - October 20 (November 1), 1894, Livadia Palace, Crimea) - Emperor of All Russia, Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland from March 1 (13), 1881 . Son of Emperor Alexander II and grandson of Nicholas I; father of the last Russian monarch Nicholas II.

Alexander III is a significant figure in the history of Russia. During his reign, no Russian blood was shed in Europe. Alexander III ensured long years of calm for Russia. For his peace-loving policy, he entered Russian history as a "tsar-peacemaker."

He adhered to conservative-protective views and pursued a policy of counter-reforms, as well as Russification of the national outskirts.

He was the second child in the family of Alexander II and Maria Alexandrovna Romanov. According to the rules of succession to the throne, Alexander was not prepared for the role of the ruler of the Russian Empire. The throne was to take the elder brother - Nicholas. Alexander, not at all envious of his brother, did not feel the slightest jealousy, watching how Nicholas was being prepared for the throne. Nikolai was a diligent student, and Alexander was overcome by boredom in the classroom.

The teachers of Alexander III were such distinguished people as the historians Solovyov, Grott, the remarkable military tactician Dragomirov, and Konstantin Pobedonostsev. It was the latter who had a great influence on Alexander III, largely determining the priorities of the domestic and foreign policy of the Russian emperor. It was Pobedonostsev who brought up in Alexander III a true Russian patriot and Slavophile. Little Sasha was more attracted not by study, but by physical activity. The future emperor loved horseback riding and gymnastics. Even before he came of age, Alexander Alexandrovich showed remarkable strength, easily lifted weights and easily bent horseshoes. He did not like secular entertainment, he preferred to spend his free time on improving riding skills and developing physical strength. The brothers joked, they say, - "Sasha is the Hercules of our family." Alexander loved the Gatchina Palace, and loved to spend time there, spending his days walking in the park, thinking about the day ahead.

In 1855 Nicholas was proclaimed Tsarevich. Sasha was glad for his brother, and even more so that he himself would not have to be emperor. However, fate nevertheless prepared the Russian throne for Alexander Alexandrovich. Nicholas's health deteriorated. The Tsarevich suffered from rheumatism from a bruised spine, and later he also contracted tuberculosis. In 1865 Nikolai died. Alexander Alexandrovich Romanov was proclaimed the new heir to the throne. It is worth noting that Nicholas had a bride - the Danish princess Dagmar. They say that the dying Nikolai took the hands of Dagmar and Alexander with one hand, as if urging two close people not to be separated after his death.

In 1866, Alexander III set off on a trip to Europe. His path lies in Copenhagen, where he wooed his brother's bride. Dagmar and Alexander became close when they cared for the sick Nikolai together. Their engagement took place on June 17 in Copenhagen. On October 13, Dagmar converted to Orthodoxy and became known as Maria Fedorovna Romanova, and on that day the young people got engaged.

Alexander III and Maria Fedorovna Romanov lived a happy family life. Their family is a true role model. Alexander Alexandrovich was a real, exemplary family man. The Russian Emperor loved his wife very much. After the wedding, they settled in the Anichkov Palace. The couple was happy and raised three sons and two daughters. The first-born of the imperial couple was the son Nikolai. Alexander loved all his children very much, but the second son, Mishka, enjoyed special paternal love.

The high morality of the emperor gave him the right to ask her from the courtiers. Under Alexander III, the Russian autocrat fell into disgrace for adultery. Alexander Alexandrovich was modest in everyday life, did not like idleness. Witte, the Minister of Finance of the Russian Empire, witnessed how the emperor's valet mended worn things for him.

The emperor loved pictures. The Emperor even had his own collection, which by 1894 consisted of 130 works by various artists. On his initiative, a Russian museum was opened in St. Petersburg. He had great respect for the work of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky. Alexander Romanov also liked the artist Alexei Bogolyubov, with whom the emperor had a good relationship. The emperor provided all kinds of support to young and talented cultural figures, museums, theaters and universities were opened under his patronage. Alexander adhered to truly Christian postulates, and in every possible way protected the Orthodox faith, tirelessly defending its interests.

Alexander III ascended the Russian throne after the assassination of Alexander II by revolutionaries - terrorists. It happened on March 2, 1881. For the first time, peasants were sworn in to the emperor, along with the rest of the population. In domestic policy, Alexander III embarked on the path of counter-reforms. The new Russian emperor was distinguished by conservative views.

During his reign, the Russian Empire achieved great success. Russia was a strong, developing country with which all European powers sought friendship. In Europe, there were always some political movements. And then one day, a minister came to Alexander, who was fishing, talking about affairs in Europe. He asked the emperor to somehow react. To which Alexander replied - "Europe can wait until the Russian Tsar catches fish." Alexander Alexandrovich really could afford such statements, because Russia was on the rise, and its army was the most powerful in the world. Nevertheless, the international situation obliged Russia to find a reliable ally. In 1891, friendly relations between Russia and France began to take shape, which ended with the signing of an alliance agreement.

According to the historian P. A. Zaionchkovsky, “Alexander III was quite modest in his personal life. He did not like lies, he was a good family man, he was hardworking ", working on state affairs often until 1-2 o'clock in the morning. “Alexander III had a certain system of views... To protect the purity of the ‘faith of the fathers’, the inviolability of the principle of autocracy and to develop the Russian people... - these are the main tasks that the new monarch set for himself... in some issues of foreign policy, he discovered and probably common sense ».

As S. Yu. Witte wrote, “Emperor Alexander III had an absolutely outstanding nobility and purity of heart, purity of morals and thoughts. As a family man, he was an exemplary family man; as a boss and owner - he was an exemplary boss and an exemplary owner ... he was a good owner not because of a sense of self-interest, but because of a sense of duty. Not only in the royal family, but also among dignitaries, I never met that feeling of respect for the state ruble, for the state penny, which the Emperor possessed ... He knew how to inspire confidence abroad, on the one hand, that He would not act unfair to anyone, does not want any captures; everyone was calm that He would not start any adventure ... The Emperor Alexander III never disagreed with the word. What he said was felt by him, and he never deviated from what he said ... Emperor Alexander III was an extremely courageous man ”.

The emperor was a passionate collector, second only to Catherine II in this respect. Gatchina Castle literally turned into a storehouse of priceless treasures. Acquisitions of Alexander - paintings, art objects, carpets and the like - no longer fit in the galleries of the Winter Palace, Anichkov and other palaces. The extensive collection of paintings, graphics, decorative and applied arts, and sculptures collected by Alexander III was transferred after his death to the Russian Museum established by the Russian Emperor Nicholas II in memory of his parent.

Alexander was fond of hunting and fishing. Often in the summer the royal family went to the Finnish skerries. Belovezhskaya Pushcha was the Emperor's favorite hunting ground. Sometimes the imperial family, instead of relaxing in the skerries, went to Poland to the Principality of Loviche, and there they enthusiastically indulged in hunting amusements, especially deer hunting, and most often ended their vacation with a trip to Denmark, to Bernstorf Castle - Dagmara's ancestral castle, where they often gathered from all over Europe her crowned relatives.

For all his outward severity in relation to his loved ones, he invariably remained a devoted family man and a loving father. Not only never in his life did he touch children with a finger, but he did not offend them with a harsh word.

On October 17, 1888, an attempt was made on Alexander III and the entire royal family. The terrorists derailed the train in which the emperor was. Seven wagons were broken, many victims. The king and his family remained alive by the will of fate. At the time of the explosion, they were in the restaurant car. During the explosion, the roof of the car with the royal family collapsed, and Alexander literally held it on himself until help arrived. After some time, he began to complain of back pain. During the examination, it turned out that the king had kidney problems. In the winter of 1894, Alexander caught a bad cold, and soon the emperor became very ill while hunting, and was diagnosed with acute nephritis. Doctors sent the emperor to the Crimea, where on November 20, 1894, Alexander III died.

Alexander III left a big mark in the history of Russia. After his death, the following lines were written in one of the French newspapers: - "He leaves Russia, greater than he received it."

Wife: Dagmar of Denmark (Maria Feodorovna) (November 14, 1847 - October 13, 1928), daughter of the Danish King Christian IX.

Children:
1. Nikolai Alexandrovich (later Emperor Nicholas II) (May 6, 1868 - July 17, 1918, Yekaterinburg);
2. Alexander Alexandrovich (May 26, 1869 - April 20, 1870, St. Petersburg);
3. Georgy Alexandrovich (April 27, 1871 - June 28, 1899, Abastumani);
4. Ksenia Alexandrovna (March 25, 1875 - April 20, 1960, London);
5. Mikhail Alexandrovich (November 22, 1878 - June 13, 1918, Perm);
6. Olga Alexandrovna (June 1, 1882 - November 24, 1960, Toronto).

Alexander III (1845-1894), Russian emperor (since 1881).

Born March 10, 1845 in Tsarskoye Selo. The second son of Emperor Alexander II. After the death of his elder brother Nicholas (1865) he became the heir.

In 1866, Alexander married the bride of his deceased brother, the daughter of the Danish king Christian IX, Princess Sophia Frederica Dagmar (Maria Feodorovna in Orthodoxy).

He ascended the throne on March 13, 1881 in a difficult political and economic situation: the terrorist activities of the Narodnaya Volya reached its climax, the war with Turkey completely upset the finances and monetary system of the Russian Empire. The assassination of Alexander II restored the new emperor against the liberals, whom he considered responsible for the death of his father.

Alexander III canceled the draft constitutional reform, his manifesto of May 11, 1881 expressed the program of domestic and foreign policy: maintaining order and spirit of church piety in the country, strengthening power, protecting national interests. Censorship was strengthened, university autonomy was abolished, and it was forbidden to admit children of the lower class in the gymnasium.

The result of the activities of Alexander III was the conservation of the existing system.

Government policy contributed to the further development of trade, industry, and the elimination of the budget deficit, which made it possible to switch to gold circulation and created the prerequisites for a powerful economic upsurge in the second half of the 1990s. 19th century

In 1882, the government established the Peasant Land Bank, which issued loans to peasants to purchase land, which contributed to the creation of private land ownership among the peasants.

On March 13, 1887, the Narodnaya Volya made an attempt on the life of the emperor. A week later, on March 20, the participants in the failed assassination attempt were hanged.

The thirteen-year reign of Alexander III passed peacefully, without major military clashes, for which he was called the peacemaker king.

Many descriptions of the appearance of Alexander III have come down to us. Estimates of his activities in history are very diverse. He was a good family man, a kind person, but he did not bear the burden of power. He did not have the qualities that an emperor was supposed to have. Inside, Alexander felt this, he was constantly very critical of himself and his actions. This was the tragedy of the personality of the emperor in the history of Russia.

He reigned for thirteen years. Many argue that if it were not for the death of the heir to the throne, Nikolai Alexandrovich, then everything could have happened differently. Nikolai was a humane and liberal person, he could have carried out liberal reforms and introduced a constitution, and perhaps Russia could have avoided both the revolution and the further collapse of the empire.

The entire 19th century Russia spent in vain, it was time for transformations, but not a single monarch dared to do something grandiose. Alexander III was guided in his policy only by good intentions, he believed that I was conserving everything liberal, he was preserving the future of the dynasty and the empire as a whole.

Personality of Alexander III

Alexander Alexandrovich grew up in a large family. He was born in February 1845 as the third child. The girl Alexandra was born first, then Nikolai, and then Alexander. There were six sons, so there were no problems with heirs. Naturally, all attention was focused on Nikolai Alexandrovich as heir to the throne. Nikolai and Alexander studied literacy and military science together, and were enlisted in the guards regiments from birth. At the age of eighteen, Alexander already bore the title of colonel. Over time, the training of Nicholas and Alexander began to differ, naturally, the teachings of the heir were much broader.

At the age of sixteen, Nikolai reached his legal age and was settled in separate apartments in the Winter Palace. Then Nikolai visited Western Europe, where he underwent treatment, as he experienced back pain. In Denmark, he proposed to Princess Dagmar.

When he ended up in Nice, his mother Maria Alexandrovna came to see him, as his health condition did not improve. In April 1865, the heir became very ill, all the relatives and the bride and mother arrived in Nice. They managed to stay with Nikolai for only a few days. Alexander, mother Maria Alexandrovna and Nikolai's fiancee were always at the bedside. The Tsesarevich died on April 12, 1865, and Alexander Alexandrovich was proclaimed heir to the throne.

It was clear to everyone in the family that Alexander III did not succeed in state activities. Aunt Elena Pavlovna spoke more than once that the third brother, Vladimir Alexandrovich, was to become the heir to the throne. Brother Konstantin Nikolaevich spoke of the complete unwillingness of Alexander Alexandrovich to occupy the imperial throne. The new heir did not like to study, he liked military affairs, and he always preferred the game to teaching.

Alexander III Alexandrovich

When Alexander was proclaimed heir to the throne, he received the rank of major general and was appointed ataman of the Cossack troops. He was already a fully formed person, therefore, absolutely not ready for a new fate that unexpectedly fell on him. He began to intensively teach law, history, economics. Alexander himself was an honest, sincere, direct, clumsy and shy man. In October 1866, the wedding of Alexander and the former bride of his brother Nikolai took place, she received the name of Maria Feodorovna. Despite the fact that Alexander had feelings for Princess Meshcherskaya, and Maria Feodorovna for the late Tsarevich, their marriage turned out to be happy.

Alexander was the heir to the throne for 15 years. His views were right-wing and very nationalistic. and his son looked at national politics and some other things differently. Due to the unpopularity of some decisions of the emperor, like-minded people soon begin to group around the heir, and those who are representatives of other directions begin to listen to Alexander Alexandrovich III, since the future lies with him.

The real event for the heir was the Russian-Turkish war, he was in the territory of hostilities. The officers noted that Alexander was easy to communicate with, devoted his free time to archaeological excavations.

The heir participated in the creation of the Russian Historical Society. The society was supposed to attract people to study the history of the Fatherland, as well as to promote science in Russia. It specialized in the study of the history of Russia after the reign.

At the end of the 1870s. Alexander Alexandrovich's duties are expanding. When he leaves Petersburg, the heir is engaged in current state affairs. At this time, the state is in a period of crisis. There are more and more attempts by terrorists to change the situation by illegal means. The situation is complicated within the emperor's family. He transports his mistress E. Dolgoruky to the Winter Palace. The empress, who had long known about her husband's connection, was very offended. She was sick with consumption and in May 1880 she died in the palace all alone, was in Tsarskoe Selo with Ekaterina Dolgoruky.

The heir loved his mother very much and adhered to the reading of family ties, he was furious, he did not like the behavior of his father. Especially hatred intensified when the father soon married his mistress. Soon she and their children were moved to the Crimea. In order to improve relations with his stepmother, the father often invited his son there. In one visit, everything only worsened, because Alexander saw how his stepmother occupied his mother's rooms there.

Emperor Alexander III

On March 1, 1881, he approved the draft constitution of Loris-Melikov and scheduled a meeting for March 4. But on March 1, as a result of two explosions, he died. When Alexander III assumed power, he did not give any promises to continue his father's policy. In the first months, the emperor had to deal with many things: the funeral of his father, accession to the throne, the search for revolutionaries and the massacre of them. It should be noted that the emperor was ruthless to the murderers of his father, they were hanged.

Also, the problem was in the second family of the father. In his last letter, he instructed his son to take care of them. Alexander III wanted them to leave Petersburg, and conversations about this began with his stepmother. She and her children went to Nice, where she later lived.

In politics, Alexander III chose the path of autocratic power. The meeting on the Loris-Melikov project was held on March 8, and the project did not receive support. Alexander III spoke out that the project would usurp the rights of the monarch, thus he recognized Loris-Melikov as a politically unreliable official, which could have terrible consequences for the latter.

Some, despite the fear, spoke out about the timeliness and the need to introduce a constitution in Russia and change legislation. But the autocrat showed that he did not intend to breed a law-based state in Russia. Soon a manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy" was created. By 1882, all representatives of “lousy liberalism” were ousted from state ministries, and in return for them, the closest associates of the current emperor sat in the offices. During his reign, the role of the State Council falls, it was limited only to helping the emperor in the implementation of his intentions, he was always angry if some of his ideas were criticized in the State Council. In politics, Alexander III was like his grandfather. They both treated the state as an estate. He struggled with bureaucracy, with the extravagance of the royal court, tried to save money.

The imperial family grew, and the emperor went to reduce its representatives. Only the children and grandchildren of the emperor were grand dukes, and the rest became simply princes with imperial blood, thus their financial support was reduced.

He also carried out a number of counter-reforms, all the earlier liberal transformations of his father came to naught. The emperor went down in history as a "peacemaker king". During his reign, Russia did not wage wars. In foreign policy, Russia is moving away from cooperation with Germany and Austria. But it draws closer to France, then to England.

S.Yu. admired the emperor. Witte, the future Minister of Finance. He considered him to be the person who would be able to use and realize the entire economic potential of Russia. Witte also said that sooner or later Alexander would have come to liberal reforms anyway. But, unfortunately, he did not have enough time for this. In 1894, his illness nephritis worsened, and his health was getting worse. He became weaker, lost weight, memory also began to suffer. He died at the end of 1894 in the Crimea. The country was accepted by the eldest son Nicholas II, his father considered a man not ready for imperial power.

Alexander III video

On March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander II Nikolaevich died at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya, and his second son Alexander ascended the throne. At first he was preparing for a military career, because. the heir to power was his elder brother Nikolai, but in 1865 he died.

In 1868, during a severe crop failure, Alexander Alexandrovich was appointed chairman of the committee for the collection and distribution of benefits to the starving. When he was before accession to the throne, he was the ataman of the Cossack troops, chancellor of the University of Helsingfors. In 1877 he took part in the Russian-Turkish war as a detachment commander.

The historical portrait of Alexander III was more like a mighty Russian peasant than the sovereign of the empire. He possessed heroic strength, but did not differ in mental abilities. Despite this characteristic, Alexander III was very fond of theater, music, painting, and studied Russian history.

In 1866 he married the Danish princess Dagmar, in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna. She was smart, educated, and in many ways complemented her husband. Alexander and Maria Feodorovna had 5 children.

Domestic policy of Alexander III

The beginning of the reign of Alexander III fell on the period of the struggle of two parties: the liberal (desiring the reforms initiated by Alexander II) and the monarchist. Alexander III abolished the idea of ​​the constitutionality of Russia and set a course for strengthening the autocracy.

On August 14, 1881, the government adopted a special law "Regulations on Measures to Protect State Order and Public Peace." To combat unrest and terror, states of emergency were introduced, punitive measures were used, and in 1882 the secret police appeared.

Alexander III believed that all the troubles in the country come from the freethinking of subjects and the excessive education of the lower class, which was caused by his father's reforms. Therefore, he began a policy of counter-reforms.

Universities were considered the main center of terror. The new university charter of 1884 sharply limited their autonomy, student associations and student courts were banned, access to education for representatives of the lower classes and Jews was limited, and strict censorship was introduced in the country.

changes in the Zemstvo reform under Alexander III:

In April 1881, the Manifesto on the independence of the autocracy was published, compiled by K.M. Pobedonostsev. The rights of the zemstvos were severely curtailed, and their work was taken under the strict control of the governors. Merchants and officials sat in the city dumas, and only wealthy local nobles sat in the zemstvos. Peasants lost the right to participate in elections.

Changes in judicial reform under Alexander III:

In 1890, a new regulation on zemstvos was adopted. Judges became dependent on the authorities, the competence of the jury was reduced, the world courts were practically eliminated.

Changes in the peasant reform under Alexander III:

The poll tax and communal land tenure were abolished, and compulsory redemption of land was introduced, but redemption payments were reduced. In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established, designed to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of land and private property.

Changes in the military reform under Alexander III:

The defense capability of border districts and fortresses was strengthened.

Alexander III knew the importance of army reserves, so infantry battalions were created, reserve regiments were formed. A cavalry division was created, capable of fighting both on horseback and on foot.

To conduct combat in mountainous areas, batteries of mountain artillery were created, mortar regiments, siege artillery battalions were formed. A special railway brigade was created to deliver troops and army reserves.

In 1892, mine river companies, serf telegraphs, aeronautic detachments, and military pigeon houses appeared.

Military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps, for the first time non-commissioned officer training battalions were created, which trained junior commanders.

A new three-line rifle was adopted, a smokeless type of gunpowder was invented. The military uniform has been changed to a more comfortable one. The order of appointment to command positions in the army was changed: only by seniority.

Social policy of Alexander III

"Russia for the Russians" is the emperor's favorite slogan. Only the Orthodox Church is considered truly Russian, all other religions were officially defined as "non-denominational confessions."

The policy of anti-Semitism was officially proclaimed, and the persecution of Jews began.

Foreign policy of Alexander III

The reign of Emperor Alexander III was the most peaceful. Only once did Russian troops clash with Afghan troops on the Kushka River. Alexander III protected his country from wars, and also helped to extinguish hostility between other countries, for which he received the nickname "Peacemaker".

Economic policy of Alexander III

Under Alexander III, cities, factories and factories grew, domestic and foreign trade grew, the length of railways increased, and the construction of the great Siberian Railway began. In order to develop new lands, peasant families were resettled in Siberia and Central Asia.

In the late 1980s, the state budget deficit was overcome, and revenues exceeded expenditures.

The results of the reign of Alexander III

Emperor Alexander III was called "the most Russian Tsar." He defended the Russian population with all his might, especially on the outskirts, which contributed to the strengthening of state unity.

As a result of the measures taken in Russia, a rapid industrial boom took place, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble grew and strengthened, and the well-being of the population improved.

Alexander III and his counter-reforms provided Russia with a peaceful and calm era without wars and internal unrest, but also engendered a revolutionary spirit in Russians that would break out under his son Nicholas II.

Alexander III, Emperor of All Russia, second son of Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna. Born on February 26, 1845. After the untimely death of his elder brother, Tsarevich Nikolai Alexandrovich, on April 12, 1865, he was proclaimed heir to the throne; On October 28, 1866, he married the daughter of the Danish king Christian IX, Princess Sophia-Frederika-Dagmara, who was named Maria Feodorovna during holy chrismation. While still heir, Alexander took part in public affairs, as commander of the guards corps, ataman of all Cossack troops, member of the State Council. In the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 he commanded a separate Ruschuk detachment and successfully made a trip to Osman-Bazaar, Razgrad and Eski-Juma. In 1877 he took an active part in the creation of a voluntary fleet.

Emperor Alexander III (1881-1894)

During the reign of Emperor Alexander III, important measures were taken in the field of the national economy, carried out mainly by the Minister of Finance N. X. Bunge: in 1882 redemption payments were lowered, the poll tax was abolished, a peasant bank was factory inspection, the life of chinsheviks and some other categories of rural inhabitants is arranged. Even earlier, in 1881, and then in 1884, favorable conditions were established for the peasants to rent state lands; On June 15, 1882, a tax on inheritances and gifts was established, in 1885 additional fees were introduced from commercial and industrial enterprises, and a tax on money capital was established, and these financial reforms were to serve for the gradual introduction of an income tax in our country. Subsequently, the most important facts in the financial policy of the state are: the achievement of a fairly stable balance between income and expenditure, the large-scale conversion of public debts; to increase the funds of the treasury, two new excises were established - on matches and kerosene, an apartment tax was introduced, in addition, in the form of an experiment, a drinking monopoly was introduced in the eastern provinces.

Russian tsars. Alexander III

Of the individual legislative acts of an economic nature, the regulation of the resettlement movement of peasants to lands beyond the Urals (a forerunner of the resettlement policy of P. A. Stolypin) and the law on the inalienability of allotment lands are of particular importance. In the customs policy of the state, there was a significant increase in protectionism, which reached its apogee in the tariff of 1891, but then was somewhat softened by trade agreements with France and Germany; an agreement with the latter country was concluded in 1894 after a stubborn and very sharp customs war. In railway policy, it is especially important to subordinate the tariff business to government control, to increase the redemption to the treasury of railways and to open work on the construction of Great Siberian Way.

A very prominent place in domestic politics was occupied by the care of the nobility, on strengthening its importance in state and public life. To maintain noble land ownership, a state noble bank was established in 1885. In order to create more favorable conditions for large land ownership, it was published in 1886. Regulations on hiring for rural work. The Regulations on zemstvo district chiefs of 1889 and the new Regulations on zemstvo institutions of 1890 gave the nobility a pre-eminent position in local government . Zemstvo chiefs, elected from local hereditary nobles, were supposed to be “close to the people, a firm government authority”, combining “trusteeship over the village inhabitants with concerns for the completion of peasant affairs and with the duty to protect deanery and public order, security and the rights of private people in rural areas. In accordance with these tasks, the zemstvo chiefs were given, along with extensive administrative powers, judicial power. With the introduction of zemstvo chiefs, the institute of magistrates was abolished in most of the country.

The general judicial institutions and the procedure for judicial proceedings have also undergone changes: the jurisdiction of the jury has been limited in favor of a court with the participation of estate representatives, the procedure for electing jurors has been changed, the principles of irremovability and independence of judges have been significantly limited, and some significant exceptions have been made to the general rule of publicity of the trial.