A great reference book on the chemistry of the exam. Chemistry. A new complete guide to prepare for the exam. Savinkina E.V.

Title: Chemistry. A complete guide to prepare for the exam.

The reference book includes all the theoretical material of the school chemistry course necessary for passing the exam, the final certification of students. This material is divided into 14 sections, the content of which corresponds to the topics tested on the USE - four meaningful blocks: "Chemical element", "Substance", "Chemical reaction", "Cognition and use of substances and chemical reactions". Each section contains training tasks from parts A and B - with a choice of answer and a short answer. Section 15 is fully devoted to solving computational problems included in the examination part C.
Test tasks are designed in such a way that, by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.
At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help students and applicants test themselves and fill in the gaps.
For the convenience of working with this reference, a table is provided, which indicates the correspondence between the exam topics and sections of the book.
The manual is addressed to senior students, applicants and teachers.

A chemical element is a specific type of atom, indicated by a name and a symbol and characterized by a serial number and relative atomic mass.
Table 1 lists the common chemical elements, the symbols by which they are indicated (in brackets - pronunciation), serial numbers, relative atomic masses, characteristic oxidation states.
The zero oxidation state of an element in its simple substance (s) is not indicated in the table.
The electron shell of any atom is divided into energy levels (1, 2, 3rd, etc.), the levels are divided into sublevels (denoted by the letters s, p, d, f). Sublevels consist of atomic orbitals - regions of space where electrons are likely to reside. Orbitals are designated as 1s (orbital of the 1st level s sublevel), 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s ...

Content
Foreword
1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals
2. Periodic law. Periodic table. Electronegativity. Oxidation states
3. Molecules. Chemical bond. The structure of substances
4. Classification and relationship of inorganic substances
5. Metals of the main subgroups I-III groups
5.1. Sodium
5.2. Potassium
5.3. Calcium
5.4. Hardness of water
5.5. Aluminum
6. Transition metals of the 4th period. Properties, methods of obtaining. General properties of metals
6.1. Chromium
6.2. Manganese
6.3. Iron
6.4. General properties of metals. Corrosion
7. Non-metals of the main subgroups IV-VII groups
7.1. Hydrogen
7.2. Halogens
7.2.1. Chlorine. Hydrogen chloride
7.2.2. Chlorides
7.2.3. Hypochlorites. Chlorates
7.2.4. Bromides. Iodides
7.3. Chalcogenes
7.3.1. Oxygen
7.3.2. Sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides
7.3.3. Sulphur dioxide. Sulphites
7.3.4. Sulfuric acid. Sulphates
7.4. VA group non-metals
7.4.1. Nitrogen. Ammonia
7.4.2. Nitrogen oxides. Nitric acid
7.4.3. Nitrite. Nitrates
7.4.4. Phosphorus
7.5. Group IVA non-metals
7.5.1. Free carbon
7.5.2. Carbon oxides
7.5.3. Carbonates
7.5.4. Silicon
8. Theory of structure, diversity, classification and nomenclature of organic compounds. Types of chemical reactions
9. Hydrocarbons. Homology and isomerism. Chemical properties and production methods
9.1. Alkanes. Cycloalkanes
9.2. Alkenes. Alkadienes
9.3. Alkyne
9.4. Arenas
10. Oxygenated organic compounds
10.1. Alcohols. Ethers. Phenols
10.2. Aldehydes and ketones
10.3. Carboxylic acids. Esters. Fats
10.4. Carbohydrates
11. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds
11.1. Nitro compounds. Amines
11.2. Amino acids. Protein
12. Chemical reactions. Speed, energy and reversibility
12.1. Reaction rate
12.2. Energy of reactions
12.3. Reversibility of reactions
13. Aqueous solutions. Solubility and dissociation of substances. Ion exchange. Hydrolysis of salts
13.1. Solubility of substances in water
13.2. Electrolytic dissociation
13.3. Dissociation of water. Medium solutions
13.4. Ion exchange reactions
13.5. Hydrolysis of salts
14. Oxidation-reduction reactions. Electrolysis
14.1. Oxidizing and reducing agents
14.2. Selection of coefficients using the electronic balance method
14.3. Metal stress range
14.4. Melt and solution electrolysis
15. Solution of computational problems
15.1. Mass fraction of a solute. Dilution, concentration and mixing of solutions
15.2. Volume ratio of gases
15.3. Mass of a substance (volume of gas) by a known amount of another reagent (product)
15.4. Heat effect of reaction
15.5. Weight (volume, amount of substance) of the product by reagent in excess or with impurities
15.6. Weight (volume, amount of substance) of the product by reagent with a known mass fraction in solution
15.7. Finding the molecular formula of an organic compound
Answers

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The new handbook contains all the theoretical material on the chemistry course required for passing the exam. It includes all the elements of the content checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of secondary (full) school. The theoretical material is presented in a concise and accessible form. Each topic is accompanied by examples of test items. Practical assignments correspond to the USE format. At the end of the manual you will find the answers to the tests. The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.

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CONTENT
Foreword 12
IMPORTANT CHEMICAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 14
1. THEORETICAL BASIS OF CHEMISTRY 18
1.1. Modern concepts of the structure of the atom 18
1.1.1. The structure of the electron shells of atoms of elements 18
Sample assignments 24
1.2. Periodic Law and Periodic Table of Chemical Elements D.I. Mendeleev 25
1.2.1. Regularities of changes in the properties of elements and their compounds by periods and groups 25
Sample assignments 28
1.2.2. General characteristics of metals of IA-IIIA-groups in connection with their position in the Periodic table of chemical elements
DI. Mendeleev and the structural features of their atoms 28
Sample assignments 29
1.2.3. Characterization of transition elements (copper, zinc, chromium, iron) by their position in the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements D.I. Mendeleev
and the structural features of their atoms 30
Sample assignments 30
1.2.4. General characteristics of non-metals of IVA-VIIA groups in connection with their position in the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements D.I. Mendeleev
and structural features of their atoms 31
Sample assignments 31
1.3. Chemical bond and structure of matter 32
1.3.1. Covalent chemical bond, its varieties and mechanisms of formation. Covalent bond characteristics (polarity and bond energy). Ionic bond.
Metallic bond. Hydrogen bond 32
Sample assignments 36
1.3.2. Electronegativity. Oxidation state and valence of chemical elements 37
Sample assignments 39
1.3.3. Substances of molecular and non-molecular structure. Crystal lattice type. Dependence of the properties of substances on their composition
and buildings 41
Sample assignments 43
1.4. Chemical reaction 43
1.4.1. Classification of chemical reactions in inorganic and organic chemistry 43
Sample assignments 45
1.4.2. The heat effect of a chemical reaction. Thermochemical equations 46
Sample assignments 48
1.4.3. Reaction speed, its dependence on various factors 48
Sample assignments 50
1.4.4. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions. Chemical equilibrium. Displacement of chemical equilibrium under the influence of various factors 50
Examples of tasks
1.4.5. Electrolytic dissociation of electrolytes in aqueous solutions. Strong and weak electrolytes 53
Sample assignments 54
1.4.6. Ion exchange reactions 54
Sample assignments 56
1.4.7. The environment of aqueous solutions: acidic, neutral, alkaline. Hydrolysis of salts 57
Sample assignments 59
1.4.8. Redox reactions. Corrosion of metals and methods of protection against it 60
Sample assignments 64
1.4.9. Electrolysis of melts and solutions (salts, alkalis, acids) 65
Sample assignments 66
1.4.10. Ionic (V.V. Markovnikov's rule) and radical reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry 67
Sample assignments 69
2. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 71
2.1. Classification of inorganic substances. Nomenclature of inorganic substances (trivial and international) 71
Sample assignments 75
2.2. Typical chemical properties of simple substances - metals: alkali, alkaline earth, aluminum; transition metals
(copper, zinc, chromium, iron) 76
Sample assignments 79
2.3. The characteristic chemical properties of simple substances - non-metals: hydrogen, halogens, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen,
phosphorus, carbon, silicon 81
Sample assignments 83
2.4. Typical chemical properties of oxides: basic, amphoteric, acidic 84
Sample assignments 86
2.5. Characteristic chemical properties of bases and amphoteric hydroxides 87
Sample assignments 88
2.6. Characteristic chemical properties of acids 90
Sample assignments 93
2.7. Typical chemical properties of salts: medium, acidic, basic; complex (for example, aluminum and zinc compounds) 94
Sample assignments 96
2.8. The relationship of different classes of inorganic substances 97
Sample assignments 100
3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 102
3.1. Theory of the structure of organic compounds: homology and isomerism (structural and spatial).
Mutual influence of atoms in molecules 102
Sample assignments 105
3.2. Types of bonds in molecules of organic substances. Hybridization of carbon atomic orbitals. Radical.
Functional group 106
Sample assignments 109
3.3. Classification of organic substances. Nomenclature of organic substances (trivial and international) 109
Sample Assignments 115
3.4. Typical chemical properties of hydrocarbons: alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, dienes, alkynes, aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene and toluene) 116
Sample Assignments 121
3.5. Characteristic chemical properties of saturated monohydric and polyhydric alcohols, phenol 121
Sample Assignments 124
3.6. Characteristic chemical properties of aldehydes, saturated carboxylic acids, esters 125
Sample Assignments 128
3.7. Characteristic chemical properties of nitrogen-containing organic compounds: amines and amino acids 129
Sample assignments 132
3.8. Biologically important substances: fats, proteins, carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides) 133
Sample Assignments 138
3.9. The relationship of organic compounds 139
Sample Assignments 143
4. METHODS OF KNOWLEDGE IN CHEMISTRY. CHEMISTRY AND LIFE 145
4.1. Experimental Foundations of Chemistry 145
4.1.1. Laboratory rules. Laboratory glassware and equipment. Safety rules when working with caustic, flammable and toxic substances,
household chemicals 145
Sample Assignments 150
4.1.2. Scientific methods for the study of chemicals and transformations. Methods for separation of mixtures and purification of substances 150
Sample Assignments 152
4.1.3. Determination of the nature of the environment of aqueous solutions of substances. Indicators 152
Sample Assignments 153
4.1.4. Qualitative reactions to inorganic substances and ions 153
Sample Assignments 156
4.1.5. Qualitative reactions of organic compounds 158
Sample Assignments 159
4.1.6. The main methods of obtaining (in the laboratory) of specific substances belonging to the studied classes of inorganic compounds 160
Sample assignments 165
4.1.7. The main methods of obtaining hydrocarbons (in the laboratory) 165
Sample assignments 167
4.1.8. The main methods of obtaining oxygen-containing compounds (in the laboratory) 167
Sample assignments 170
4.2. General ideas about industrial methods of obtaining essential substances 171
4.2.1. The concept of metallurgy: general methods of obtaining metals 171
Sample assignments 174
4.2.2. General scientific principles of chemical production (on the example of industrial production of ammonia, sulfuric acid, methanol). Chemical pollution
environment and its consequences 174
Sample assignments 176
4.2.3. Natural sources of hydrocarbons, their processing 177
Sample assignments 180
4.2.4. High molecular weight compounds. Polymerization and polycondensation reactions 181
Sample assignments 184
4.3. Calculations using chemical formulas and reaction equations 184
4.3.1. Calculation of the mass of a solute contained in a certain mass of a solution with a known mass fraction; calculation of the mass fraction of a substance in a solution 184
Sample assignments 186
4.3.2. Calculations of volumetric ratios of gases in chemical reactions 186
Sample assignments 187
4.3.3. Calculations of the mass of a substance or volume of gases for a known amount of a substance, mass or volume of one
of the substances participating in the reaction 187
Sample assignments 188
4.3.4. Calculations of the heat effect of the reaction 189
Sample assignments 189
4.3.5. Calculations of the mass (volume, amount of a substance) of the reaction products, if one of the substances is given in excess (has impurities) 190
Sample assignments 190
4.3.6. Calculations of the mass (volume, amount of a substance) of the reaction product, if one of the substances is given as a solution
with a certain mass fraction of solute 191
Sample assignments 191
4.3.7. Finding the molecular formula of substance 192
Sample assignments 194
4.3.8. Calculations of the mass or volume fraction of the reaction product yield from the theoretically possible 195
Sample assignments 195
4.3.9. Calculations of the mass fraction (mass) of a chemical compound in a mixture 196
Sample assignments 196
application
CHEMISTRY OF ELEMENTS 198
Hydrogen 198
Elements of IA group 200
Elements of IIA-group 202
Elements of ША-group 204
Elements of IVA group 206
Elements of VA group 211
Elements of VTA group 218
Elements of VTIA group 223
Periodic table of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleeva 230
IUPAC: Periodic Table of the Elements 232
Solubility of bases, acids and salts in water 234
Valence of some chemical elements 235
Acids and the names of their salts 235
Atomic radii of elements 236
Some of the most important physical constants 237
Multiple prefixes
and fractional units 237
Prevalence of elements in the earth's crust 238
Answers to tasks 240

The new reference book includes all the theoretical material of the school chemistry course necessary for the preparation and passing of the unified state exam.
The content of the book is based on control and measuring materials that determine the volume of educational material, which is verified by the state final certification.
The theoretical material of the handbook is presented in a concise and accessible form. Clarity of presentation and clarity of educational material will effectively prepare for the exam.
Each section of the book corresponds to four substantive blocks tested on the Unified State Exam: "Theoretical Foundations of Chemistry" - the Periodic Law and the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements by D.I. Mendeleev, chemical bond and structure of matter, chemical reaction; "Inorganic chemistry", "Organic chemistry", "Methods of cognition of chemistry. Chemistry and Life ”- the experimental foundations of chemistry, general ideas about industrial methods of obtaining the most important substances.

R. A. Lidin

Chemistry: A Complete Guide to Prepare for the Unified State Exam

Foreword

The reference book includes all the theoretical material of the school chemistry course necessary for passing the exam, the final certification of students. This material is divided into 14 sections, the content of which corresponds to the topics tested on the USE - four meaningful blocks: "Chemical element", "Substance", "Chemical reaction", "Cognition and use of substances and chemical reactions". Each section contains training tasks from parts A and B - with a choice of answer and a short answer. Section 15 is fully devoted to solving computational problems included in the examination part C.

Test tasks are designed in such a way that, by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.

At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help students and applicants test themselves and fill in the gaps.

For the convenience of working with this reference, a table is provided, which indicates the correspondence between the exam topics and sections of the book.

The manual is addressed to senior students, applicants and teachers.

1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals

Chemical element- a certain kind of atoms, indicated by a name and a symbol and characterized by a serial number and relative atomic mass.

Table 1 lists the common chemical elements, the symbols by which they are indicated (in brackets - pronunciation), serial numbers, relative atomic masses, characteristic oxidation states.

Zero the oxidation state of an element in its simple substance (s) is not indicated in the table.

All atoms of one element have the same number of protons in the nucleus and the number of electrons in the shell. So, in the atom of the element hydrogen H is 1 p + in the core and at the periphery 1 e-; in element atom oxygen About 8 p + in the core and 8 e- in the shell; element atom aluminum Al contains 13 r+ in the core and 13 e- in the shell.

The atoms of one element can differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus, such atoms are called isotopes. So, the element hydrogen H three isotopes: hydrogen-1 (special name and symbol protium 1H) s 1 p + in the core and 1 e- in the shell; hydrogen-2 (deuterium 2H, or D) s 1 p + and 1 p0 in the core and 1 e- in the shell; hydrogen-3 (tritium 3H, or T) s 1 p + and 2 p0 in the core and 1 e- in the shell. In characters 1H, 2H and 3H, the superscript indicates mass number- the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Other examples:

Electronic formula atom of any chemical element in accordance with its location in the Periodic Table of the elements of DI Mendeleev can be determined from the table. 2.

The electron shell of any atom is divided into energy levels (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.), the levels are divided into sublevels (denoted by letters s, p, d, f). Sublevels consist of atomic orbitals - areas of space where electrons are likely to reside. Orbitals are denoted as 1s (orbital of the 1st level of the s-sublevel), 2 s, 2r, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s... The number of orbitals in sublevels:

The filling of atomic orbitals with electrons occurs in accordance with three conditions:

1) minimum energy principle

Electrons fill the orbitals starting from the lower energy sublevel.

The sequence of increasing energy of sublevels:

1s < 2c < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s ≤ 3d < 4p < 5s ≤ 4d < 5p < 6s…

2) exclusion rule (Pauli principle)

Each orbital can hold no more than two electrons.

One electron in an orbital is called unpaired, two electrons - electronic pair:

3) principle of maximum multiplicity (Hund's rule)

Within the limits of the sublevel, electrons first fill all orbitals by half, and then completely.

Each electron has its own characteristic - spin (conventionally depicted by an up or down arrow). The spins of electrons are added as vectors, the sum of the spins of a given number of electrons on the sublevel should be maximum (multiplicity):

Filling the levels, sublevels and orbitals of atoms of elements from Н (Z \u003d 1) up to Kr (Z \u003d 36) shown in energy diagram (the numbers correspond to the filling sequence and coincide with the ordinal numbers of the elements):

From the completed energy diagrams, electronic formulas atoms of elements. The number of electrons in the orbitals of this sublevel is indicated in the superscript to the right of the letter (for example, 3 d5 is 5 electrons per Z d-sub-level); first there are electrons of the 1st level, then the 2nd, 3rd, etc. Formulas can be complete and short, the latter contain in parentheses the symbol of the corresponding noble gas, which conveys its formula, and, moreover, starting with Zn filled inner d-sublevel. Examples:

3Li \u003d 1s22s1 \u003d 2s1

8O \u003d 1s2 2s22p4 = 2s22p4

13Al \u003d 1s22s22p6 3s23p1 = 3s23p1

17Cl \u003d 1s22s22p6 3s23p5 = 3s23p5

2OCа \u003d 1s22s22p63s23p 4s2 = 4s2

21Sc \u003d 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d14s2 = 3d14s2

25Mn \u003d 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d54s2 = 3d54s2

26Fe \u003d 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d64s2 = 3d64s2

3OZn \u003d 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s2 = 4s2

33As \u003d 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p3 = 4s24p3

36Kr \u003d 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p6 = 4s24p6

The electrons outside the brackets are called valence. They are the ones who take part in the formation of chemical bonds.

The exceptions are:

24Cr \u003d 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d54s1 = Зd54s1 (not 3d44s2!),

29Cu \u003d \u200b\u200b1s22s22p63s23p6 3d104s1 = 3d104s1 (not 3d94s2!).

Examples of assignments for part A

1. Name, not related to hydrogen isotopes, is

1) deuterium

2) oxonium

2. The formula of the valence sublevels of a metal atom is

3. The number of unpaired electrons in the ground state of the iron atom is

4. In the excited state of the aluminum atom, the number of unpaired electrons is

5. The electronic formula 3d94s0 corresponds to the cation

6. The electronic formula of the E2- 3s23p6 anion corresponds to the element

7. The total number of electrons in the Mg2 + cation and F- anion is

2. Periodic law. Periodic table. Electronegativity. Oxidation states

The modern formulation of the Periodic Law, discovered by D.I.Mendeleev in 1869:

The properties of the elements are periodically dependent on the ordinal number.

The periodically repeating nature of the change in the composition of the electron shell of the atoms of the elements explains the periodic change in the properties of the elements when moving through the periods and groups of the Periodic Table.

The reference book includes all the theoretical material of the school chemistry course necessary for passing the exam, the final certification of students. This material is divided into 14 sections, the content of which corresponds to the topics tested on the USE - four meaningful blocks: "Chemical element", "Substance", "Chemical reaction", "Cognition and use of substances and chemical reactions". Each section contains training tasks from parts A and B - with a choice of answer and a short answer. Section 15 is fully devoted to solving computational problems included in the examination part C.

Test tasks are designed in such a way that, by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.

At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help students and applicants test themselves and fill in the gaps.

For the convenience of working with this reference, a table is provided, which indicates the correspondence between the exam topics and sections of the book.

The manual is addressed to senior students, applicants and teachers.

1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals

Chemical element- a certain kind of atoms, indicated by a name and a symbol and characterized by a serial number and relative atomic mass.

Table 1 lists the common chemical elements, the symbols by which they are indicated (in brackets - pronunciation), serial numbers, relative atomic masses, characteristic oxidation states.

Zerothe oxidation state of an element in its simple substance (s) is not indicated in the table.

All atoms of one element have the same number of protons in the nucleus and the number of electrons in the shell. So, in the atom of the element hydrogenH is 1 p +in the core and at the periphery 1 e -; in element atom oxygenAbout 8 p +in the core and 8 e - in the shell; element atom aluminumAl contains 13 r + in the core and 13 e - in the shell.

The atoms of one element can differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus, such atoms are called isotopes. So, the element hydrogenH three isotopes: hydrogen-1 (special name and symbol protium 1 H) s 1 p +in the core and 1 e - in the shell; hydrogen-2 (deuterium 2 H, or D) s 1 p +and 1 p 0 in the core and 1 e - in the shell; hydrogen-3 (tritium 3 H, or T) s 1 p +and 2 p 0 in the core and 1 e - in the shell. In characters 1 H, 2 H and 3 H, the superscript indicates mass number- the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Other examples:

Electronic formulaatom of any chemical element in accordance with its location in the Periodic Table of the elements of DI Mendeleev can be determined from the table. 2.

The electron shell of any atom is divided into energy levels(1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.), the levels are divided into sublevels(denoted by letters s, p, d, f). Sublevels consist of atomic orbitals- areas of space where electrons are likely to reside. Orbitals are denoted as 1s (orbital of the 1st level of the s-sublevel), 2 s, 2 r, 3 s, 3 p, 3d,4 s... The number of orbitals in sublevels:

The filling of atomic orbitals with electrons occurs in accordance with three conditions:

1) minimum energy principle

Electrons fill the orbitals starting from the lower energy sublevel.

The sequence of increasing energy of sublevels:

1 s< 2 c< 2 p< 3 s< 3 p< 4 s≤ 3 d< 4 p< 5 s≤ 4 d< 5 p< 6 s…

2) exclusion rule (Pauli principle)

Each orbital can hold no more than two electrons.

One electron in an orbital is called unpaired, two electrons - electronic pair:

3) principle of maximum multiplicity (Hund's rule)

From the completed energy diagrams, electronic formulasatoms of elements. The number of electrons in the orbitals of this sublevel is indicated in the superscript to the right of the letter (for example, 3 d 5 is 5 electrons per Z d-sub-level); first there are electrons of the 1st level, then the 2nd, 3rd, etc. Formulas can be complete and short, the latter contain in parentheses the symbol of the corresponding noble gas, which conveys its formula, and, moreover, starting with Zn filled inner d-sublevel. Examples:

3 Li \u003d 1s 2 2s 1 \u003d [2 He] 2s 1

8 O \u003d 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4\u003d [2 He] 2s 2 2p 4

13 Al \u003d 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1\u003d [10 Ne] 3s 2 3p 1