What is a metaphor. Visual means of language: comparison, metaphor. Epithets can also be expressed
In vocabulary, the main means of expression are trails(in lane from Greek - turn, turn, image) - special pictorial and expressive means of the language, based on the use of words in a figurative meaning.
The main types of tropes include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, paraphrase (periphrasis), hyperbole, lithote, irony.
Special lexical pictorial and expressive means of language (tropes)
Epithet(in lane from Greek - application, addition) is a figurative definition that marks a feature essential for a given context in the depicted phenomenon.
The epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness and imagery. The epithet is based on a hidden comparison.
All "colorful" definitions, which are most often expressed by adjectives, belong to epithets.
For example: sad orphan Earth(F.I. Tyutchev), gray haze, lemon light, silent peace(I. A. Bunin).
Epithets can also be expressed:
- nouns , acting as applications or predicates, giving a figurative description of the subject.
For example: sorceress winter; mother - damp earth; The poet is a lyre, not just the nanny of his soul(M. Gorky);
- adverbs acting as circumstances.
For example: It's lonely in the wild north ... (M. Yu. Lermontov); The leaves were stretched tensely in the wind(K. G. Paustovsky);
- gerunds .
For example: the waves are rumbling and sparkling;
- pronouns expressing the superlative degree of a particular state of the human soul.
For example: After all, there were fighting fights, Yes, they say, even what!(M. Yu. Lermontov);
- participles and participial phrases .
For example: Nightingales with rumbling words announce the forest limits(B.L. Pasternak); I also admit the appearance ... of scribblers who cannot prove where they spent the night yesterday, and who have no other words in the language except words, not remembering kinship (M.E.Saltykov-Shchedrin).
The creation of figurative epithets is usually associated with the use of words in a figurative sense.
From the point of view of the type of figurative meaning of the word acting as an epithet, all epithets are divided into:
metaphorical (they are based on a metaphorical figurative meaning.
For example: golden cloud, bottomless sky, lilac fog, walking cloud and standing tree.
Metaphorical epithets- a bright sign of the author's style:
You are my cornflower blue word
I love you forever.
How does our cow live now?
Straw fiddling sadness?
(SA Esenin. “I have not seen such beautiful ones?”);
How greedy is the world of the nocturnal soul
He listens to the story of his beloved!
(Tyutchev. "What are you howling about, night wind?").
metonymic (they are based on metonymic figurative meaning.
For example: suede gait(V.V. Nabokov); scratching look(M. Gorky); birch cheerful tongue(S. A. Yesenin).
From a genetic point of view epithets are divided into:
- general language (deathly silence, lead waves),
- folk poetry (constant) ( red sun, violent wind, good fellow).
In poetic folklore, the epithet, which, together with the word being defined, constitutes a stable phrase, performed, in addition to meaningful, mnemonic function (column mnemo nicon- the art of memorization).
Permanent epithets made it easier for the singer, the storyteller to perform the work. Any folklore text is saturated with such, for the most part, "decorating", epithets.
« In folklore, writes the literary critic V.P. Anikin, the girl is always red, the good fellow is kind, the father is dear, the children are small, the young man is daring, the body is white, the hands are white, the tears are flammable, the voice is loud, bow - low, table - oak, wine - green, vodka - sweet, eagle - gray, flower - scarlet, stone - combustible, sand - loose, night - dark, forest - standing, mountains - steep, forests - dense, cloud - formidable , the winds are violent, the field is clear, the sun is red, the bow is tight, the tavern is the king, the saber is sharp, the wolf is gray, etc.»
Depending on the genre, the selection of epithets was somewhat modified. Reconstruction of the style, or stylization of folklore genres, presupposes the widespread use of constant epithets. So, they abound in " Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young oprichnik and daring merchant Kalashnikov»Lermontov: the sun is red, the clouds are blue, the crown of gold, a formidable king, a daring fighter, a strong thought, a black thought, a hot heart, heroic shoulders, a sharp saber etc.
The epithet can absorb the properties of many trails ... Based on metaphor or at metonymy , it can be combined also with impersonation ... foggy and quiet azure above sad-orphan earth(F.I. Tyutchev), hyperbole (Autumn already knows that such a deep and dumb peace is a harbinger of a long bad weather(I. A. Bunin) and other paths and figures.
The role of epithets in the text
All epithets as bright, "illuminating" definitions are aimed at enhancing the expressiveness of the images of the depicted objects or phenomena, at highlighting their most significant features.
In addition, epithets can:
Strengthen, emphasize any characteristic features of objects.
For example: Wandering between the rocks, a yellow ray crept into a wild cave And a smooth skull lit up ...(M. Yu. Lermontov);
Clarify the distinctive features of the object (shape, color, size, quality):
For example: The forest, like a painted tower, Purple, golden, crimson, With a cheerful, variegated wall Stands over a bright glade(I. A. Bunin);
Create contrasting combinations of words and serve as the basis for creating an oxymoron: squalid luxury(L.N. Tolstoy), brilliant shadow(E. A. Baratynsky);
Convey the author's attitude to the depicted, express the author's assessment and the author's perception of the phenomenon: ... dead words smell bad(N. S. Gumilev); And we value the prophetic word, and we honor the Russian word, And we will not change the power of the word(S.N.Sergeev-Tsensky); What does this smiling mean blessing heaven, this happy, resting earth?(I. S. Turgenev)
Pictorial epithets highlight the essential aspects of the depicted, without introducing a direct assessment (" in the fog of the blue sea», « in the dead sky" etc.).
In expressive (lyrical) epithets on the contrary, the attitude towards the depicted phenomenon is clearly expressed (“ images of mad people flash», « an agonizing story of the night»).
It should be borne in mind that this division is rather arbitrary, since figurative epithets also have an emotional and evaluative meaning.
Epithets are widely used in fiction and journalistic, as well as in colloquial and popular science styles of speech.
Comparison is a pictorial technique based on the comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another.
Contrary to metaphor comparison is always two-term : both objects being compared (phenomena, signs, actions) are named in it.
For example: Auls are burning, they have no protection. The sons of the fatherland are defeated by the enemy, And the glow, like an eternal meteor, Playing in the clouds, frightens the eye.(M. Yu. Lermontov)
Comparisons are expressed in various ways:
The form of the instrumental case of nouns.
For example: Like a stray nightingale Youth flew by, Like a wave in bad weather Joy faded away.(A. V. Koltsov) The moon slides a pancake in sour cream.(B. Pasternak) The foliage flew like a starfall.(D. Samoilov) In the sun, flying rain sparkles like gold.(V. Nabokov) Icicles hang with a glass fringe.(I. Shmelev) A patterned clean towel Hangs a rainbow from birches.(N. Rubtsov)
The form of the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb.
For example: These eyes are greener than the sea and our cypress trees are darker.(A. Akhmatova) Maiden eyes are brighter than roses.(A.S. Pushkin) But the eyes are blue of the day.(S. Yesenin) Rowan bushes are foggy in depth.(S. Yesenin) Freer youth.(A.S. Pushkin) Truth is more valuable than gold.(Proverb) The throne room is brighter than the sun. M. Tsvetaeva)
Comparative turnover with unions as if, as if, as if and etc.
For example: Like a beast of prey, the winner bursts into a humble abode with bayonets ...(M. Yu. Lermontov) April looks at the bird flight With eyes as blue as ice.(D. Samoilov) Every village here is so loving As if she has the beauty of the whole universe. (A. Yashin) And stand behind the oak nets Like the evil spirits of the forest, hemp.(S. Yesenin) Like a bird in a cage, The heart jumps.(M. Yu. Lermontov) To my poems like precious wines, The turn will come.(M. I. Tsvetaeva) It's nearly noon. The heat is burning. Like a plowman, the battle rests... (A.S. Pushkin) The past, like the bottom of the sea, As a pattern spreads in the distance.(V. Bryusov)
Across the river into restlessness
The cherry blossoms
Like snow across the river
I filled in the stitch.
Like light blizzards
They rushed with all their might
Like swans were flying
Dropped the fluff.(A. Prokofiev)
With words similar, similar, this.
For example: The eyes of a cautious cat are like your eyes(A. Akhmatova);
Using comparative clauses.
For example: Golden foliage swirled In pinkish water on a pond, Like butterflies, a light flock With a daze flies to the star. (S. A. Yesenin) The rain sows, sows, sows, it drizzles from midnight, Like a muslin curtain Hanging behind the windows. (V. Tushnova) Heavy snow, spinning, covered the Sunless Heights, As if hundreds of white wings rushed silently. (V. Tushnova) As a tree quietly drops its leaves So I drop the sad words.(S. Yesenin) How the king loved rich palaces So I fell in love with the ancient roads And the blue eyes of eternity!(N. Rubtsov)
Comparisons can be straightforward andnegative
Negative comparisons are especially characteristic of oral folk poetry and can serve as a way to stylize the text.
For example: This is not a horse top, Not a human word ... (A.S. Pushkin)
Expanded comparisons represent a special type of comparison, with the help of which whole texts can be constructed.
For example, the poem by F. I. Tyutchev “ As over hot ash ...»:
As over hot ash
The scroll smokes and burns
And the fire is hidden and deaf
Devours words and lines -
So sadly my life is smoldering
And every day it goes away in smoke
So I gradually fade away
In unbearable monotony! ..
Oh Heaven, if only once
This flame developed at will -
And, not languishing, not tormenting the share,
I would have shone - and gone out!
The role of comparisons in text
Comparisons, like epithets, are used in the text with the aim of enhancing its depiction and imagery, creating more vivid, expressive images and highlighting, emphasizing any significant features of the depicted objects or phenomena, as well as expressing author's assessments and emotions.
For example:
I, my friend, like
When the word melts
And when it sings
Heat pours over the line,
So that words from words blush,
So that they, flying,
Curled up, fought to sing,
To eat like honey.
(A. A. Prokofiev);
It is as if it lives in every soul, it burns, it shines, like a star in the sky, and, like a star, extinguishes when it, having finished its life path, flies from our lips ... It happens that an extinguished star for us, people on earth, burns for another thousand years... (M. M. Prishvin)
Comparisons as a means of linguistic expressiveness can be used not only in literary texts, but also in journalistic, colloquial, scientific ones.
Metaphor(in lane from Greek - carryover) is a word or expression that is used in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena for some reason. It is sometimes said that a metaphor is a hidden comparison.
For example, the metaphor A fire of red mountain ash is burning in the garden (S. Yesenin) contains a comparison of rowan brushes with a fire flame.
Many metaphors have become common in everyday use and therefore do not attract attention, they have lost their imagery in our perception.
For example: the bank has burst, the dollar is circulating, the head is spinning and etc.
Unlike comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared with are given, the metaphor contains only the second, which creates a compact and imaginative use of the word.
The metaphor can be based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, volume, purpose, sensations, etc.
For example: waterfall of stars, avalanche of letters, wall of fire, abyss of grief, pearl of poetry, spark of love and etc.
All metaphors fall into two groups:
1) general language ("Erased")
For example: golden hands, a storm in a glass of water, move mountains, the strings of the soul, love faded away ;
2) artistic (individual, author's, poetic)
For example: And the stars are fading diamond awe In the painless cold of dawn (M. Voloshin); Empty heavens transparent glass(A. Akhmatova); AND eyes blue, bottomless Blossom on the distant shore... (A. A. Blok)
Metaphors of Sergei Yesenin: campfire of red mountain ash, birch cheerful tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky;
or bloody tears of September, overgrowth of raindrops, buns of lanterns and crumbling roofs
at Boris Pasternak
The metaphor is paraphrased in comparison with the help of auxiliary words like, like, like, like etc.
There are several types of metaphor: erased, expanded, realized.
Erased - a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative meaning of which is no longer felt.
For example: chair leg, headboard, sheet of paper, clock hand etc.
A whole work or a large passage from it can be built on a metaphor. Such a metaphor is called “unfolded,” in which the image is “unfolded,” that is, it is revealed in detail.
So, the poem by A.S. Pushkin “ Prophet»Is an example of an expanded metaphor. The transformation of the lyrical hero into the herald of the will of the Lord - the poet-prophet, his quenching " spiritual thirst", That is, the desire to know the meaning of being and find your vocation, is portrayed by the poet gradually:" six-winged seraph", The messenger of God, transformed his hero" by the right hand"- with the right hand, which was an allegory of strength and power. By God's power, the lyrical hero received a different sight, a different hearing, and different thinking and spiritual abilities. He could " heed”, That is, to comprehend, sublime, heavenly values and earthly, material existence, to feel the beauty of the world and its suffering. This wonderful and painful process Pushkin depicts, “ stringing"One metaphor to another: the hero's eyes acquire an eagle's vigilance, his ears fills" noise and ringing"Life, the language ceases to be" idle and crafty ", transmitting the wisdom received as a gift," trembling heart" turns into " coal blazing with fire". The chain of metaphors is held together by the general idea of the work: the poet, as Pushkin wanted to see him, should be a herald of the future and an exposer of human vices, inspire people with his word, encourage people to goodness and truth.
Examples of an expanded metaphor are often found in poetry and prose (the main part of the metaphor is italicized, its “deployment” is emphasized):
... let's say goodbye together,
Oh my light youth!
Thank you for the delights
For sadness, for sweet torment,
For noise, for storms, for feasts,
For everything, for all your gifts ...
A.S. Pushkin " Eugene Onegin"
We drink from the cup of being
With closed eyes ...
Lermontov "The Cup of Life"
... a boy caught in love
To the girl wrapped in silks ...
N. Gumilev " Eagle of Sinbad"
Dissuaded the golden grove
With a birch cheerful tongue.
S. Yesenin " Dissuaded the golden grove…"
Sadness and crying and laughing
The streams of my poems are ringing
At your feet
And every verse
Runs, weaves a living ligature,
His not knowing the shores.
A. Blok " Sadness and crying and laughing ..."
Save my speech forever for the taste of misery and smoke ...
O. Mandelstam " Save my speech forever…"
... seethed, washing away the kings,
July curve street ...
O. Mandelstam " I pray, like pity and mercy ..."
Here the wind embraces the flock of waves with a strong embrace and throws them from a swing in wild anger on the cliffs, breaking into dust and splashes of emerald masses.
M. Gorky " Song of the Petrel"
The sea has woken up. It played in small waves, giving birth to them, decorating with a fringe of foam, pushing against each other and breaking into fine dust.
M. Gorky " Chelkash"
Realized - a metaphor , which regains its direct meaning. The result of this process at the household level is often comic:
For example: I lost my temper and got on the bus
The exam will not take place: all tickets are sold out.
If you’re withdrawn, don’t come back empty-handed etc.
The simple-minded joker-gravedigger in the tragedy of W. Shakespeare " Hamlet"To the question of the protagonist about" on what ground"" Lost his mind "the young prince, replies:" In our Danish". He understands the word “ the soil"Literally - the top layer of the earth, territory, while Hamlet has a figurative meaning in mind - for what reason, for what reason.
« Oh, you are heavy, hat of Monomakh! "- the tsar complains in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin" Boris Godunov". Since the time of Vladimir Monomakh, the crown of Russian tsars had the shape of a cap. She was adorned with precious stones, so she was "heavy" in the literal sense of the word. In a figurative - " Monomakh hat"Personified" severity", The responsibility of the tsarist government, heavy duties of the autocrat.
In the novel by A.S. Pushkin “ Eugene Onegin»An important role is played by the image of the Muse, who since ancient times has personified the source of poetic inspiration. The expression "the poet was visited by the muse" has a figurative meaning. But Muse - the poet's friend and inspirer - appears in the novel in the form of a living woman, young, beautiful, cheerful. IN " student cell"It is the Muse" opened a feast of young ventures"- pranks and serious disputes about life. It is she who " glorified"All that the young poet was striving for - earthly passions and desires: friendship, a merry feast, thoughtless joy -" children's fun". Muse, " how the bacchante frolicked", And the poet was proud of his" windy friend».
During her southern exile, Muse appeared as a romantic heroine - a victim of her pernicious passions, decisive, capable of reckless rebellion. Her image helped the poet create an atmosphere of mystery and mystery in his poems:
How often l Asque Muse
I was delighted by the dumb path
By the magic of a secret story!..
At a turning point in the author's creative searches, it was she
She appeared as a young lady of the district,
With a sad thought in my eyes ...
Throughout the work “ affectionate muse"Was correct" girlfriend"Poet.
The implementation of the metaphor is often found in the poetry of V. Mayakovsky. So, in the poem “ A cloud in pants"It implements the popular expression" nerves cleared" or " nerves are naughty»:
I hear:
quiet,
like a sick person out of bed
jumped off the nerve.
here, -
walked first
barely,
then ran,
excited,
clear.
Now he and the new two
rushing about with a desperate tap dance ...
Nerves -
big,
small,
many, -
the madmen are jumping,
and already
the nerves give way!
It should be remembered that the border between different types of metaphor is very conditional, unsteady, and it can be difficult to accurately determine the type.
The role of metaphors in the text
Metaphor is one of the brightest and most powerful means of creating expressiveness and imagery of a text.
Through the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text not only enhances the visibility and clarity of what is depicted, but also conveys the uniqueness, individuality of objects or phenomena, while showing the depth and nature of his own associative-figurative thinking, vision of the world, a measure of talent (“The most important thing is to be skillful in metaphors. Only this cannot be adopted from another - this is a sign of talent "(Aristotle).
Metaphors serve as an important means of expressing author's assessments and emotions, author's characteristics of objects and phenomena.
For example: I feel stuffy in this atmosphere! Kites! Owl's nest! Crocodiles!(A.P. Chekhov)
In addition to artistic and journalistic styles, metaphors are characteristic of the colloquial and even scientific style (“ the ozone hole », « electronic cloud " and etc.).
Impersonation- This is a kind of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects and concepts.
Most often impersonations are used when describing nature.
For example:
Rolling through sleepy valleys
Sleepy mists have laid down,
And only the horse's footfall,
Sounding lost in the distance.
The day went out, turning pale autumn,
Rolled up the fragrant sheets
Eat dreamless sleep
Semi-wilted flowers.
(M. Yu. Lermontov)
Less often, personifications are associated with the objective world.
For example:
Isn't it true, never again
We will not part? Enough?..
AND violin answered Yes,
But the violin's heart was in pain.
The bow understood everything, he fell silent,
And in the violin everything kept on echoing ...
And it was a torment for them,
What people thought was music.
(I.F.Annensky);
Something good-natured and at the same time cozy was in the physiognomy of this house. (D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak)
Impersonations- the paths are very old, with their roots going back to pagan antiquity and therefore occupying such an important place in mythology and folklore. Fox and Wolf, Hare and Bear, epic Serpent Gorynych and Idolische Filthy - all these and other fantastic and zoological characters of fairy tales and epics are familiar to us from early childhood.
On the personification, one of the literary genres closest to folklore is built - a fable.
Even today it is unthinkable without personification to imagine works of art, without them our everyday speech is unthinkable.
Figurative speech not only visually represents a thought. Its advantage is that it is shorter. Instead of describing an item in detail, we can compare it with an already known item.
It is impossible to imagine poetic speech without using this technique:
"The storm covers the sky with darkness
Whirling snow whirlwinds,
How a beast she will howl
She will cry like a child. "(A.S. Pushkin)
The role of impersonations in text
Impersonations serve to create vivid, expressive and figurative pictures of something, to enhance the transmitted thoughts and feelings.
Impersonation as an expressive means is used not only in artistic style, but also in journalistic and scientific.
For example: X-ray shows, the device says, the air heals, something has stirred in the economy.
The most common are metaphors formed on the principle of personification, when an inanimate object acquires the properties of an animate one, as if acquiring a face.
1. Usually the two components of the personification metaphor are the subject and the predicate: “ the blizzard was angry», « the golden cloud slept», « the waves are playing».
« Get angry", That is, to experience irritation, can only be a person, but" winter storm", A blizzard, plunging the world into cold and darkness, also brings" evil". « Spend the night", Only living beings are capable of sleeping peacefully at night," cloud”Also personifies a young woman who has found an unexpected shelter. Marine " waves"In the poet's imagination" play"Like children.
We often find examples of this type of metaphor in the poetry of A.S. Pushkin:
Do not suddenly delight will leave us ...
A mortal dream flies over him ...
My days have passed ...
The spirit of life woke up in him ...
Fatherland caressed you ...
Poetry awakens in me ...
2. Many personification metaphors are built according to the way of management: “ lyre singing», « talk of waves», « fashion darling», « happiness darling" and etc.
A musical instrument is like a human voice, and so is it " sings”, And the lapping of the waves resembles a quiet conversation. " Beloved», « darling"Are not only among people, but also among the wayward" fashion"Or the fickle" happiness».
For example: "Winter menace", "voices of the abyss", "joy of sadness", "day of despondency", "son of laziness", "threads ... of fun", "brother of a muse, by fate", "victim of slander", "cathedrals wax faces "," Language of joy "," sorrow load "," hope of young days "," pages of malice and vice "," sacred voice "," by the will of passions. "
But there are metaphors formed differently. The criterion of difference here is the principle of animate and inanimate. An inanimate object does NOT receive animate properties.
one). Subject and predicate: "Desire is boiling," "eyes are burning," "heart is empty."
Desire in a person can manifest itself to a strong degree, seethe and " boil". Eyes, betraying excitement, shine and " burn". Heart, soul, not warmed by feeling, can become " empty».
For example: “I learned grief early, was persecuted,” “our youth will not suddenly fade,” “noon ... was on fire,” “the moon was floating,” “conversations were flowing,” “stories spread out,” “love… faded away,” “I call a shadow "," Life has fallen. "
2). Phrases built according to the management method can also, being metaphors, NOT impersonate: “ dagger of treason», « tomb of glory», « chain of clouds" and etc.
Steel arms - " dagger"- kills a person, but" treason"Is like a dagger and can also destroy, break life. " Tomb"- this is a crypt, a grave, but not only people can be buried, but also glory, worldly love. " Chain"Consists of metal links, but" clouds", Fancifully intertwining, form in the sky a semblance of a chain.
For example: “Flattery of the necklace”, “twilight of freedom”, “forest of ... voices”, “clouds of arrows”, “noise of poetry”, “bell of brotherhood”, “glow of poetry”, “fire ... of black eyes”, “salt of solemn grievances”, “ the science of parting "," the flame of the southern blood " .
Many metaphors of this kind are formed according to the principle of reification, when the defined word receives the properties of some substance, material: "Crystal windows", "hair gold" .
On a sunny day, the window appears to be sparkling like “ crystal"And the hair acquires the color" gold". The hidden comparison inherent in the metaphor is especially noticeable here.
For example: “In the black velvet of the Soviet night, In the velvet of the world emptiness”, “poems ... grape meat”, “crystal of high notes”, “poems like rattling pearls”.
A metaphor is a figure of speech that uses a word or expression in an unusual sense, with significant similarities between the two terms.
This word was brought from Greek (μεταφορά), where it means "change", "rearrangement", "translation", "transfer".
Metaphor is a comparison of words, where one term replaces another. This is an abbreviated comparison in which the verb is not expressed, but only implied.
For example: "My friend is like a bull, he himself dragged a heavy cabinet." Obviously, he is not a bull and does not physically look like this animal at all, but he is so strong that he resembles a bull. This example compares the strength of an animal and that person.
This rhetorical figure corresponds to the substitution of one term for another through analogy.
Analogy is a relationship of established similarity between two or more separate objects. An analogy can be made, for example, between the head and the body, or the captain and the soldiers. It is important to note that for an analogy to occur, similar semantic elements must exist between the two terms.
Metaphor is a linguistic tool, often used in everyday life, that is important in communication between people. It would be nearly impossible to speak and think without resorting to metaphor.
Recent research has shown that people use an average of 4 metaphors per minute during conversation. Often times, people are reluctant or unable to express how they really feel. Therefore, they say metaphorical phrases where meaning is implied.
Examples of metaphors:
- sharp mind;
- stone heart;
- golden head;
- iron character;
- skillful fingers;
- poisonous person;
- gold words;
- the cat cried;
- iron gauntlets;
- dead night;
- wolf grip;
- the fifth wheel in the cart;
- step on the same rake.
Metaphor - examples from literature
"We drink from the cup of being with our eyes closed ..."
(M. Lermontov)
"Hut-old woman with the jaw of the threshold
Chews the fragrant crumb of silence "
(S. Yesenin)
"Slumbers on my wall
Willow lace shadow "
(N. Rubtsov)
"The autumn of life, like the autumn of the year, must be accepted with gratitude."
(E. Ryazanov)
"Ensigns stuck their eyes in the king"
(A. Tolstoy)
"The sky above the port was the color of a TV on an empty channel."
(William Gibson)
"All our words are just crumbs that fall during the feast of our minds"
(Kahlil Gibran)
Types of metaphor
Nominative metaphor
This tool for creating new terms is designed to form the names of objects that do not yet have their own name.
For example:
- Earth satellite;
- zipper;
- table leg;
- spout;
- the bow of the ship (similarity of objects in shape and location;
- cup handle;
- door peephole;
- the sole of the mountain;
- back of a chair;
- Rose of Wind;
- eyeball;
- white of the eye
- chanterelles (mushroom variety)
- umbrella (type of inflorescence), etc.
The "metaphorical freshness" of such names exists only at the moment of nomination. Gradually, the inner form of the metaphor "fades away", the connection with the corresponding object is lost.
Cognitive metaphor
Metaphorization of the meaning of attribute (predicate) words generates this kind of metaphor, which has cognitive value, since with its help a person can comprehend an abstract concept based on a concrete one. For example: to stand up as a wall, dull pain, sharp mind, prickly response, etc.
According to the concept of N.D. Arutyunova, from a means of creating an image, a cognitive metaphor turns into a method of forming meanings that are missing in a language.
Figurative metaphor
Metaphorization can be accompanied by a syntactic shift: the noun moves from a nominal position to a predicate one.
For example: Sobakevich was a real bear; he is such a hare, he is afraid of everything, etc. A metaphor of this type aims at individualizing or evaluating an object. The figurative metaphor contributes to the expansion of the synonymous means of the language, leads to the emergence of new synonymous connections (shy and hare).
Conceptual metaphor
This type is already understood as a way of thinking about one area of experience through the prism of another, for example, the expression "love relationship is at an impasse" can be interpreted as a realization of the conceptual metaphor "love is a journey".
The images in which the world is interpreted are usually stable and universal within one culture. Despite the fact that the image is erased from repeated use of the metaphor, the positive or negative connotation associated with it remains.
Conceptual metaphor is designed to perform in the language the function of forming new concepts-concepts on the basis of already formed ones. Examples: election machine, presidential race, field of activity.
What is a trail
A trope is a figurative turn of speech, in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense, two objects or phenomena are compared, which are related in meaning.
The word "trope" comes from other Greek. τρόπος "turnover". They use it to enhance the imagery of the language and the artistic expressiveness of speech. Trails are widely used in literature, oratory, and in everyday speech.
The main types of trails:
- metaphor;
- metonymy;
- synecdoche;
- epithet;
- hyperbola;
- dysphemism;
- pun;
- litotes;
- comparison;
- periphrase;
- allegory;
- pathos;
- impersonation;
- sarcasm;
- oxymoron;
- irony;
- euphemism.
Difference between metaphor and comparison
The metaphor assumes a veiled, allegorical, figurative comparison. The object being compared is called the name of something similar to it. Comparison usually concerns homogeneous or close objects.
The meaning of the metaphor is always figurative, but in comparison it is direct. The comparison is built only with physical objects, but in a metaphor in different ways.
The metaphor, without indicating the presence of similarities, encourages the search for common qualities of objects, and comparison directly indicates the similarities between objects.
The metaphor is often more voluminous in content than comparison, and does not require introductory words. Comparative conjunctions are often used in comparison.
Iceberg metaphor
Iceberg metaphor - the point is that the often visible part of the iceberg, which is on the surface, is very small compared to that which is submerged in water. This metaphor is widely used to explain various social phenomena.
The iceberg metaphor is often used to describe the human mind, where the superficial part is conscious and the larger, submerged part is subconscious.
This metaphor makes people realize that there is often much more truth out there than our eyes can see. With it, we can also learn that there is still a lot beyond the superficial and that it often has a much greater value than what is on the surface and is visible to everyone.
This example shows how the use of metaphors enriches our language.
The majesty of the Russian language knows no limits. We can rearrange words in a sentence, use words in some special form, or even come up with words (eg: "fintipulka" - as some kind of detail or thing). At the same time, we understand each other remarkably. It is difficult to explain such features to a foreigner. But even if you do not accept "words", but use the Russian language as a true philologist, you are not immune from the bewildered expressions on the faces of foreigners (and sometimes Russian people). For example, you are using trails. Today let's talk about one of its types: what is a metaphor?
Definition of metaphor
Metaphor (from Greek "figurative meaning") - the type of path; a phrase used in a figurative meaning, based on the transfer of signs from one phenomenon to another due to the presence of certain similarities between them (i.e. comparison).
3 comparison items
- what is being compared ("subject")
- what is being compared with ("image")
- on the basis of which it is compared ("sign")
For example: "chocolate candy" - "chocolate tan" (transfer by color); "the dog howls" - "the wind howls" (character of sound).
So, we conclude what a metaphor is in Russian: it is a figurative expression, a hidden comparison.
Functions of a metaphor
Evaluation function
Metaphors are used in order to evoke in a person certain, rather specific associations about an object (phenomenon).
For example: "man-wolf", "keen eyesight", "cold heart".
So, the metaphor "man-wolf" evokes associations associated with anger, predation.
Emotive-evaluative function
The metaphor is used to obtain an expressive effect as a means of emotional impact.
For example: "He looked at her like a ram at a new gate."
Another function that shows what a metaphor is for is a means of creating an imagery of speech. Here the metaphor is connected with the artistic forms of the reflection of the world. This function rather answers the question of what a metaphor is in literature. The function is expanding, now it is not only a comparison with the aim of strengthening some feature, now it is the creation of a new image in the imagination. Both the emotional sphere and the logical one are already involved: a metaphor creates an image and fills it with specific emotional content.
Nominative function
Inclusion (using a metaphor) of a new object in the cultural and linguistic context by creating a name for it by direct analogy. That is, a name is given to a new object (phenomenon) by comparing it with those already existing in reality.
For example: "to digest information" - that is, as something languishes in a saucepan, cooks, so thoughts "boil" in my head (in a confined space). Or, for example, the head is called a bowler hat (in a similar round shape).
The cognitive function of metaphors is obvious. Metaphors help to see the essential in the object, the main properties. Metaphors fill our knowledge with new semantic content.
We have tried to explain in an accessible way what a metaphor is. Examples will help you better assimilate the material. Try and come up with examples for each function of the metaphor yourself.
Types of metaphors
- A harsh metaphor. It connects concepts that are far from meaningful. For example: "statement filling"
- An erased metaphor. On the contrary, it connects concepts whose figurative character is similar. For example: "table leg".
- Metaphor formula. Close to an erased metaphor, but even more stereotyped. Sometimes it cannot be transformed into a non-figurative construction. For example: "the worm of doubt".
- Expanded metaphor. It unfolds throughout the entire utterance, message (or throughout a large fragment).
- Realized metaphor. A metaphor used as if it had a direct meaning (that is, the figurative nature of the metaphor is not taken into account). The outcome can be comical. For example: "I lost my temper and entered the house."
Now you know what a metaphor is and what it is for. Use them in conversation and surprise others.
The Russian language is rich and diverse, with the help of it we ask questions, share impressions, information, convey emotions, talk about what we remember.
Our language allows us to draw, display and create verbal pictures. Literary speech is like painting (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Painting
In poetry and prose, a vivid, picturesque speech that stimulates the imagination, in such a speech the figurative means of the language are used.
Visual aids of language- these are ways and techniques of reconstructing reality, making it possible to make speech vivid and figurative.
Sergei Yesenin has the following lines (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. The text of the poem
Epithets give an opportunity to look at the autumn nature. By means of juxtaposition, the author gives the reader the opportunity to see how the foliage falls, as if flock of butterflies(fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Comparison
As if is an indication of the comparison (Fig. 4). Such a comparison is called comparison.
Rice. 4. Comparison
Comparison - this is a comparison of the depicted object or phenomenon with another object according to a common feature for them. For comparison you need:
- So that there is something in common between the two phenomena;
- A special word with the meaning of matching - as if, exactly, as, as if, as if
Consider a line of a poem by Sergei Yesenin (Fig. 5).
Rice. 5. Line of poem
First, a fire is presented to the reader, and then a mountain ash. This is due to the equalization, the identification by the author of two phenomena. It is based on the similarity of rowan bunches with a fiery red fire. But the words as if, as if, as if are not used because the author does not compare the mountain ash with a fire, but calls it a fire, this metaphor.
Metaphor - transfer of properties of one object or phenomenon to another according to the principle of their similarity.
Metaphor, like comparison, is based on similarity, but difference from comparison is that it happens without the use of special words (as if, as if).
When studying the world, you can see something in common between the phenomena, and this is reflected in the language. The figurative means of the language are based on the similarity of objects and phenomena. Thanks to comparison and metaphor, speech becomes brighter, more expressive, you can see the verbal pictures that poets and writers create.
Sometimes the comparison is created without a special word, in a different way. For example, as in the lines of the poem by S. Yesenin "The fields are squeezed, the groves are bare ..." (Fig. 6):
Rice. 6. Lines from the poem by S. Yesenin "The fields are compressed, the groves are bare ..."
Month compared with foal that grows before our eyes. But there are no words indicating comparison; instrumental comparisons are used (Fig. 7). Word foal stands in the Instrumental case.
Rice. 7. Using the instrumental for comparison
Consider the lines of the poem by S. Yesenin "Dissuaded the golden grove ..." (Fig. 8).
Rice. 8. "Dissuaded the golden grove ..."
In addition to the metaphor (Fig. 9), the personification technique is used, for example, in the phrase dissuaded the grove(fig. 10).
Rice. 9. Metaphor in a poem
Rice. 10. Incarnation in a poem
Impersonation is a kind of metaphor in which an inanimate object is described as living. This is one of the most ancient speech techniques, because our ancestors animated the inanimate in myths, fairy tales and folk poetry.
The task
Find comparisons and metaphors in Sergei Yesenin's poem "Birch" (Fig. 11).
Rice. 11. Poem "Birch"
Answer
Snow juxtaposed with silver, because it is similar to him in appearance. The word is used exactly(fig. 12).
Rice. 13. Good comparisons
The metaphor is used in the phrase snowflakes are burning(fig. 14).
Rice. 15. Impersonation
- Russian language. 4th grade. Textbook in 2 parts. Klimanova L.F., Babushkina T.V. Moscow: Education, 2014.
- Russian language. 4th grade. Part 1. Kanakina V.P., Goretsky V.G. Moscow: Education, 2013.
- Russian language. 4th grade. Textbook in 2 parts. Buneev R.N., Buneeva E.V. 5th ed., Rev. M., 2013.
- Russian language. 4th grade. Textbook in 2 parts. Ramzaeva T.G. M., 2013.
- Russian language. 4th grade. Textbook in 2 parts. Zelenina L.M., Khokhlova T.E. M., 2013.
- Internet portal "Festival of pedagogical ideas" Open lesson "" ()
- Internet portal "literatura5.narod.ru" ()
Homework
- What are the visual means of the language used for?
- What is needed for comparison?
- How is comparison different from metaphor?
from the Greek. metaphora - transfer, image) - the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the similarity in any relation of two objects or phenomena; replacement of the usual expression with a figurative one (for example, golden autumn, the sound of waves, an airplane wing).
Excellent definition
Incomplete definition ↓
METAPHOR
from the Greek. metaphora - transfer) is a trope (see tropes) of a word, which consists in transferring the properties of one object, process or phenomenon to another according to the principle of their similarity in some respect or by contrast. Aristotle in Poetics noted that M. is "an unusual name transferred from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy." Of the four genera of M., wrote Aristotle, in the "Rhetoric" M. deserves the greatest attention, based on an analogy, for example: "Pericles spoke of the youth who died in the war as the destruction of spring among the seasons." Aristotle considers M. actions to be especially strong, that is, one where the analogy is based on the representation of the inanimate by the animate, depicting everything moving and living. And M. Aristotle considers Homer to be an example of such use: “The bitter sting of an arrow ... bounced back from copper. A sharp arrow rushed into the midst of enemies, to the intended greedy sacrifice ”(Iliad). And here is how, with the help of M., the actions of B.L. Parsnip creates the image of a cloud: “When a huge purple cloud, standing at the edge of the road, silenced the grasshoppers, cracking sultry in the grass, and drums sighed and fluttered in the camps, the ground darkened in the eyes and there was no life in the world ... low baked stubble with a glance. They spread to the very horizon. The cloud reared up easily. They extended further, beyond the camps themselves. The cloud dropped to its front legs and, smoothly crossing the road, silently crept along the fourth track of the siding ”(Airways). When creating M., according to Quintilian (the compendium "Twelve Books of Rhetorical Instruction"), the following four cases will be the most typical: 1) replacement (transfer of a property) of one animated object with another Greeks and Romans were considered animate only people). For example: “There were horses - not horses, tigers” (E. Zamyatin. Rus); the walrus "... rolls up again onto the platform, on its fat, powerful body Nietzsche's mustachioed, bristly head with a smooth forehead is shown" (V. Khlebnikov. Menagerie); 2) one inanimate object is replaced (the property is transferred) with another inanimate object. For example: "A river swirls in the mist of the desert" (A. Pushkin. Window); "Above him a ray of golden sun" (M. Lermontov. Sail); “A rusty leaf fell from the trees” (F. Tyutchev. NI Krol); "The Boiling Sea Beneath Us" (song "Varyag"); 3) replacement (transfer of properties) of an inanimate object with an animate one. For example: “The word is the greatest ruler: it looks small and imperceptible, but does wonderful things - it can stop fear and ward off sorrow, cause joy, increase pity” (Gorgiy. Praise to Elena); “The night is quiet, the desert hears God, and the star speaks with the star” (M. Lermontov. I go out on the road alone ...); "A rusty bolt will cry at the gate" (A. Bely. Jester); “Bright Kolomna, embracing my sister, Ryazan, in the tear-stained Oka, wets her bare feet” (N. Klyuev. Devastation); "They chilled the lindens to the bone" (N. Klyuev. Chilled the lindens to the bones ...); 4) replacement (transfer of properties) of an animate object with an inanimate one. For example: "Strong heart" (ie stingy, cruel) - says the officer about the usurer Sanjuelo (R. Lesage. The Adventures of Gilles Blas from San Tillana); "Sophists - a poisonous growth that stuck to healthy plants, cicuta in a virgin forest" (V. Hugo. Outcast); “Sophists are lush, magnificent flowers of a rich Greek spirit” (A. Herzen. Letters on the Study of Nature). Aristotle in "Rhetoric" emphasized that M. "in a high degree possesses clarity, pleasantness and a sign of novelty." It was M., he believed, along with the common words of his native language, that are the only material useful for the style of prose speech. M. is very close to comparison, but there is also a difference between them. M. is a trope of rhetoric, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another according to the principle of their similarity in any respect, and comparison is a logical device similar to the definition of a concept, a figurative expression in which the depicted phenomenon is likened to another. Comparison is usually expressed using words like, like, like. M., in contrast to comparison, has a greater expression. The means of language make it possible to separate comparison and M. quite strictly. This was done in Aristotle's Rhetoric. Here are the comparisons of I. Annensky in "The Shamrock of Temptation": "A merry day is burning ... Among the somching grasses, all the poppies are stained - like greedy impotence, like lips full of temptation and poisoning, spread wings like crimson butterflies." They can be easily turned into a metaphor: Poppies are scarlet butterflies with spread wings. Demetrius in his work "On Style" considered another aspect of the relationship of M. and comparison. If M., he wrote, seems too dangerous, then it is easy to turn it into a comparison by inserting, as it were, and then the impression of riskiness inherent in M. will weaken. In the treatises of rhetoricians, in the works of specialists in the field of poetics and stylistics, most of all attention is paid to M. himself. Quintilian called her the most consumable and most beautiful of the tropes of rhetoric. She is, the Roman rhetorician considered, something innate and even from complete ignoramuses it often breaks out in the most natural way. But it is much nicer and more beautiful when M. tastefully sought out and shines with its own light in high speech. It multiplies the richness of the language by changing or borrowing everything that is lacking in it. M. is used in order to amaze the mind, to denote an object more strongly and to present it, as it were, before the eyes of the audience. Of course, its role cannot be exaggerated. Quintilian noted that the excess of M. bothers the listener's attention, turns speech into allegory and riddle. You should not use low and obscene M., as well as M. based on a false likeness. Aristotle saw one of the reasons for the lofty, coldness of the orator's speech in the use of inappropriate M. He believed that three types of M. should not be used: 1) having a funny meaning; 2) the meaning of which is too solemn and tragic; 3) borrowed from afar, and therefore having an unclear meaning or a poetic look. Since antiquity, the subject of constant debate has been the question of how much M. can be used simultaneously. Already the Greek theorists of rhetoric adopted as a "law" the simultaneous application of two, maximum three M. Having agreed, in principle, with this provision, Pseudo-Longinus in his treatise On the Sublime still believes that the justification for the large number and courage of M. is “The appropriate passion of speech and its noble loftiness. It is natural for the growing tide of stormy feelings to carry away and carry everything with itself. " M.V. Lomonosov: “The ruler of many languages, the Russian language, not only by the vastness of the places where he dominates, but also by his own space and contentment is great in front of everyone in Europe ... Charles the Fifth ... if he were skilled in the Russian language, then. ... I would have found in him the splendor of Ishpansky, the liveliness of the French, the strength of the German, the tenderness of the Italian, moreover, the richness and strong brevity of the Greek and Latin languages in the images ”(M. Lomonosov. Russian grammar). Description of boron by E.I. Zamyatin is given through the use of numerous M .: “... Blue winter days, the rustle of snow chunks - from top to branches down, a vigorous frosty crackle, a woodpecker hollows; yellow summer days, wax candles in gnarled green hands, transparent honey tears down the hardened strong trunks, cuckoos count the years. But now the clouds swelled up in the stifling atmosphere, the sky split with a crimson crack, a drop of fire began to light up - and a century-old pine forest began to smoke, and by morning red tongues were buzzing around, a thorn, a whistle, a crackle, a howl, half the sky in the smoke, the sun in the blood was barely visible ”(E. Zamyatin. Rus). Much attention was paid by B. L. Pasternak: “Art is realistic as an activity and symbolic as a fact. It is realistic in that it did not invent M. itself, but found it in nature and sacredly reproduced it ”(B. Pasternak. Security letter). “Metaphorism is a natural consequence of the fragility of man and the enormity of his tasks, which has been conceived for a long time. With this inconsistency, he is forced to look at things in an eagle's eye and explain himself with instant and immediately understandable insights. This is poetry. Metaphorism is the shorthand of a great personality, the cursive of its spirit "(B. Pasternak. Notes on translations from Shakespeare). M. is the most widespread and most expressive of all tropes. Lit .: Ancient theories of language and style. - M .; L., 1936 .-- S. 215-220; Aristotle. Poetics // Aristotle. Cit .: In 4 vols. - M., 1984 .-- T. 4. - S. 669-672; Aristotle. Rhetoric // Antique rhetoric. - M., 1978. - S. 130-135, 145-148; Arutyunova N.D. Metaphor // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M., 1990; Demetrius. About style // Antique rhetoric. - M., 1978; Jol K.K. Thought. Word. Metaphor. - Kiev, 1984; Quintilian. Twelve books of rhetorical instructions. In 2 parts. - SPb., 1834; Korolkov V.I. On the extra-linguistic and intra-linguistic aspects of the study of metaphor // Uch. app. MGPII. - M., 1971. - Issue. 58; Lomonosov M.V. A short guide to eloquence: Book one, which contains rhetoric showing the general rules of both eloquence, that is, oratorios and poetry, composed in favor of those who love verbal sciences // Anthology of Russian rhetoric. - M., 1997. - S. 147-148; Lvov M.R. Rhetoric: Textbook for students of 10-11 grades. - M., 1995; Panov M.I. Rhetoric from Antiquity to the Present // Anthology of Russian Rhetoric. - M., 1997. - S. 31-32; Freidenberg O.M. Metaphor // Freidenberg O.M. The myth and literature of antiquity. - M., 1978; Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Literary Critic: For Wednesdays, and Senior. school age / Comp. IN AND. Novikov. - M., 1988 .-- S. 167-169. M.I. Panov
