Dictionary of antonyms - type of dictionary in which antonyms are described, i.e. words of the same part of speech that have opposite meanings (for example: light - heavy, good - bad, start - end, before - after, rise - fall). Dictionaries of antonyms, like synonyms, refer to lexicographic publications that describe the paradigmatic connections of words in the lexical system. The first antonymic dictionaries relied both on the experience of compiling explanatory dictionaries and on the lexicographic descriptions of synonyms.

The most complete antonymic dictionary is "Dictionary of Russian antonyms" by R.М. Lvov. In defining the boundaries of antonymy, the compiler proceeds from the presence of opposed components in the meanings of words with the commonality of nuclear semantic features that determine the assignment of words to one lexical-semantic group. The dictionary is preceded by an extensive introduction by L.A. Novikov, in which a deep theoretical characteristic of antonymic relations, types of antonyms is given, the principles of the lexicographic representation of this type of semantic relations are described.

The clarity of the semantic characteristics of antonyms, the reliance on large illustrative material is also distinguished by “ Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language » L.A. Vvedenskaya. The place of antonyms in the lexical system of the language and the principles of their lexicographic description are described in detail in the introductory article to the dictionary.

Both lexicographic editions consistently reflect the systemic connections of antonyms with synonyms. The authors' attention to the semantic structure of polysemous words and their ability to enter into antonymic relations according to different units of their semantic volume is especially significant. In the derivational nests of antonyms, groupings of words are represented, the opposite of meanings of which is provided by the semantic opposite of root morphemes.

A different approach to defining the boundaries of antonyms is presented in the "Dictionary of Russian Antonyms" by N.P. Kolesnikov. The author considers antonyms to be words that are opposed to each other "in any one respect", which allows him to represent antonymic connections in the dictionary very broadly. As members of antonymic pairs, for example, the words are given: asian - European, to thank - to scold, vowel - consonant, lady - girl, basement - attic, reason is a feeling, overlap - bite etc.

OA Mikhailova's Dictionary of Russian Antonyms includes the most common antonyms of the modern Russian literary language, lively colloquial speech, including those that have recently entered the Russian language.

The material minimized for educational purposes is presented in educational dictionaries of antonyms and synonymous-antonymic dictionaries.

A large dictionary of synonyms and antonyms of the Russian language [about 100,000 words and phrases] / comp. N.I. Shilnova. M.: House of Slavic Books, 2010.896 p.

Vvedenskaya L.L. Dictionary of Russian antonyms / otv. ed. G.V. Vadimova. 2nd ed., Rev. and add. Rostov n / a. : Publishing house Rostov, University, 1982.176 p. ...

Vvedenskaya L.L. Dictionary of antonyms in the Russian language [about 500 antonymic nests]: [synonymous pairs of antonyms: about 1500 illustrative examples]. M.: Astrel: ACT, 2008.445 p. [The same in 2002, 2007].

Vvedenskaya L.A. Educational dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language. 2nd ed. M .; Rostov n / a: March, 2006.314 p. ...

Gavrilova A.S. Dictionary of synonyms and antonyms of the modern Russian language for schoolchildren. M.: Adelant, 2014.351 p. (Library of pocket dictionaries: BCS).

Gavrilova A.S. Dictionary of synonyms and antonyms of the modern Russian language. M.: Adelant, 2013.511s. (Library of school dictionaries: BShS).

Gaibaryan O.E. School dictionary of synonyms and antonyms [over 3000 synonyms and 1500 antonymic pairs]. 4th ed. Rostov n / D .: Phoenix, 2013.382 p. (Educational dictionaries). ...

Kolesnikov N.P. Semonymic dictionaries [dictionary of Russian paronyms; dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language]. Rostov n / a. : Phoenix, 1995.506 p.

Kolesnikov N.P. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language / ed. N.M. Shansky. Tbilisi: Publishing house Tbil. University, 1978.314 p. ...

Lvov M.R. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language: over 3000 antonyms, variants, synonyms, usage. 8th ed., Erased. M.: AST-Press: AST-Press Kniga, 2008.588 p. ...

Lvov M.R. Explanatory dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language [about 2700 antonyms] / Ros. acad. sciences. M.: AST-Press, 2012.509 p. (Desktop dictionaries of the Russian language).

Lvov M.R. School dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language [A-Z]: a guide for students. M.: Education, 2004.350 p. ...

Merkurieva N.V. Dictionary of Russian antonyms: (compound words). M .: Gas. Pravda, 1999.480 p.

Mikhailova O.A. Pocket dictionary of synonyms and antonyms of the Russian language: 5000 words. M .: Lingua: Astrel, 2012.352 p.

Mikhailova O.A. Dictionary of Russian antonyms: over 2000 antonymic pairs. M .: Eksmo, 2008.480 p.

The latest school dictionary of synonyms and antonyms / comp. N.V. Shilnova. Moscow: House of Slavic Books, 2012.640 p.

Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language [more than 2500 antonymic pairs] / otv. ed. E. Buzaeva. Rostov n / D .: Phoenix, 2005.238 p. (Dictionaries).

Dictionary of synonyms and antonyms for schoolchildren [about 5500 entries] / comp. E.L. Butenko. SPb .: Litera, 2011.512s. [Also in 2009].

Dictionary of synonyms and antonyms for schoolchildren / comp. EAT. Boriskovskaya. Moscow: House of Slavic Books, 2002.317 p.

Dictionary of synonyms and antonyms for schoolchildren / comp. O. A. Mikhailova. Reissue. Yekaterinburg: U-Factoria, 2004.500 p.

Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. Dictionary of Russian antonyms / comp. M.E. Shemshurenko. SPb. : Victoria, 2005.476 p. [The same in 2002].

Modern dictionary of the Russian language: synonyms, antonyms [about 800 synonyms, about 500 antonymic nests] / comp. L.A. Vvedenskaya, V.I. Zimin, N.P. Kolesnikov [et al.]. M .: ACT: Astrel; Vladimir: VKT, 2010.762 p. [The same in 2009 in the series "Biblio" under the heading: Dictionary of synonyms and antonyms of the Russian language].

Fedosov Yu.V. Ideographic antonym-synonymous dictionary of the Russian language / Volgograd, state. ped. in-t. Volgograd: Change,

Fedorova T.L. Dictionary of synonyms and antonyms [over 30,000 words]. M .: LadKom, 2010.221 p. (Russian language).

School dictionary of antonyms / comp. G.P. Nikolskaya. Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2012.637 p. [The same in 2004].

School dictionary of synonyms and antonyms of the Russian language / comp. M.E. Shemshurenko. M.: ROSTkniga; SPb. : Victoria plus, 2009.271 p.

Russian language and culture of speech

L.A. Vvedenskaya

L.G. Pavlova

E.Yu. Kashaeva

Language as a sign system

Language is a naturally arising in human society and developing system of sign units clothed in sound form, capable of expressing the entire totality of human concepts and thoughts and intended primarily for communication purposes.

Encyclopedia

The Russian language, like any other language, is a system. System - (from the Greek sistema, the whole, made up of parts; connection) the union of elements that are in relationships and connections that form integrity, unity. Therefore, each system:
consists of many elements;
elements are in communication with each other;
the elements form a unity, one whole.
When characterizing a language as a system, it is necessary to determine what elements it consists of - how they are related to each other, what relations are established between them, and how their unity is manifested.
Language consists of units:
sound;
morpheme (prefix, root, suffix, ending);
word; -
phraseological unit (stable phrase);
free phrase;
sentence (simple, complex);
text.

^ Language as a sign system
Language units are related to each other. Homogeneous units (for example, sounds, morphemes, and words) have combined to form levels of language.

Language units

Sounds, phonemes

Forms and classes of words

Sentence

Phonetic

Morphemic

lexical

Morphological

Syntactic

Phonetics

Morphemics

Lexicology

Morphology

Syntax

Language is a sign system. Already in ancient times, researchers considered units of a particular system as signs that carry information. Everything that surrounds us has a sign: nature, man, animal, machine.
There are two types of signs: natural (signs-signs) and artificial (signs-informants)
For example, yellow leaves appeared on the tree. This is a natural sign. He is a part of an object, is one with it, is its sign. What does this sign inform about? Yellow leaves on the trees indicate the onset of autumn. But if it happens in July? This means that there is a drought in this area, there has been no rain for a long time. It also happens: on one street of the city, chestnuts delight the eye with green foliage, and on the other, all their leaves are withered, and some even lie on the ground. This is a sign that on one of the streets there is heavy traffic and the air is poisoned by exhaust gases. Another option is possible: all the trees in the garden are green, and in one the leaves turned yellow. What is THIS sign? the tree is sick, it must be treated.
Each of those reading this manual, of course, will explain what information natural signs carry: the leaves in the book have acquired a yellowish tint and become brittle; swallows fly low above the ground; the TV has lost sound; the fruit was too soft; the computer does not execute the command, "hangs"
Natural signs are inseparable from objects, phenomena; and part of them. Artificial signs, unlike natural ones, are conventional. They are created to form, store and transmit information, to represent and replace objects and phenomena, concepts and judgments. Symbols serve
a means of communication and transmission of information, therefore they are also called communicative or informative.
Informative signs are a combination of a certain meaning and a certain way of expressing it. The meaning is the signified, and the way of expression is the signifier. For example, a siren howl sounds (meaning - sound signal, meaning - danger); there is a black ribbon on the flag (meaning color, meaning - mourning).
Language signs are the most difficult. They can consist of one unit (morpheme, word) or their combination (sentence). A linguistic sign indicates some object, quality, action, event, state of affairs when they start talking or writing about it. A language sign, like any other sign, has a form (signifier) \u200b\u200band content (signified -). An independent linguistic sign is a word. The morpheme does not function independently in the language. She manifests seating only in the word, therefore it is considered a minimal, non-independent linguistic sign. Suggestion, utterance,
- composite signs of varying degrees of complexity.

^ Language functions

The question of the functions of a language is closely related to the problem of passing through a language. What are the reasons, what living conditions of people contributed to its origin, its formation? What is the purpose of language in the life of society? Not only linguists were looking for answers to these questions, but also philosophers, logicians, psychologists.
The emergence of language is closely associated with the formation of man as a thinking being. Language arose naturally and is a system that is necessary simultaneously for an individual (individual) and society (collective). As a result, language is polyfunctional in nature
Language functions:

Communicative;
cognitive
accumulative
emotional
magical;
poetic.

First of all, he serves. means of communication, allows
the speaker (individual) to express their thoughts, and to the other individual to perceive them and in turn to react accordingly (“(take note, agree, object) Thus, the language helps people to share experiences, transfer their knowledge, organize any work, build and discuss plans for joint activities.
Language also serves as a means of consciousness, contributes to the activity of consciousness and reflects its result. Language participates in the formation of the thinking of the individual (individual consciousness) and the thinking of society (public consciousness). This is a cognitive function.
Development of language and thinking. - interdependent process. The development of thinking contributes to the enrichment of the language,

new concepts require new names; improving the language entails improving thinking.
Language, in addition, helps to store (accumulate) and transmit information, which is important both for an individual and for the whole society. In written monuments (chronicles, documents, memoirs, fiction, newspapers), in oral folk art, the life of the nation is recorded, the history of the speakers of this language. In this regard, there are three main functions of the language:
communicative;
cognitive (cognitive, epistemological);
accumulative (epistemic).
Additional functions are manifested in speech and are determined by the structure of the speech act, i.e. the presence of the addressee, addressee (communication participants) and the subject of the conversation. Let's name two such functions: emotional (expresses the inner state of the speaker, his feelings) and voluntary (the function of influencing the listeners).
In addition to the above-mentioned basic and additional functions, the magic function of the language is also highlighted. It's connected with
the idea that some words, expressions have magical powers, are capable of changing the course of events, influencing human behavior, his fate. In the religious and mythological consciousness, such power is primarily possessed by the formulas of prayers, spells, conspiracies, divination, curses.
Since language serves as a material and form of artistic creation, it is legitimate to talk about the poetic function of language. Thus, the language performs a variety of functions, which is explained by its use in all spheres of life and activities of a person and society.

^ Concept of the national language

The language is created by the people and serves them from generation to generation. In its development, the language goes through several stages and depends on the degree of development of the ethnos (Greek ethnos - people). At an early stage, a tribal language is formed, then a national language and, finally, a national language.

National language is a socio-historical category that designates a language that is a means of communication between the nation and acts in two forms: oral and written.

The national language is formed on the basis of the language of the nationality, which ensures its relative stability. It is the result of the process of the formation of a nation and at the same time a prerequisite and condition for its formation.

By its nature, the national language is not homogeneous. This is due to the heterogeneity of the ethnos itself as a community of people. First, people are united on a territorial basis, place of residence. As a means of communication, residents of rural areas use a dialect - one of the varieties of the national language. A dialect, as a rule, is a collection of smaller units - dialects that have common linguistic features and serve as a means of communication between residents of nearby villages and farms. Territorial dialects have their own characteristics, which are found at all levels of the language: in sound structure, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, word formation. The dialect exists only orally.

The presence of dialects is the result of feudal fragmentation during the formation of Ancient Rus, then the Russian state. In the era of capitalism, despite the expansion of contacts between speakers of different dialects, and the formation of a national language, territorial dialects persist, although they undergo some changes. In the XX century, especially in the second half, in connection with the development of the media (print, radio, cinema, television, intervision), the process of degradation of dialects, their disappearance, is taking place. The study of dialects is of interest:

From a historical point of view: dialects retain archaic features that are not reflected in the literary language;

From the point of view of the formation of the literary language: on the basis of which main dialect and then the common language was the literary language formed; what features of other dialects are borrowed; how does the literary language further affect the dialects and how the dialects affect the literary language.

Secondly, social reasons contribute to the unification of people: a common profession, occupations, interests, social status. For such societies, a social dialect serves as a means of communication. Since the social dialect has many varieties, in the scientific literature, the terms jargon and argot are also used to name them.

Jargon is the speech of social and professional groups of people. It is used by sailors, electronics engineers, computer scientists, athletes, actors, students, etc. In contrast to territorial dialects, jargon does not have phonetic and grammatical peculiarities peculiar only to it. Jargon is characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology.

Slang vocabulary is a rethought, abbreviated, phonetically modified words of the Russian language and borrowed from other languages, especially English. For example: shed - "shop", cigarette butt - "train", pricha - "hairstyle", deflection - "toadying", abita - "entrant", aiz - "eye", alcoholic - "alcoholic", Ameriz - "America" antiface - "man's backside".

Some slang words and fixed expressions are becoming widespread and used to make speech expressive and expressive. For example: a bum, a bum, a breaker, a green, a grandmother, a biker, a party, mayhem, reach the handle, take to the gun Individual words and phrases are currently not perceived as jargon, since they have long entered the literary language and are colloquial or neutral. For example: cheat sheet, mood, rocker, sneakers, be on fire.

Sometimes the word argo is used as a synonym for jargon. So, for example, they talk about student, school argot, meaning jargon.

The main purpose of argo is to make speech incomprehensible to strangers. The lower classes of society are primarily interested in this: thieves, swindlers, cheats. There was also a professional argo. It helped artisans (tailors, tinsmiths, saddlers, etc.), as well as traders-walkers (peddlers who sold small goods by delivery and delivery in small towns, villages, villages), when talking with their own people, hide the secrets of the craft, the secrets of their affairs.

IN AND. Dahl in the first volume of the "Explanatory Dictionary" in an article with the headword afenya, ofenya, gives a sample of the argotic speech of merchants: Ropa kimat, twilight, loosely zapurechaty voryhany. This means: It's time to sleep, midnight, soon the roosters will crow.

In addition to territorial and social dialects, the national language includes vernacular.

Common speech is one of the forms of the national Russian language that does not have its own characteristics of a systemic organization and is characterized by a set of linguistic forms that violate the norms of the literary language. The speakers of the vernacular (citizens with a low level of education) do not realize such a violation of the norms, they do not grasp, do not understand the difference between non-literary and literary forms.

Vernacular are:

In phonetics: chauffeur, put, sentence; ridiculitis, colidor, rezetka, drushlag;

In morphology: my corn, with jam, doing, on the beach, chauffeur, no coat, run, lie down, lodges;

In the lexicon: substitute instead of pedestal, semi-clinic instead of polyclinic.

Common speech, like territorial and social dialects, has only an oral form.

The highest form of the national language is the literary language. It is presented orally and in writing. It is characterized by the presence of norms that cover all levels of the language (phonetics, vocabulary, morphology, syntax). The literary language serves all spheres of human activity: politics, culture, office work, legislation, everyday communication.

The norms of the literary language are reflected in dictionaries: orthoepic, spelling, explanatory, dictionaries of difficulties, phrases.

Characteristics of the literary language

^ Literary language is a system of language elements, speech means selected from the national language and processed by word masters, public figures, outstanding scientists. These tools are perceived as exemplary and commonly used. For native speakers, the literary language is the highest form of the national language. It serves different spheres of human activity: politics, science, culture, verbal art, education, legislation, official business communication, informal communication of native speakers (everyday communication), international communication, print, radio, television.

Literary language is a form of the historical existence of a national language, taken by its native speakers as exemplary.

Encyclopedia, 1997

If we compare the varieties of the national language (vernacular, territorial and social dialects, jargons), then the literary language plays a leading role among them. It includes the best ways to designate concepts and objects, express thoughts and emotions. There is a constant interaction between the literary language and the non-literary varieties of the Russian language. This is most clearly seen in the sphere of colloquial speech. So, the pronunciation features of a particular dialect can characterize the spoken language of people who know the literary language. In other words, educated, cultured people sometimes retain the peculiarities of a particular dialect for the rest of their lives. Colloquial speech is influenced by the book styles of the literary language. In live direct communication, speakers can use terms, foreign language vocabulary, words from the official business style (functions, react, absolutely, from principle, etc.).

Literary language has two forms - oral and written. They differ in four dimensions:

^ 1. form of implementation. The names oral - written indicate that the first is sounding speech, and the second is graphically designed. This is their main difference. The oral form is original. For the appearance of the written form, it was necessary to create graphic signs that would convey the elements of sounding speech. Both oral and written forms are implemented taking into account the norms characteristic of each of them: oral - orthoepic, written - spelling and punctuation.

^ 2. Attitude to the addressee. Written speech is usually addressed to the absent person. The writer does not see his reader, he can only mentally imagine him. Written language is not affected by the reaction of those who read it. On the contrary, oral speech presupposes the presence of an interlocutor, a listener. The speaker and the listener not only hear but see each other. Therefore, oral speech often depends on how it is perceived. The reaction of approval or disapproval, the remarks of the listeners, their smiles and laughter - all this can affect the nature of speech, change it depending on the reaction, or even stop it.

^ 3. Generation of form. The speaker creates, creates his speech immediately. He works on content and form at the same time. Therefore, often giving a lecture, taking part in a conversation on television, answering the questions of a journalist, pause, pondering what to say, mentally select words, build sentences. Such pauses are called hesitation pauses. The writer, unlike the speaker, has the opportunity to improve the written text, return to it several times, add, shorten, change, correct.

^ 4. The nature of the perception of oral and written speech. Written speech is designed for visual perception. While reading, there is always the opportunity to re-read an incomprehensible passage several times, to make extracts, to clarify the meaning of individual words, to check the correct understanding of terms using dictionaries. Oral speech

perceived by ear. To reproduce it again, special technical means are required. Therefore, oral speech should be structured and organized in such a way that its content is immediately understood and easily assimilated by listeners.

When implementing each of the forms of the literary language, the writer or speaker selects words, word combinations, and makes sentences for expressing their thoughts. Depending on the material from which speech is built, it takes on a bookish or colloquial character. It also distinguishes the literary language as the highest form of the national language from other varieties. Let us compare, for example, the proverbs: Desire is stronger than compulsion and Hunt is stronger than bondage. The idea is the same, but framed in different ways. In the first case, verbal nouns were used (desire, compulsion), giving speech a bookish character, in the second - the words hunting, Pushcha, giving a shade of colloquiality. It is not difficult to assume that the first proverb will be used in a scientific article, in a diplomatic dialogue, and the second in a casual conversation. Consequently, the sphere of communication determines the selection of linguistic material, and this, in turn, forms and determines the type of speech.

Book speech serves the political, legislative, scientific spheres of communication (congresses, symposia, conferences, meetings, meetings), and colloquial speech is used at semi-official meetings, meetings, at unofficial or semi-official anniversaries, celebrations, friendly feasts, meetings, during confidential conversations between the boss and subordinates, in everyday life, family atmosphere.

Book speech is built according to the norms of the literary language, their violation is unacceptable; sentences must be completed, logically related to each other. In book speech, abrupt transitions from one thought that has not been brought to its logical end to another are not allowed. Among the words there are abstract, bookish words, including scientific terminology, official business vocabulary.

Colloquial speech is not so strict in observing the norms of the literary language. It allows the use of forms that qualify in dictionaries as colloquial. The text of such a speech is dominated by common vocabulary, colloquial; preference is given to simple sentences, participial and adverbial expressions are avoided.

^ The literary language is the highest form of the national language.

So, the functioning of the literary language in the most important spheres of human activity; various means for transmitting information embedded in it; availability of oral and written forms; differentiation and opposition of book and colloquial speech - all this gives reason to consider the literary language the highest form of the national language.

One of the signs of a literary language is its processing. “The first to understand this perfectly was Pushkin,” wrote A.M. Gorky, - he was the first and showed how to use the speech material of the people, how to process it. "

The reformatory character of A.S. Pushkin is recognized by everyone. He believed that any word is permissible if it accurately, figuratively expresses a concept, conveys meaning. The folk speech is especially rich in this respect. Acquaintance with his works shows how creatively and originally Pushkin included common words in poetic speech, gradually diversifying and complicating their functions.

And in the future, Russian writers and poets took part in the enrichment of the literary language. Krylov, Griboyedov, Gogol, Turgenev, Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. Tolstoy, Chekhov did a lot. Politicians, scientists, cultural and art workers, journalists, radio and television workers are involved in the processing of the Russian literary language, its improvement.

“Any material, especially language,” A.M. Bitter, - requires a careful selection of all the best that is in him - clear, precise, colorful, sonorous, and - further love development of this best. " This is what language processing is about.

Another distinctive feature of the literary language is the presence of written and oral forms, as well as two varieties - book and colloquial speech.

Thanks to the written form, the accumulative function of the language, its continuity and tradition, is realized. The existence of functional and stylistic spheres of the literary language, that is, book and colloquial speech, allows it to be a means of culture (fiction, journalism, theater, cinema, television, radio). There is a constant interaction between these two varieties, interpenetration. As a result, not only the literary language itself becomes richer and more diverse, but also the possibilities of its use increase.

The presence of functional styles is considered a sign of a literary language. Depending on the goals and tasks that are posed and solved during communication, various linguistic means are selected and peculiar varieties of a single literary language, functional styles are formed.

The term functional style emphasizes that the varieties of the literary language are distinguished on the basis of the function (role) that the language performs in each specific case.

Signs of the literary language:

Processing

Oral and written forms

Variation of language units

normativity

Scientific works, textbooks, reports are written in a scientific style; memoranda, financial reports, orders, instructions are drawn up in an official business style; articles in newspapers, radio and television appearances by journalists are mainly carried out in a newspaper-journalistic style; in any informal setting, when everyday topics are discussed, impressions of the past day are shared, a conversational and everyday style is used.

The polyfunctionality of the literary language has led to the emergence of variable units at all levels: phonetic, derivational, lexical, phraseological, morphological, syntactic. In this regard, there is a desire to delimit the use of options, endow them with shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, which leads to the enrichment of the synonymy of the Russian language.

^ The variability of linguistic units, the richness and diversity of lexical-phraseological and grammatical synonymy distinguishes the literary language, is its sign.

The most important feature of the literary language is its normativity. Norm - a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences); rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of the development of the literary language.

Standards exist for both oral and written speech. For example, the norms are accentological (stress), orthoepic (pronunciation) refer to oral speech; spelling norms (spelling), punctuation are typical for written speech. Derivational, lexical, morphological, syntactic norms] must be observed in oral and written speech.

All of these features make up a feature of the literary language as the highest form of the national Russian language.

Norms of the literary language

Language norm - (literary norm) - these are the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules for the use of words, grammatical and stylistic forms, pronunciation and spelling. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences). The norm is obligatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language.

There are several types of language norms: orthoepic (pronunciation), spelling (spelling), word-formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic, punctuation.

Signs of the norm of a literary language: relative stability, general use, general validity, compliance with use, custom and the capabilities of the language system.

Linguistic norms are accepted in the social and linguistic practice of educated models of the rules of pronunciation, word use, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means.

Russian language

Encyclopedia

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of the language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago can become a deviation from it today. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargons; other languages. A change in norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of development, and are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern literary language. For example, in the “Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language”, accent variants of such words as normalize and normalize, thinking and thinking are recorded as equal. Some variants of words are given with the corresponding marks: curd and (colloquial) tvOrog, contract and (simple) contract. If we turn to the Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language (Moscow, 1997), then we can trace the fate of these options. So, the words normalize and thinking become preferable, and normalize and thinking are labeled "additional." (acceptable). Regarding curd and curd, the norm has not changed. But the variant of the agreement from the vernacular form has passed into the colloquial form, has the label "additional" in the dictionary.

Language norms are not invented by scientists. The norms reflect the natural processes taking place in the language, and are supported by the language practice.

Sources of the norm: works of classic and contemporary writers, analysis of the language of the media, common modern usage, data from live and questionnaires, scientific research by linguists.

So, the compilers of the dictionary of grammatical variants used the sources stored at the Institute of the Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences:

1) a card index of grammatical fluctuations, which was compiled on the materials of Soviet fiction during 1961-1972;

2) materials of a statistical survey of newspapers in the 60-70s. The total sample was one hundred thousand options;

3) recordings of modern colloquial speech on the music libraries;

4) materials of answers to the questionnaire;

5) data from all modern dictionaries, grammars and special studies on grammatical variants.

As a result of the analysis of all the listed material, the most common variants were identified, used equally, rarely found or completely disappeared. This allowed scientists to determine what is considered the norm, how it has changed. Indicators of various dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:

1 degree norm - strict, tough, not allowing options;

the norm of the 2nd degree is neutral, allows equivalent options;

the norm of the 3rd degree is more mobile, it allows the use of colloquial, as well as outdated forms.

The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. Development of society, changes in social conditions of life, the emergence of new traditions, improvement of relationships between people, the functioning of literature, art lead to a constant renewal of the literary language and its norms ...

The norms of the literary language reflect the originality of the Russian national language, contribute to the preservation of the linguistic tradition, the cultural heritage of the past. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialectal speech of social and professional argos, vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

According to the norms accepted and valid at any stage of the existence of the literary language, it is possible to determine what changes in relation to normalization have occurred and what are the trends in the further development of the norms of the literary language.

Let's characterize the basic norms of the literary language.

^ Norms of stress.

The peculiarities of Russian stress are studied by the department of linguistics, which is called accentology (from Latin accentus stress).

The stress in Russian is free, which distinguishes it from some others

languages \u200b\u200bin which the stress is assigned to a certain syllable.

For example, in Estonian, Latvian, Czech, Finnish percussion is always

the first syllable, in Polish, Georgian - the penultimate, in Armenian,

french is the last. In Russian, the stress can fall on any

syllable, therefore it is called miscellaneous. Let's compare the stress in the words:

compass, mining, document, medicine. In these words, the stress is respectively

falls on the first, second, third, fourth syllables. The diversity of it, like

notes R.I. Avanesov, emphasizes the individual in Russian

a sign of each single word.

In addition, stress in Russian is mobile and fixed.

If in different forms of the word the stress falls on the same part, then such

stress is motionless (shore, take care, take care, take care,

take care, take care - the stress is attached to the ending). Stress,

changing its place in different forms of the same word is called

mobile (right, right, right; can, can, can).

Most of the words of the Russian language have a fixed stress: do,

do, did, made, decoration, alteration, etc.

Features of Russian accent:

stress in Russian is free, mixed

it can be mobile and motionless

Stress is of great importance in the Russian language and performs various functions. The semantics of the word depends on the stress (cotton - cotton, carnations - carnations). It indicates the grammatical form (hands - im. Case, rukI - genus. Case singular). Finally, stress helps to distinguish between the meaning of words and their forms: belok - gender. case of the word protein, squirrel -im. The case of a word that refers to a part of an egg or part of an eye. The regularity and mobility of stress often leads to speech errors Instead of the beginning, they say the beginning, they understand).

The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases, since for some words there are stress variants, and there are variants. Which violate the norm and are considered literary, for example, Sparkling - sparkling, salmon - salmon, cottage cheese, thinking - thinking. In other cases, one of the options is considered incorrect, for example, kitchen, tool, intercession, wrong: kitchen, tool, intercession.

A number of stress options are associated with the professional sphere of use. There are words with a specific emphasis traditionally

accepted only in a narrowly professional environment, in any other setting it

is perceived as a mistake. The dictionary records these options. For example:

Spark | into a professional. speech spark

epilepsy | in physicians epilepsy

flat, th, -o | musicians have flutes

compass, -a, pl. -s, -ov | sailors have a compass.

In public speeches, business communication, everyday speech, a deviation from the norms of the literary language is quite often observed. So, some believe that it is necessary to say the means of production, but the money has passed two quarters, but the second quarter. The words medium and quarter, regardless of their meaning, have only one stress

Errors in stress can lead to distortion of the meaning of the statement.

For example, in one of the TV programs, works by Spanish

artists. They showed a picture showing a river bank, a tree with

rich crown, through the leaves of which the blue sky and greenery were visible

other plants. A monk was sitting under a tree. The host said, “This

the painting is called "The Hermit in the Desert". Everyone who watched the program

probably surprised and thought: what kind of desert is this? The thing is that on

the painting depicts not a desert, but a secluded, deserted place where he lives

hermit, which is called a desert or desert. Wrong

the spoken word created the impression that the name of the picture did not match its

In order to avoid mistakes in stating the stress, one should know not only the norm, but also the types of variants, as well as the conditions under which one or another of them can be used. For this it is recommended to use

special dictionaries and reference books. It is best to seek help

"Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language". A valuable guide is the Dictionary of Stress for Radio and Television Workers (compiled by F.A. Ageenko, M.V. Zarva, ed. By D.E. Rosenthal). The peculiarity of this dictionary is that it records only the preferred option. The correct stress is also given in spelling dictionaries, explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language.

Orthoepic norms

Orthoepic norms are the pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy (from the Greek.
orthos - "correct" and epos - "speech"). Orthoepy is also called a set of rules for literary pronunciation. Orthoepy determines the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds. As well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in individual words.

Orthoepic norms are the pronunciation norms of oral speech

Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is essential. Spelling errors always interfere with perceiving the content of speech: the listener's attention is distracted by various incorrect pronunciation and the statement is not perceived in full and with sufficient attention. our society, where oral speech has become a means of the widest possible communication at various meetings, conferences, and congresses.

Consider the basic pronunciation rules that must be adhered to.

^ Pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, among the vowels, only drums are pronounced clearly. In the unstressed position, they lose clarity and clarity of sound

> Dictionaries of antonyms

Vvedenskaya L.A. Dictionary of the antonyms of the Russian language. - M .: LLC "Astrel Publishing House": LLC "AST Publishing House", 2004. - 445, p.

The dictionary contains over 500 antonymic nests. A dictionary entry includes an antonymic pair, an interpretation of each of its members, and illustrative material. Synonymous pairs of antonyms form a nest.

The dictionary contains the following applications: 1. Antonymy between a word and a free phrase; 2. About the interaction of antonymy and synonymy; 3. Synonymous pairs of antonyms; 4. Synonymous relations between pairs of antonyms; 5. The concept of synonymous-antonymic paradigm; 6. Compatibility of antonyms in Russian; 7. Occasional antonyms; 8. Stylistic figures based on antonyms; 9. Antonyms as an artistic and pictorial means in L.N. Tolstoy; 10. Dictionary of antonyms A.P. Chekhov.

Sample dictionary entries

NATURAL 1 - ARTIFICIAL 2

And where life could not take root natural order, there she gradually arose artificial way, forcibly, at the cost of large monetary costs and human efforts.A.P. Chekhov.

NATURAL 2 - UNNatural

When a woman destroys like a man, it is found natural and everyone understands this, when she wants or tries to create, like a man, they find it unnatural and they don't put up with it.A.P. Chekhov.

Fear is courage

They all teach, warn, scare, and seem to bravery their words are hidden fear. M. Gorky.

Lvov M.R. Dictionary of Russian antonyms: Over 3000 antonyms / Ed. L.A. Novikov. - 8th ed., Stereotype. - M: PRESS KNIGA, 2006 .-- 592 p.

The dictionary includes over 3000 antonyms of the Russian language. Antonyms are given synonyms (synonymous pairs of antonyms). Antonymic pairs are illustrated with quotes from fiction, scientific literature and journalism.

GREAT - NOTHING

Greatness is insignificance (cm.)

greatness is nothing (cm.)

A great goal is a small goal. About the strange arrangement of things, always insignificant causes gave birth to great events and, on the contrary, great enterprises ended in insignificant consequences. Gogol. Old secular landowners.- It has long been known that high places make insignificant people even more insignificant, and great ones even more great. Stadnyuk. War.Ø In meaning. noun Wed R.Evil is rooted in unkind secrets, The pain of a bitten cry lurks. Everything is not so in them: great is small. Everything, everything is not so: insignificant is great. You. Fedorov. O evil secrets ...

THE GREAT - Pity

Napoleon Bonaparte was despised by everyone as long as he was great, and since he became a pitiful comedian, Emperor Franz sought to offer him his daughter as an illegitimate wife. L. Tolstoy. War and Peace.

THE GREAT IS FUNNY

It's better to be funny than to pretend to be great. G. Gor. Geometric forest.Ø In meaning. noun Wed R.From great to ridiculous - one step. Proverb.Yes, he was young, the great and the funny coexisted in his head. M. Kolesnikov. Industrial ballad.

To please - to make you happy

owls.to please - to upset

I am just as little pleased with your win as losing. L. Tolstoy. Childhood.He was ashamed of the fifteen minutes that he dozed without waiting for her, but he didn’t want to say that he didn’t sleep all night — that would probably upset her more than it would make her happy. K. Simonov. Days and nights.The passenger train made a small stop there. This both made Klimov happy and upset. Nagibin. Smoke break.Galya, my dear! Thank you for your letter, it made me very happy. I was a little upset by the fact that you reported about Borovsky. Yesenin. Letter from G. Benislavskaya, 20 December. 1924.

The manual examines the theoretical and practical aspects of business communication, culture of speech, public speaking, the art of argument.

Such types of business communication as conversation, negotiations, presentation, telephone conversation are characterized. Special attention is paid to the technology of effective speech communication, the national characteristics of business people, the moral attitudes of those who communicate. Contains material on rhetorical self-education.

Chinese proverbs, sayings

China is a country of high culture. This is evidenced not only by numerous architectural, artistic, literary monuments, but also by the richest folklore, one of the types of which are folk proverbs and sayings.

"Proverbs are a crystal of the people's thought in a certain era ..." - wrote the classic of Chinese literature Lu Xin.

The proposed collection contains only an insignificant part of proverbs and sayings, but they also sufficiently acquaint the reader with examples of Chinese folk wisdom.

A culture of speech

Word, speech is an indicator of the general culture of a person, his intellect, his speech culture. That is why the mastery of the culture of speech, its improvement, especially actively begins and continues in the school years.

The Culture of Speech manual will help you:
- to comprehend and master the basic concepts of speech culture;
- acquire the skills necessary for communication, household and business;
- to make your speech competent, bright and expressive.

The textbook is written in accordance with the educational curriculum for colleges. It includes the basic concepts of the culture of speech, teaches the skills of everyday and business communication; expands the understanding of the Russian language, its capabilities; introduces the features of sounding speech, with non-verbal means of communication; teaches the rules of speech etiquette.

Rhetoric and culture of speech

The manual tells about business communication, oratory, and the basics of polemical skills. Particular attention is paid to speech culture, methods of preparing various types of public speaking, and the ability to conduct a constructive dialogue.

Russian language and culture of speech

The textbook includes the basic concepts of speech culture, teaches the skills of everyday and business communication; expands the understanding of the Russian language, its capabilities; introduces the features of sounding speech, with non-verbal means of communication; teaches the rules of speech etiquette.

Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language

More than 500 antonymic nests.

The purpose of the dictionary is to acquaint readers with the system of Russian antonyms - words with opposite meanings that form pairs.

A dictionary entry consists of an antonymic pair, an interpretation of each of its members, illustrative material (quotations, sayings, proverbs). Synonymous pairs of antonyms form a nest. If a polysemantic word enters into antonymic relations with different words, then each pair of antonyms is given separately and its members are marked with a digital index. The dictionary is provided with an alphabetical index.

A culture of speech. Vvedenskaya L.A.

Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2001 - 448 p ..

The textbook is written in accordance with the educational curriculum for colleges. It includes the basic concepts of the culture of speech, teaches the skills of everyday and business communication; expands the understanding of the Russian language, its capabilities; introduces the features of sounding speech, with non-verbal means of communication; teaches the rules of speech etiquette.

For students of secondary specialized institutions.

Format: doc / rar

The size: 1 76 Kb

/ Download file

From the author
I. Communication is a social phenomenon
1.1. What is communication?
1.2. The meaning of communication
1.3. Conditions required for communication
II. Non-verbal communication
2.1. The value of facial expressions and gestures in communication
2.3. Pointing gestures
2.4. Figurative gestures
2.5. Symbolic gestures
III. Literary language
3.1. Forms of existence of the national language
3.2. The highest form of the national language
IV. Basic speech qualities
4.1. Accuracy of speech
4.2. Understandable speech
4.3. Purity of speech
4.4 Richness and variety of speech
4.5. Imagery, expressiveness of speech
V. Norm, its dynamics and variance
5.1. The language norm is a historical phenomenon
5.2. Variation of the norm
5.3. Formation of the norms of the literary language
Vi. Basic feeds of the literary language
6.5. Lexical norms
Vii. Speech etiquette
7.1. Appointment of speech etiquette
7.2. Speech etiquette formulas
7.3. Address in Russian speech etiquette
VIII Features of sounding speech
8.1. Intonation is a hallmark of oral speech
8.2. From the history of intonation research
8.3. Acoustic components of intonation
8.4 Types of intonation
8.5. Pause, its types
IX. Dictionaries - sources of knowledge
9.1. The meaning of dictionaries in human life
9.2. Etymological dictionaries
9.3. Explanatory dictionaries
9.4. Semonymic dictionaries
9.5. Phraseological dictionaries
9.6. Russian language difficulties dictionaries
Speech gymnastics
Instead of a preface
Exercise complexes