The overall characteristic of the English Renaissance. Renaissance era literature. English Poetry XVI in revival in England
From the second half of XV. Centuries Europe enters one of the most remarkable periods of its history, called the Renaissance Age.
It was the greatest progressive coup, experienced to that mankind, the epoch that needed titans and which gave rise to titans on the strength of thought, passionality and nature, on versatility and scholarships. People who founded the modern domination of the bourgeoisie were anything, but not only bourgeois-limited. On the contrary, they were more or less experienced by the adventure character of their time. Then there was not almost a single major person who would not have committed distant travel, they would not speak four or five languages, would not shine in several areas of creativity.
This characteristic of the Renaissance Epoch is entirely applicable to England, which was, like other European countries, is captured by this rapid coup, which created new socio-political conditions and a new culture other than medieval.
In the era of the so-called "initial accumulation", England enters the path of capitalist development. In the country, the bourgeoisie is growing and growing, and capitalist relations are being introduced into all areas of economic life. Capitalistic manufactory arises, trade is growing and collaborated, involving England in intercourse with the distant countries of the world. Herry VII, who joined the throne at the end of Wars, became a strong hand to argue the building of the absolute monarchy, which is even more stronger with his successor to Henry VIII. Both of these monarch from the tudor dynasty laid the foundations of English absolutism; who reached the vertex of its power to the reign of Elizabeth. Parliament continued to exist in Tyudorakh, turned into a more or less obedient route of the will of the avoy of an autocratic monarch.
The new nobility, created with Tudorah, served as one of the supports of the absolute monarchy. The heirs of old feudal barons, mostly also siblings of these old names were, however, their own genus from such remote lateral lines that they made a completely new corporation. Their skills in the desires were much more bourgeois than feudal. They knew the money perfectly and immediately began to swear a land rental, to drive hundreds of small tenants from the ground and replacing them with sheep. Heinrich VIII masses created new lendlords from the bourgeoisie, distributing and selling church estates for his companions; In addition, the result was reduced to the confiscation of large estates that were continued until the end of the XVII century, which were then distributed to upstarts or semi-wool. Therefore, the English "aristocracy" since Henrich VIII not only did not oppose the development of the industry, but, on the contrary, he tried to benefit from it "(Marx-Engels, writings, t. XVI, h. II, p. 298.). Another support of English Absolutism was a growing bourgeoisie, which needed strong royal power to protect their economic interests. Reformation gave rise to extensive theological literature, reflecting the struggle of Catholicism and Protestantia; but only a few of her monuments have literary advantages: "Book of Martyrs" (The Book of Martyrs, 1563 G.) John Fox (John Foxe, 1516-1587), telling about the Christian Great Martyrs of All Centuries, but especially in detail - about the persecution of Protestants during the Catholic reaction at Maria Tudor. The second significant work of this literature "The laws of the church device" (The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, 1593) Richard Gucker (Richard Hooker, 1554-1600), which contain the presentation of the main to Sittrine of the Anglican Church. Reformation made a publicly accessible Bible, the text of which the Catholic Church forbade transborrowing. In the XVI century and early XVII century. There are ten "Bible translations, which is coming from the translation of William Tyndal (1525-1535). All these translations served as preparation for the final, so-called" authorized text "created by 47 translators and issued in 1611. The prevalence of the Bible led to a significant impact of its language On everyday speech and literature. The new nobility and bourgeoisie provided support for the royal power not only because they were afraid of repeating feudal interdets, the fear of which was alive even when Shakespeare wrote his plays-chronicles from the history of England. There was a strength in society, which they feared most. These are the folk masses of England, disadvantaged and brought to despair suffering and disasters who have become their lot.
Inhuman laws against vagrancy aggravated the suffering of the people, brought to the last degree of despair. Already in the time of Heinrich VI, for the first time, peasant riots against the walls appear. The glances and riots of the peasants were frequent phenomenon in the English village of Renaissance. The most significant and most dramatic episode of the struggle of the English peasantry for the preservation of the Earth was the uprising headed by Robert Ketom and what happened in Norfolk in 1549.
England Renaissance is characterized by sharp contradictions and contrasts, of which the most significant was a contradiction between the growing wealth of dominant classes and the increasing poverty of the people. Bourgeois historians usually ignore this contradiction, putting out such positive facts as the growth of industry and trade, the development of culture and literature, etc. Especially many praise bourgeois historiography crops the reign of Elizabeth. But the queen itself, after one trip in England, was forced to recognize the plight of the people, which is quite in the spirit of the classical Renaissance - she expressed in Latin exclamation: "Pauper Ubiqua Jacet!" (Poor lying around everywhere!). The revival was "the epoch of the greatest progressive coup", but this progress was bought by the price of grave disasters, the price of sweat and blood of the people.
With the arms of Elizabeth (1558), all attempts of the internal reaction were doomed to failure. The Government of the Young Queen energetically suppressed them. There was the only hope for outside intervention. Anglo-Spanish rivalry aggravated. Throughout the almost thirty-year period, there were collisions between the two powers - the rehearsal of the decisive fight, which occurred later. The case was not only in the struggle of political principles. Between England and Spain there were acute economic contradictions, because the young English power was made as a competitor of powerful Spain in the struggle for colonies and maritime trade. To end with her opponent, the Spanish King Philip II decided to strike her a crushing blow to which he was long and carefully prepared. Spain has built a huge fleet, the so-called invincible Armada. In the summer of 1588, 130 Spanish ships approached the shores of England. The general tonnage of Armada was almost 60,000 tons, there were about 25,000 people on the ships. By this armed force, England opposed the fleet from 197 ships, the total tonnage of which was twice as much of Spanish. In the English fleet, only 34 vessels belonged to the government. The remaining ships were private. This fact is very indicative, for it indicates that the bourgeoisie was deeply interested in reflecting the Spanish intervention. The people also provided strong support to the Queen. Workers and artisans, having learned about the danger threatening Motherland, worked for free in the docks, on shipyards, in arsenals and workshops to equip the fleet to fight Spain. Numerous volunteers walked into the fleet to fight for the preservation of the National Independence of England. In addition to the huge patriotic enthusiasm, the British had another advantage over her enemy. The Spanish fleet consisted of large and sedentary ships, while small English ships were distinguished by a large maneuverable ability. Thanks to this English courts managed to apply a sensitive strike of Armada. What was started by people, Nature tried. A storm rose, which spoke ships invincible Armada. Only half of the vessels returned to Spain. 1588 - the most important date in the history of England. In the fight against Spain, the fate of the country's further development was solved. All layers of English society, hostile feudalism, united to protect the inviolability of the native country to ensure her free development on her elected way. The rise of the national feeling was the expression of the solid determination of most English people to prevent the restoration of feudal orders. The aggravated political struggle and the growth of national self-consciousness led to increased interest in all kinds of historical literature and, in particular, to the history of England. A number of historical books appear; Of which are especially famous "Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland" (The Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland "etc., 1578) Rafael Golinshed (Holinshed), from where Shakespeare borrowed plots for his plays-chronicles, for Macbeth, "CIMBELINA", etc.
Of great importance for the culture of England in the era of the Renaissance was that it became a naval power. An era captured by the progressive movement, England takes part in the development of navigation. Cabot was the first English sailor, crossed the Atlantic Ocean. According to his footsteps, Francis Drake went, Walter roles and many others. The geographical discoveries of that time had not only much economic importance as the prerequisites of colonial expansion and the development of world trade, they had an equally large cultural significance, as they contributed to the expansion of the mental horizon of European humanity. It is enough to quit a quick look at the Renaissance English literature to see that the geographical discoveries and numerous marine adventures of the time were put into the entire culture. No wonder Thomas Mor depicts Rafail Gitlodeya in his "utopia" as one of the satellites of Amerigo Vespucci; Bacon, century later, begins "New Atlantis" with the words: "We sailed from Peru, where we spent a whole year, towards China and Japan, crossing the South Sea ..." A whole branch of literature gave rise to the geographical discoveries in that epoch, In which the primary place belongs to the zealous compiler Richard Gakluita (Richard Hakluyt, 1552? -1616), published in 1598. The famous book under the title "History of the main swimming pools, travels, flights and discoveries committed by the British on the sea and on land in the distant And the most far away parts of the Earth over the past 1500 years "(The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiquies and Discoveries of the English Nation, Made by Sea Or Over Land ... WITHIN THE COMPASS OF THESE 1500 YEARS, 1598-1600. . The mention of the sea, navigation and maritime trade at Shakespeare are extremely numerous. As I noticed Goethe in the "years of the teachings of Wilhelm Meister", Shakespeare wrote for the islanders, for the British, who are accustomed to sea journeys and see the ships, the coast of France and Pirates everywhere. Rapidly developed during these years in England and Science. He who herald the scientific progress was the great philosopher Francis Bacon, "The Tricer of English Materialism", as Marx called him. The movement in the field of scientific thought was closely connected with the struggle against the remnants and prejudices of the Middle Ages. Tract for scientific knowledge of nature, the desire to comprehend its laws in order to subjugate to her man, all this was reflected in the "tragic history of Dr. Faust" Christopher Marlo - one of the most typical works of the Renaissance. On this favorable public and cultural soil, literature flourished unusually blossomed. The era of the Renaissance is the Golden Age of English Literature. "For a short time, the Englishman Sidney writes," the highest intellectual and artistic desires of the English people consciously or unconsciously concentrated in the literature. " The small people, - the population of England at that time did not exceed 5 million, the four fifths of which were illiterate, put forward about three hundred writers. The most outstanding of them - Thomas Mor, Whire, Serri, Skelton, Syquil, Norton, Guskun, Sydney, Spencer, Lily, Garlo, Green, Kid, Nash, Pil, Decker, Ben Johnson, Fletcher, Missinger, Beaumont, Chapman, Marston , Webster, Ford, Sherley, Dryton, Daniel, Bacon, Burton. Above all they rise the greatest genius of English literature - Shakespeare. The leading ideological course of the epoch, identifying both the content and artistic forms of literature, was humanism originally in Italy and from there spread throughout Europe. The term "Humanism" had a narrow value first. If in the Middle Ages, science was engaged in predominantly studying theology (Divina Studia), then in the era of the revival, the center of gravity of mental interest moved. Now the main subject of study becomes all associated with man and, first of all, the human word (Humana Studia). The works of this species were monuments of ancient literature, which were opposed to the so-called "God's Word", the Holy Scripture. Humanists in the exact sense of the word in this era were called people who devoted themselves to the study of the "human word" and, before, of all, philosophers and antiquity writers. Therefore, the first and obligatory sign of humanism was considered to know the knowledge of ancient languages, Latin and Greek. In this regard, the humanitarian science of revival arises and develops. "Humana Studia" was first the subject of private education and education; But gradually the representatives of this movement have entered the universities and created special schools, where humanitarian sciences became the subject of study. When Professor-Humanists began to read and disassemble Plato, Plutarch, Galen, and others from the University Department, then this meant a revolutionary coup in the field of ideology: humanistic knowledge displaced theology. Often, especially at the beginning, humanistic knowledge was emphasized by philological character: studied and disassembled Latin and Greek grammar. But philological classes of humanists were not an end in itself: they were only the key to the study of antique philosophy and literature monuments, the ideological content of which was of paramount importance for humanists. In these works, they found an expression of such a look at life, which corresponded to their concepts and helped the development of a new worldview. Philological classes, the study of monuments of Greek and Roman literature, therefore, that scientific base, on the basis of which a new humanistic worldview was issued. The worldviews of humanism were directed against the ideology of the feudal Middle Ages and, first of all, against church teachings. Humanists saw the basis of life in real life and, above all, in the man itself, which concentrated all their interests. The church proceeded from the opposition of God and man, seeing in the first embodiment of the highest essence of life, and in the latter - the presence of a low-lying sinful start. This dualism of the church is the most advanced humanists opposed a monistic look: a person is the direct embodiment of the Divine start on Earth. In the medieval philosophy of faith in God combined with unbelief in humans. For humanists, faith in God meant primarily faith in a person who, in their opinion, was the embodiment of the Divine beginning in life. Humanists believed in the limitless forces and human capabilities, bowed to his grandeur and beauty. Unlike the medieval minerosoznia, which a man believed a vessel of sin, humanism justified the nature of man. The meaning of life of Humanists saw in the comprehensive development of the human person. Their philosophy was by no means an excuse of bourgeois egoism. Faith in the infinity of human abilities was combined with humanists with the desire for unlimited knowledge, which should be subordinate to the person and nature. Hence their interest in the scientific knowledge and study of nature, which has found an expression in the activities of great philosophers, naturalists, scientists and travelers. The worldly, the secular nature of humanistic science and philosophy was in a sharp contradiction with the religious nature of the medieval mineoscement. The socio-political views of the humanists were antipodeal. They denied the divine character of royal power and fought against the secular power of the clergy. However, they did not deny the monarchy as such. According to their views, it was the best means of curling feudal anarchy; That is why they advanced as a political ideal an absolute monarchy, headed by the enlightened and humane king. Only a small part of the Humanists stood in the republican positions. All Humanists denied a medieval look, justifying the social inequality of the allegedly existing difference in natural data. Humanism, as opposed to this point of view, argued the natural equality of people. However, this situation was combined with the most significant part of humanists with the recognition of the legality of the estate. They were opponents of social equality, as they thought that it would be reduced to the leftivellation of all people. And yet, in general, humanism was the most progressive ideological course of the epoch, fertilizing all areas of social life and culture. This comes to the assessment of English humanism, we must first of all keep in mind, - taking a question in a pan-European plan - that it was a late humanism, which developed on The last stage of the European Renaissance. From here, as well as from the specific conditions of the country's socio-economic development, the originality of English humanism has emerged. The main content of early, Italian, humanism was the constant struggle for secular culture against the church culture, the struggle for the right to earthly joy against monastic asceticism, the struggle for the right of free mind against the continued authority of faith. What was with such a difficulty conquered by the Italian humanists of the XIV-XV centuries, it is relatively easily easily gone by humanists English. The reformation conducted in England on top almost freed the English humanists from the struggle for secular culture, because the royal power broke the political and economic power of the Church, and after that, naturally, the spiritual dictatorship of the church was weakened. The victory of secular culture, thus preceded the period of the highest flourishing of humanistic literature in England. Therefore, Shakespeare and his contemporaries, we do not notice the sharp anti-carotence, which characterized the work of Bokcachcho in Italy, Rabel - in France, Ulrich von Gutten - in Germany. The problems of combating the church and religion played in English humanism only at the first stage of the Renaissance in England, which coincided with the period of reformation. This is the period of activity of Oxford Humanists and Thomas Mora (the end of XV is the first third of the XVI century), when humanistic literature wore mainly theoretical character in England.
The second stage of the Renaissance in England is the so-called "Age of Elizabeth", - the period covering the second half of the XVI century, was the time of the highest flourishing of English absolutism; It was time to national lifting and consolidation of a young power. The most important feature of political life was the equilibrium of the forces of the nobility and the bourgeoisie, which the church of the internal accumulation and external expansion was equally seized. This period was characterized by the development of humanism fiction. From the first timid steps, which were made by Whire and Cirere, the literature moves to the full master of the ownership of all poetic forms. The flowering of poetry is marked with the names of Sydney, Spencer and Shakespeare (as the author of the sonnets, "Venus and Adonis" and "Lucretia"). Prose prose narrative literature and novel, represented by Sydney, Lily, Nash, Lodge, Green, and others. But the most brilliant heyday at that time reaches drama. In the middle of the century, Geyvood created primitive interludes, Bishop Beil wrote "King John", more like morality than a historical drama, and at the end of the century already "Tamerlan" and "Faust" Marlo, "Venetian merchant", Romeo and Juliet "," Heinrich IV "," Julius Caesar "and other works of the first period of creativity" Shakespeare. This is the most optimistic period in the development of English humanism, the period marked by the steady literature literature in connection with the general national lift. It is at that time gets the most The full expression of humanistic cheerfulness, the illusion about the approach of the golden century of universal well-being.
The beginning of the new XVII century. It is the beginning of the third and last phase in the development of the English Renaissance. For us it does not matter whether we will definitely denote the beginning of this stage by the death of Spencer (1599), the conspiracy of Essex (1601) or finally the death of Queen Elizabeth (1603). In any case, in the last years of the reign of Elizabeth and in the first years of the reign of Yakov I sharply marked new features of public life, which were primarily in violation of that relative political equilibrium, which took place earlier. Union broke up between the bourgeoisie and the absolute monarchy, which is now turning into a barrier for the further development of the bourgeoisie. Along with the growth of political antagonism between the bourgeoisie and the monarchy, social contradictions between the exploators and the exploited are stronger. So far, the last, however, do not oppose their interests to the interests of the bourgeoisie, did not realize themselves as a class and support the struggle of the bourgeoisie against the monarchy - one of the last remnants of feudalism. The aggravation of class contradictions with all force affects the literature. The most striking manifestation of this is the work of Shakespeare during the creation of the great tragedies. At the beginning of the XVII century. Under the influence of the growing social and political reaction, the humanism of the Renaissance enters into a strip of the crisis, which is different in the work of individual writers in different ways. In general, the most significant manifestation of the crisis is a decay of dramatic art developing with the death of Shakespeare. The third stage of the English Renaissance is simultaneously and in anticipation of the bourgeois revolution, which was accomplished in England in the 40s. XVII century In a sense, all British revival was the prologue of the bourgeois revolution of the XVII century. In England, there were strongly, compared to other countries, the bourgeois elements are developed, and this affected the availability of real prerequisites for the victorious bourgeois revolution. British humanists stood not only in the face of the fiery feudal society. They were eyewitnesses more-solid statements of the bourgeoisie in socio-economic life. The new enemy appeared before the humanists - a society built on capitalist private property and operation. Humanists performed not only against the old feudal system, but also against the social injustice of the bourgeois system. Thomas Mor created utopia about the perfect communist society, which he opposed the bourgeois social relationship to the bourgeois. In the "Venetian merchant" and especially in Timon Athens, Shakespeare made a sharp criticism of the bourgeoisie and corrupting the role of money in human life. Watching the reaction trends of the monarchy Elizabeth and Yakov I, delivering in the ability of the monarchy to destroy the scinting public contradictions and approve social justice, Shakespeare at the most mature stage of his creativity began to opposition to the absolute monarchy. It was the most progressive political position at the beginning of the XVII century. And in the middle of the XVII century, there was a direct struggle for the overthrow of the monarchy, and it was her who heir was taken by the heir of the Humanism of Renaissance, the poet and revolutionary Milton. The creativity and ideas of Thomas Mora, Shakespeare, Beckon and Milton, determined the main line of development of English humanism in the XVI-XVII centuries. The ideological wealth of the Revival literature corresponded to its artistic manifold. Anchoring before antiquity was reflected in attempts to approve the classical forms borrowed from Writers of Greece and Rome. In poetry, this tendency received an expression in the activities of Sydney and the "Areopag" circle created by him, which undertook to produce the reform of the reform of the vehicle, introduce an antique metric and unimpentable verse. The expression of these classical aspirations in criticism was "Protection of Poetry" Sydney. In drama, elements of classicism were revived by the scientist of a university drama. Ben Johnson made as the most consistent representative of this flow among playwrights. Nevertheless, the classic tastes did not receive the prevalence in the literature. The main line of development of the literature was the continuation of the traditions of the previous time enriched by the culture of humanism. Humanists performed as followers of the folk and national traditions of English literature. In the literature of aristocratic humanism (Wyeth, Serrey, Sydney, Spencer, etc.), they receive their further development of the tradition of the court poetry of the Middle Ages. It is not by chance that the greatest poem of the English Renaissance - "Queen Fay" Spencer - was a knightly poem. Knight's valor and courteous ideals persisted in this poetry, but received a new humanistic understanding. The new genre was pastoral, the model of which is "Arkady" Sydney. On the other hand, we find in the era of reviving the continuation of the traditions of the city's literature of the Middle Ages. These traditions manifest themselves in poetry at Sselton, in the narrative prose their expression was the Plutovsky genre and a kind of "production" novel created by Delonem. Finally, in dramaturgy, you can note a whole group of writers of the Burgers direction. The Decker belongs to it, Thomas Gaywood and an unknown author of Ardena from Feven. There were some other playwrights to these trends, such as Milton. Even Ben Johnson with all his classic aspirations promoted the development of the bourgeois comedy of the morals (or the comedy of bourgeois morals). There was also a pastoral jet in Drama, which went from Lily and obtained further development in the "masks" of Ben Johnson and pastoral comedies of Beaumont and Fletcher. The famous genres of the People's Theater were bloody tragedies, play-chronicles and farce comedies. The most universal creativity of Shakespeare was at the same time the most diverse on its artistic features. His playwright was the highest synthesis of all genre trends of literature, this era. We find His aristocratic pastoral and burgher farce, a bloody tragedy and a comedy of bourgeois morals, a play-chronicle and a romantic trance, but all these genres appear he enriched and elevated due to their humanistic content. Characteristic features of revival literature - titanism, versatility, ideological saturation, appeal to the indigenous interests of human life. The highest achievement of this literature was the work of Shakespeare, who created the works of enormous realistic strength and deepest humanistic ideas that embody all the shades of romantic realism and realistic romance. The most important feature of the great works of humanistic literature of this era is a nationality. She was the result of the overall national lift of England at the time of the struggle for the state unity and the political independence of the native country. The creativity of writers who combined a comprehensive realism, humanity and inexhaustible wealth of ideas are imbued with nationality. All these features, deeply characteristic of revival, found their highest incarnation in the works of Thomas Mora, Shakespeare and Bacon, these Giants of the English Renaissance.
Pleiadi activities
In the middle of the XVI century, this literary circle was formed, the purpose of the activity of which was the revival of the native language and the creation of a rich, decent poetry on it. In different years, the group's composition changed: here there were Lirik Remy Bello, and a poet-playwright Etienne Zhodel, and a musician, poet and theoretics of verse Jean Antoine de Baif, and the poet-neopotonik Pontyus de Gilear, and the lyrics of Jans Pelette, Guillaume Deesotel, Olivier De Magi, Jean Tayuro, Jacques Greven, Jean Passer, Amadis Zheman and many others. But, of course, the main, the most famous of the participants of Pleiades - Ronsar and Du Belly.
Friendship of Ronsar and Du Belle began with the first meeting of their meeting in Poitiers (where the young du Belly went to study the right) and lasted all their lives. In 1547, Du Belly throws jurisprudence, she moved to Paris, enters the college Cock, where Ronsar is studying. They studied together, together were fond of Italian poetry, together wrote poems (I personally personally resemble the lyceums of Pushkin pores. It was not just friendship, but friendship-rivalry, friendship contest.
Getting acquainted with Italian literature, with works of Petrarki, Boccaccio, Dante, Ariosto, young people climbed the desire to make their own French language as rich and perfect. And so, while while studying in College Cock, Ronsar, Du Belly and Baif united and called their little circle "Brigade". They wrote poems, trying to imitate gods, Pindara and sonnets Petrarch. A few years later (apparently, when the members of the circle became more) Ronsar decided to rename society from the Brigade in Pleiad. (It lies the historical parallel with the Alexandria School of Poets III century BC, which once also told the scholarship and elevation of poetry).
"The authors of" Pleiada "set and allowed the creation of the National Poetic School. From the first steps, the activities of "Pleiads" differs in general concern about all French literature in the name of the elevation and fame of France: it protects the native language, without condemning when Tom Latin, it raises language to the level of art, proclaiming the highest form of its existence "(rapid) .
Paphos "Pleiada" in relation to the native language and his artistic value found an expression in the manifesto, the main compiler of which he became Du Belly - "Protection and the glorification of French" (1549).
As the name of the manifesto, the Pleiad members wanted:
- Protect the French language "from his units" (that is, from theoretical scientists who recognized only Latin as an official written language and who considered French, the folk, vulgar, not right, slim, beautiful),
- Waving to raise your native language and give him great literature, imitating ancient (just as the Italians entered).
Since the French language was considered poor, insufficiently expressive, Du Belly and Ronsar offered to enrich it, or giving new values \u200b\u200bto existing words, or borrowing Provencal / Gasconian / other dialectisms, or adopter and adapting to the features of the French speech Latin / Greek words.
Enrich the style of the poets were collected by speech revolutions, rhetorical figures, such as metaphors, allegories, numerous comparisons, periprases, etc.
"To the practical achievement of the ideal expression of national literature, according to the theory of du Belly, it was necessary to follow the imitation of not the letter, but the spirit of antiquity. The theorists "Pleiada", addressing the creativity of Horace, called for not hurrying to promulgate the works, but without tired to grind their style. However, no scholarship and hard work will save if the poet will not be inspired by muses, and the poetic theory is built in accordance with the teachings of Plato, which claims that poets are expressed by the divine inspiration descending on them "(collapse).
According to the members of Pleiad, the great poet was impossible to become not only without inspiration and the "divine spark" of the talent, but also without diligent work, without a constant search, without work on themselves and their works. The poet must be a scientist educated; It should be understood that poetry is his craft, and treat him with the same care, with which any good artisan refers to the fulfillment of its work.
Poets "Pleiada" were opposed to direct, idle translation from Greek or Latin. They believed that it was necessary to very skillfully imitate the author's ideas, as if to feel in his place. Plemants believed that, imitating ancient, the poet reveals his own abilities and thus would know the depth of his own talent. In addition, constantly reading the works of ancient authors, the poet was to "feed" (literal term, an end to the manifest), absorbing the features characteristic of exemplary ancient poetry.
(NB: Despite the pronounced dislike of Du Bellyov, the negotiable to translation, we have a considerable number of the most sore and very accurate translations From Latin and Greek, performed by "Plema").
Poets of Pleiads were not limited to the consequences of antique samples. As soon as at the beginning of the 50s of the XVI century, after the light saw "protection and glorification ..." and the first collection of du Belly "Oliva", the fashion began among the poets to imitate antique style, re-open Pleiad. In 1553-55, the collections of pants, "Grove" and "mixture", written by Ronsar appeared alternately. The poet himself described the style of these works as "low." In the "shadows" Ronsar addresses the selfartion, the cultivation of the cult of Homer and Petrarch, and gives the "cheerful Gallian spirit", a friend from the work of Rabl. One of Ronsar's colleagues in Pleiad, Olivier de Magni, called this essay by the "book of scientists of pants".
Naturally, after such a sudden creative experiment, the morality, the well-minded public collapsed on Ronsar, accusing him in disrespect for morality. But this experience of "democratization" was important because he was the beginning of her path to harmonious style - "neither high, nor too low," according to Ronsar himself. Thus, the provisions of Manifestu Du Belly have undergone creative development and rethinking, and the poets themselves have passed the way from an enthusiastic youth imitation of ancient to equilibrium between the sublime solemnity and the "folk" style.
Ronsar.
Pierre de Ronsar was born in 1524 in the castle of Sadonia; He came from a noble family. He spent his childhood in his native estate, in nature, and in these bright memories later had inspiration. He was preparing for the career of the diplomat, but the deafness was overtaken in his youth forced the future poet to abandon these ambitions. Half hearing hearing, separated from the world with her ailment, Ronsar decided to devote himself to serving the muses, and as he studied antique and Italian literature, the idea was ripe in his head to raise his native French, breathing in him a new life and lifting One level with an Italian poetic language.
In the period of early creativity, Ronsar wanted to compete with Clemander Maro, and therefore he began for the translation of the "Epicurean OD" Horace. The poet became interested in antique literature. Having learned in College Cock, he paid special attention to the ancient Greek poets. A year later, the possession of the Manifesta of Pleiades, "Protection and Planning French," 4 first books of OD (1550) were published. Two years later, the light saw the sonnets written in the spirit of Petrorski - "Love for Cassandra" (in the same year the last, 5th book of OD). Collections "Grove" and "mixture" (respectively 1554 and 1555) are filled with a free "Gallic" spirit, a familiar reader from Francois Rabl. Such a sudden return to simplicity, even in something to the simplification (Ronsar himself called the style of collections of these years "Low") testified to the creative growth of the poet. It is in the period from 50 to 58gg, it is becoming increasingly popular. Heinrich II hires him to his service, and in connection with this, Ronsar begins to write also so-called "poems in case" ("Poésies de Circonstance"). When a religious conflict is sharpened in the country, the poet writes pamphlets, first moderately sharp, but becoming more and more violent. After the death of Karl IX, Ronsar loses the status of the first court poet: Heinrich III prefers to him another Creator, and Ronsar, already an elderly and sick, writes "Sonnets to Elena" (1578). He is not tired to work on reprinting his poetic herient. His last sonnets are a completely different poetry: it sounds notes of tragedy and grief.
Ronsar died in December 1585. Magnificent funerals passed in Paris: Many people were forgated with the famous poet.
The first 4 books of OD were published in 1550. For them in 1552 5 book followed. The purpose of their creation was the restoration of antique bravery. When writing Od Ronsar, I first sought to imitate Horace (at the earliest stages of creativity), but after switching to Pyndara and Anacreonta. In the second book, one, for example, he turns to the Creek Belleri (imitating Horace), and this one cannot be called simple imitation simply because there are personal experiences associated with the young youth (Belleri - the name of the stream that took place near the house of Ronsar) . From the fourth book of one, you can bring as an example "to choose your tomb," where the love of Ronsar was again expressed to his "small homeland" (the poet describes that he wants to be buried where he was born). In Oda, "For now, two years old, not returning to the Wandoma", the topic is not characteristic of antiquity - the melancholic thinking of a person who understands that time flies, and his life passes ("Rocks, you are not visible a trail / three thousand fucking years / ... / but youth away my runs, / and old age I am in a hurry ... ")
"Love for Cassandra", the collection dedicated to the first sweetheart was published in 1552. Cassandra was a married lady, but it did not prevent Ronsar to dream of her and dedicate to her poems. Their meeting occurred in 1545, and Ronsar Drezil Cassandra all the time he studied in Cock College. Sonnets dedicated to Cassandra are impregnated with the spirit of Petrarkism, performed by mythological allusions and comparisons. In these sonnets, honing their shape, Ronsar introduces the alternation of the female and male rhyme and gives the verse "regular" form of expression - a classic French sonnet is created. ("MIGNONNE, ALLONS VOIR SI LA ROSE ..." - CARPE DIEM theme).
"Love for Mary", the next collection of love sonnets, was written in 1555-56 and is distinguished by the simplicity and elegant clarity of lyrism; Feelings of their poet already expressing more sincerely, not throwing poems by the framework of Petrorsion. Maria was a girl of more than-known descent, and simplicity of poems dedicated to her Ronsar reflects her image: deprived of excessive "darkness", "wisdom" style. Much later, already at the end of the 70s, Ronsar writes Sonnet "On the death of Mary" (undoubtedly, it is necessary to carry out an analogy with Sonnet Petrarchka to the death of the lasi). Comparing the beloved with a rose, the poet makes it very simple and at the same time stunningly harmoniously, completely. "Rose Early, Flower fragrant May", "Grace Live" - \u200b\u200bEverything breathes simplicity and naturalness (the last passage is particularly touching - "And I am in a longing, in tears for the mortal ADRD brought / in a jug - milk, in a basket - Fresh roses, / So that Rosy is alive, you bloom from the coffin ").
1578 - a year of the appearance of the collection "Sonnet to Elena". Love, mature, gentle and discreet, found their incarnation here. Such a "autumn" feeling of elderly Ronsar melancholy and touching. In one of the sonnets, he refers to Elena, drawing her a picture of her old age (atypically!), In which she will remember how once he, Ronsar, dedicated her poems (Sonnet is not deprived of self-examination): "... You will be a bent / sorry. What I loved that Gord was your refusal ... / Live, believe me, catch every hour, / roses of life immediately tear the color instant. " In the same collection, by the way, there is a sonot-farewell with the same beloved ("Cassandra and Marie, it's time to part with you! .."), which is a confirmation of how the attitude of the poets to love has changed, to the beloved and the fate of the feeling. Ronsar does not cause shades of shame the fact that he cooled to the old lover and now rushes his feelings for Elena: this is life, and love comes and leaves, and then comes again, and there is no crime, no betrayal, nor sin .
The late poems of Ronsar, written already in the period of the deathly, last disease, were published in 1586 and were called - "the latest poems Pierre Ronsar". In them, the poet with bitter removal and realism analyzes their suffering, its state, the coming old age. "I am dried to the bones ... / I am worried about myself, as a leaving from hell. / ... Poetry Lgala! ../ .. sick flesh slave, / I go to the terrible world of universal decay."
The work of Ronsar has great inner unity. The overall feature of him is a bright, epicorean perception of life. Life is represented by Ronsar in the form of a luxurious garden, full of beautiful colors and fruits. Ronsar is one of the greatest singers of love. Love is always material, but at the same time gentle and spiritualized, like the image of the beloved woman. Nature for Ronsar is a source of life and a great mentor. It is full of sensual charms, lightweight.
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English revival
The culture of Renaissance with its ideological basis - philosophy and aesthetics of humanism - arises primarily on Italian soil. It is not surprising that the influence of Italy can be seen from all English Writers of the Renaissance. But much more noticeable than the influence of the Italian sample, the original nature of the English culture of this time. The tragic fate of the free peasantry in the era of the initial accumulation, the fast breaking of medieval orders under the onslaught of the force of money, the development of the national state with its contradictions - all this gives public issues in England a special sharpness. The wide folk background of the English Renaissance is its main advantage, the source of such achievements of the XVI century, like "Utopia" Thomas Mora and Shakespeare Theater.
English Humanism
Early English revival refers to the XIV century; His most prominent representatives were Jeffrey Choseer and William Lengland. Feudal interfers of the XV century. For a long time they detained the development of English humanism. In the literary life of the war, theological writings and epigonian knightly novels prevail in the literary life of the war of war. A relatively high level reaches only oral folk poetry. At the beginning of the XVI century, humanistic literature revives again. The sector of new humanistic ideas was Oxford University. True, these ideas often had the theological shell; In this regard, England looked in Germany. It is characteristic that Erasmus Rotterdamsky, a recognized authority of German humanists, finds a grateful audience in Oxford University and faithful friends. British humanists Grosin (1446--1519), Linecra (1460--1524) and John Kolts (1467--1519), traveled to Italy, are fond of mainly philological surveys, without showing interest in naturophilosophical and aesthetic issues. They use their philological science most often to study the issues of religion and morality. So, John Cole reads lectures on the messages of the Apostle Paul. However, the true value of the river activity lies in the fact that he was a hot defender of the humanistic education system, spoke out against corporal punishment at school, fought against scholasticism. Thanks to the roller, the secular, so-called grammatical, schools arose in England. But the main figure among Oxford Humanists was Thomas Mor.
"Utopia" Thomas Mora
Heinrich Chancellor VIII Thomas Mi (1478--1535) watched the beginning of a deep change in the position of the working classes of England classes, the picture of the folk disasters caused primarily by the system of enholes. In his novel, the treatise "Golden Book, as useful as funny, about the best device of the state and about the new island of Utopia" (Latin text - 1516, the first English translation - 1551), the world in a merciless sharp light Pictures England XVI century. With the tunes of its top classes and bloody legislation against expropriated, England, where "Sheep eat people." From his description of the English reality, Mor did conclusion: "Where only there is private property, where everything is measured for money, there is hardly the right and successful course of public affairs." On behalf of the fictional traveler Rafail Gitlodea, Mor talks about the lucky country on the distant island of Utopia (in Greek - "non-existent place"). There is no private property in this country. All the inhabitants of the island work, engaged in craft, and alternately - and agriculture. Thanks to the work of all members of society, there is an abundance of products that are distributed according to needs. Education based on the combination of theoretical learning with labor, accessible to all residents of utopia. The society leads elected no more than a year by citizens (with the exception of the prince, whose title remains life, if there is no suspicion that he is striving for one-owned). Cases that are important are solved in the People's Assembly. His contempt for the money Utopian is expressed by the fact that in their state the gold serves only for the manufacture of chains for criminals and for night pots. Presentation of Thomas Mora about communism carries an imprint of the conditions of medieval life. Without imaging the craft organization, in the form of an idealized medieval family and craft system, the entire management system connects with patriarchal-parent authority. In his ideal state, where the full social and political equality of all citizens dominates, he retains the element of slavery (slaves are in utopias in punishment for a committed crime, slaves fulfill heavy, coarse work). The man of his time, Thomas Mor did not know and could not even know the real ways to eliminate an unfair public building based on private property. But the genius of his main idea is quite pronounced in principle compulsory for all work, in anticipation of the destruction of the opposite between the city and the village, between mental and physical labor, in the denial of human exploitation by a person. Mora's book was a live response to the process of developing capitalist relations in England and expressed the deepest aspirations of the English masses. The communist ideal of Mora was as if a fantastic anticipation of the future. In the Middle Ages, the criticism of private property was usually advocated in religious purposes. Mor cleared this criticism from its mystical shell and tied it with political, economic, moral and philosophical issues. Heinrich VIII attracted Thomas Mora to state activities. For some time it could seem that such ideas of Mora, as the establishment of peaceful relations between states, reducing government spending, etc., affect the courtyard policy. Nevertheless, the difference in the goals inevitably should have led to a sharp conflict between the king and his chancellor. Mor spoke with a decisive opponent of the English Reformation. At the request of King, the Lord Chancellor was convicted. Obedient judges sentenced the former Lord Chancellor to the terrible execution, which "gracious" Henry VIII replaced the cut-off of the head. Hence the legend about Thomas Sea as a Catholic martyr. In fact, he was a supporter of complete guidance. In his utopian state, everyone believes what he wants, and no religious persecution is allowed. Even atheists can express their views in a circle of educated individuals, they are not allowed only to public agitation against religion.
Late Humanism
In the future, the influence of humanism continued to grow. The reformation, produced from the top of the Tudor, destroyed the monasteries and undermined the system of scholastic education. Following Oxford, the University of Cambridge also opened his doors to new ideas. The second half of the XVI century (the so-called Age of Elizabeth) is the heyday of humanistic enlightenment. Equally a large number of translations into English of various authors of the ancient and new world, from Homer to Ariosto. The Italian narrative literature - Novella Bokcchcho, Bandelle, descriptions of geographical discoveries, books of historical character uses in this epoch. In the second half of the century, secular culture is finally approved. At the same time, church disputes of the XVI century. gave rise to huge theological literature. Following the official reformation, a new wave of religious fanaticism is rising - Movement of Puritan, hostile to the cheerful, secular spirit of the Renaissance, Humanistic literature, art, poetry.
Art
The age of rebirth in England, as in other countries, is marked by the bloom of art and literature. The overall nature of the English art of this time is national and realistic. In his best samples, the historical experience of the people enriched with the Great Breaking of Medieval Organs, the mass movements of the XIV - XVI centuries, the participation of England in world trade and world politics, the development of agriculture, crafts, manufactory. Not all kinds and types of art bloom in the same extent on the basis of the English Renaissance. In the architecture of the XVI century. The so-called Tudor style represents no more than the first step to liberation from medieval gothic. Its elements are preserved up to the largest architecture - Ainigo Jones (1573--1651), speaking at sunset of this era (his architectural activity began from 1604). The best work of Ainigo Jones is the project of the Royal Whitehall Palace, which is implemented only in a small part (Pavilion Bankenet Hauz), connects the style of a high Renaissance with architectural forms having their national roots in England. As for painting, then in the XV - XVI centuries. Many Flemish and French masters arrive in England. At the court of Heinrich VIII, he worked a brilliant German painter Hans Golbien Jr., whose followers were the British Smith, Brown, Bossem, Miniaturists Brothers Oliver and Hillard. Genres of fine art in England are limited to almost exclusively portrait. There is no National School of Painting, which could be put next to the Italian or German art of the Renaissance. Great were achievements in English music: the implicitable intimacy of expression and subtle grace, it became famous for its chamber madrigals and church choirs.
Poetry and artistic prose
Theater and drama
The art of the Renaissance of the Renaissance, the most fully embodied the public climbing the era of the Renaissance. Theater in England was like a destination destination. This is a kind of democratic "parliament" of the XVI century. Among the theater viewers were peasants who came to the market, sailors, ship and cable masters from the London port, weaver, wools, mechanics. The theater and gentlemen, officials, merchants were visited (sometimes, hiding her face under the mask, the Queen Bass itself - Elizabeth). But most of all the playwright had to be reckoned with a simple people, vividly responding to the game actors with noisy approval, then the cries of indignation. And this audience made it not only in poor educated wristpers - half-semi-semi-vertors, but also writers such as Christopher Marlo and Ben Johnson, who belonged to the so-called university minds. Since the time of the ancient theater, there was still no such organic connection between the play (which was not considered an independent literary product) and the play between the play and the viewer perceiving it. In a short time, starting from the 70s, a significant number of public and private theaters appear in London ("Swan", "Globus", "Red Bull", etc.). The difference between them was the distribution of income: the first belonged to the shareholders of the acting collective, the second - the private owners who were in solving the city authorities on the very outskirts of London, on the southern shore of the Thames, the theater was a kind of a huge barn-well, without roof and elementary comfort. Presentations were given to the day, so artificial lighting did not exist. The capacity of the auditorium in the so-called public theaters was significant - from 1500 to 1800 people. Three tiers of lies went around the "parquet" - more expensive places for the wealthy public. Around 1596, a custom appeared to plant noble visitors on the sides of the scenic platform. This site, the famous "Shakespeare Scene", was a simple lifting, raised above the parquet level. In some theaters, for example, "Swan", he was given a chance in the auditorium. The scene shared on the front and rear; In turn, the rear scene shared on the bottom and upper. Different parts of the scene had different purposes: Advancemen depicted any open place: field, area in front of the castle, city street, hall in the palace, etc.; The back of the scene, warmed off the curtains, indicated the closed room: room, celle, crypt; The upper part of the rear scene indicated any place, raised above the level of soil, including the bedroom, which was arranged in English homes in the second floor (hence the scene at the balcony in Romeo and Juliet). Finally, the actors in some cases could also use the top scene when it was necessary to portray the city wall, sent to the fortress tower or on the mast. The curtain was not, so primitive butafory was put in front of the audience: two artificial trees indicated that the action takes place in the forest, the gray four-triggers with a black cross indicated windows and, therefore, the action occurring in the house. Everything was complemented by the fantasy of the audience, and the playwright had to help them, building a dialogue so that they could find out the place and time of action from the very beginning. The poet had to also take into account that the spectator would not be accustomed to the conventions of the theater, if the heroes killed and died in their eyes will rise after the end of the performance and go away from the scene. In such cases, it was necessary to appear a person who was not related to the progress of the action, but the order to carry the dead (such, for example, Fortinbras in the "Gamlet"). In the English theater of this time, women's roles were performed by men. All this shows that by no means the complexity and wealth of the stage decoration attracted the public. She walked into the theater in order to hear a living word, as the dramaturgy put the urgent questions of modernity. In the presence of legendary or historical characters, the viewer saw the types taken from the life itself, and in the conflicts created by the fantasy, conflicts standing in order. Mysteries, Miracle, Moral Moralite of the Medieval Theater of the XIV - XV centuries. Gradually, displaced drama with exclusively secular, earthly content. At the same time, the British theater had to defend its right to exist both against the strict censorship of the state, the body of which was the reformed church and against the misfortune of pious Puritians, who, condemning the idleness and entertainment, rejected together with them and the spectacle. Many pamphlets were directed against this "sinful fun." In 1583, the court poet Sir Philippe Sydney wrote his famous "protection of poetry". Yakov I himself in the "book about folk envelope" protects games and dances from the curse of Puritan. The era not only in English, but also in world culture, national drama turned out to be immeasurably higher "Scientific Drama" in Latin on the samples of Float and Seneki, and the competition between the court theater, who approved predominantly allegorical play-masquerarads, and theater of London Okrain was crowned with full celebration The latter. A characteristic feature of the People's Theater was an abundance in his production of historical plays about the past of England and dramatic works on the plots from the life of the alien peoples, with whom the British came across the world arena. Spaniards - Catholic opponents and trade competitors of the British, the French are their recent enemies, the Netherlands Protestants, the Germans, the Italians are often found in the English plays of the Renaissance, forming a truly poetic world, not conceivable in an ancient Greek theater, where the hero of the drama should have been mainly Hellene. Unlike those Humanists who strictly adhered to the cult of antiquity, the authors of the Pieces for the People's Theater show lively attention to the Middle Ages - this still did not burn the era when the British National State was created. "King John" D. Balla (1495--1563), "Yakov IV" and "Vec Film Field Watchman" Robert Green (1560--1592), "Eduard II" Christopher Marlo (1564--1593) - Pieces, imbued The spirit of optimism and national pride, the first experiments of a truly historical drama in England. Along with this, household comedies are improved ("Igelka Kumushki Geron" J. Stylla, "Ralph Roister Doyster" N. Yudolla). There is a tragedy of human characters and passions; The best play of this type was the "Spanish tragedy" of Thomas Kida (1558--1594), despite the fact that the frantic passions of her heroes are often implausible. More considerable works of Marlo (Tamerlan Great, "Dr. Faust". "Maltese Jew"). Garlo heroes, eager for unlimited freedom, always enter the titanic duel with a religious or estate morality of a medieval society, and, although they suffer defeat, the struggle of them is the bold challenge to the whole old way of life, all the exhaust traditions of the feudal world. The mutual relationship of historical chronicles, heroic drams and domestic pieces has been beneficial for all dramatic genres. Historical events and personal conflict, high and low, tragic and funny are combined on the stage of the theater, just as they have connected in the lives of this controversial era.
William Shakespeare
So gradually there were conditions that made the emergence of the greatest English writer of the XVI century. William Shakespeare (1564--1616). Shakespeare's biographical information is unusually scarce. It is known that he was born in Stratford (on the r. Avon) in the family of the citizen and studied at the "Grammar School". In 1585, Shakespeare came to London to look for good luck. He was an actor in the Lord Admiral troupe, then in the Lord Chargera troupe - an actor and shareholder. Given the plays of other authors, Shakespeare soon began to create his own staging of Novel and Chronicle for the Globus Theater. The activities of Shakespeare-playwater lasted from 1590 to 1612, Shakespeare was the son of the people, similar to those unless masters who created cathedrals and town halls in the Middle Ages. In his 154 sonnets, the details of personal life are rarely overlooked, and in 37 plays, no character takes the role of the immediate horn of his thoughts and sentiment. All of them say how they had to speak in such circumstances, people of their situation and character. The point of view of the author, the viewer can find out only from the very fiel development. All the drama genres used by Shakespeare also testify to its loyalty to the traditions of the English People's Theater and the achievements of their predecessors of the playwrights: he is a successor of Green and Marlo, in the problem-heroic tragedy - Kida and Marlo, in the grinding merry comedies - Green , Lodge and Haywood. Shakespeare does not apply to neglect of the techniques of the bolaned interludes with their jesters that violate all the rules of decency and taste. It only imperceptibly makes an artistic measure to the usual techniques of the English scene and fills his work with deep philosophical and ethical problems most important for his era. Shakespeare retains such features inherent in folk poetry, as a neglect of the external truth, the grandios of artistic images, a combination of tragics with a community. To affect the problems of modernity, he refers to a familiar historical legend, to the famous story of the novel. He does not invent Fabul, does not build intricate intrigue, which is replete, for example, the Spanish theater of this time or later English drama. The viewer of the Globe, as it was in an ancient Greek theater, knows the characters in advance, the course of action and the junction of Shakespeare's plays; The interest of the playwright is aimed at covering the topic, generalize ideas, the dynamics of individualized and truly vital characters. In historical dramas (Heinrich VI, Richard III, Richard II, King John, Heinrich IV, Heinrich V) Shakespeare seeks to capture not only the events of the past, but also the attitude towards them, assessing them from the wide masses of the English people. With a huge power of fantasy and amazing insight, which should not be found at Hall and Golinsheda (Shakespeare enjoyed their historical chronicles), he creates a grandiose picture of the development of medieval England, starting with King John (John) of the landless to the first Tudor - Heinrich VII. Shakespeare drama is distinguished by the figurative embodiment of the "historical atmosphere", a deep analysis of the political struggle. The influence of the people on the course of events or its attitude to these events always perform in the plays of Shakespeare with sufficient clarity. True, Shakespeare does not complain the rebellious crowd, the faded diplomas that kill the know and certified officials. He does not doubt the privileges of the nobility and prefers the monarchy to the Republic. But, despite its monarchical illusions, Shakespeare remains a deep realist. If in his dramatic works in the foreground representatives of the highest classes, then they always feel a wide social background, filled with heterogeneous elements, from the dropped knights to the peasants, from the "proud Shakespearean Yomen", according to Marx, to master, servants and soldiers. The Spirit of Squading to Monarchum and Aristocracy is absent from Shakespeare. He does not spare neither the title nor the high rank of his heroes. Drawing the rise of the national state, he encourages the power of people with the historical need that lays his way through the struggle of interests, mistakes and crimes of individuals. "Chronicles" Shakespeare reflect the history of the English people. In terms of the historical drama, some addition to the national "chronicles" is a group of plays from the history of ancient Rome ("Julius Caesar", "Coriolian", "Anthony and Cleopatra"), which in their nature adjoin the tragedies of the second period of Shakespeare's creativity (1601-- 1608). If the "chronicles" shows the feudal patterns and the struggle against the kings - yesterday of English history, the antagonism of the plebeian and aristocracy, the clash of republican and monarchical trends, is revealed in Roman tragedies, the collision of republican and monarchical trends, that is, the living problems of the XVI century are interpreted. Having captured the remote similarity between the modern England and Ancient Rome, Shakespeare does not seek to modernize the past. On the contrary, he retains a clear contour of Roman life. In the characteristics of state and military leaders, Patricziyev and Plebeev Shakespeare in many ways of the Plutarch itself, whom he draws his plots. Even the presence of such naive anachronism, like a tower clock, guns, suits of London substrursions in separate scenes, in no extent deprived of the Pieces of Shakespeare Pure Roman Colorite. That is why they are not at all similar to conditional dramas with the antique plots of Ben Johnson, Chapman, etc. and even less - to the Roman tragedies of Cornel, Racina and Voltaire. The poetic historicism of Shakespeare was appreciated and understood only in the XVIII - XIX centuries. Throwing the medieval mystical point of view on the course of history, Shakespeare does not inclined to exaggerated assessment of the personality, so characteristic of the historical literature of the Renaissance, the priority of the right and wisdom of the people before the mind, will, the fate of a separate person, no matter how large its importance in society is the basis Any Shakespeare Drama. In the works of the Great English Poet found a versatile expression of his humanistic ideal. In the early tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, in the comedies "a lot of noise from nothing", "Sleeping in the Summer Night", "Venetian merchant" dominates a sense of confidence in the close victory of man over dark forces. Later, in the drams of the beginning of the XVII B, the atmosphere of the tragism is sharply deepened - the reflection of the growing contradictions of public reality. In his greatest tragedies ("Hamlet", "Othello", "King Lear", "Timon Athens") Shakespeare reveals a deep abyss between the hopes of people of revival and reality. The decomposing force of money, the fall in the moral level of personality under the influence of the free game of private interests is one of the main topics of Shakespeare. The struggle of the feudal world order with the new world of monetary relations, he draws as an irreconcilable conflict, where on the side of the new material, but not always moral advantages. Conscious of this historical collision, Shakespeare is not looking for a compromise, like many humanists and court poets of the XVI century. Only in England, where the process of decomposition of feudal relations was most violently, the Shakespeare tragedy could appear, built on a truly popular basis. At the end of the era of the Renaissance of Humanists's hope was subjected to a serious test. Civilization, published from the depths of a medieval society, was fraught with deep internal conflicts. The great core and psychologist Shakespeare found the key to the spiritual world of a man standing on the verge of two epochs - Middle Ages and capitalism. He showed how the noblest nature become a victim of coarse, cruel forces born by the contradictory development of society. And yet, from the point of view of Shakespeare, this development, with all his hostile man forms, is necessary and justified. The stories of Lira, Hamlet, Othello, despite their sad end, strengthen the faith in the final celebration of man.
English drama after Shakespeare
From the contemporaries and following Shakespeare of playwrights in the first place is Ben Johnson (about 1573--1637). The supporter of the imitation of antique samples, he created a "scientist", "right" tragedy ("the fall of sown", "conspiracy of the cylinder"), close to the humanistic historiography of his time, is much more pronounced by the spirit of the national English revival in the household comedies of Ben Johnson ("everyone in his Melt "," Wolpon "," Varfolomeyevskaya Fair "). In these comedies there is a moralizing trend. The last stage of Elizabethan drama is represented by John Fletcher's names, John Turner, John Webster and Messinger. Keeping some progressive features, these playwrights are already expressive to the deep inner crisis of the culture of Renaissance. They show excessive interest in the idea of \u200b\u200bthe fatal dooms of a person freed from all sorts of moral norms. From a political point of view, the late English drama carries an imprint of a feudal reaction. The beginning of the decline of dramatic poetry in England serves as evidenced by the rebirth of humanism and the gradual separation of the theater from the requests of the popular viewer.
Philosophy of the Renaissance
revival Shakespeare Art Philosophy
At the end of the Renaissance era in England, as in other European countries, the philosophical thought awakens. It is not by chance that one of the first big figures of the new philosophy was the Englishman - Francis Bacon (1561--1626). Growing in England - the country of the most advanced trade and industry. Bacon became the founder of the materialistic theory of scientific knowledge built on the observation and experiment. In his teaching, humanism and natural philosophy of the Renaissance take a new form facing practice. The purpose of Beckon is the achievement of REGNUM HOMINIS ("Kingdom of Man") on Earth, the fight against nature, which people will be able to conquer if they obey its laws in order to direct their action in the right direction. The means to achieve this goal is the limitless development of science, primarily physics. Written a hundred years after the "Utopia" of Thomas Mora "New Atlantis" Bacon also draws the perfect kingdom of the future. But the difference between two utopians is very large. Mor protects the interests of the people and with distrust relates to the development of capitalism, which in his era did his first steps. Bacon means raising national wealth and strengthening English statehood. He draws a grand prospect of conquering man of nature, but its utopian state retains money, private property, class inequality. Only an abundance of technology and almost fabulous conditions for the development of science make life in the "New Atlantis" beautiful. Bacone utopia is not related to socialism. Nevertheless, this work is wonderful. It reflects the best side of the bourgeois civilization - its ability to develop productive forces on such a scale that are unknown by the former public formations. Bacon belonged to the noble clan, elevated with Tyudorah. Yakov I rendered him a patronage and made him his Lord-Chancellor. In 1621, the parliament began the fight against the courtyard's monetary abuse when distributing patents on monopolies, and high patrons decided to sacrifice the Chancellor, offering him to take all the blame on himself. Bacon was convicted, but received a pension and the opportunity to live in his estate, studying natural sciences. He died, catching up during a physical experiment. In the last letter to one of his friends, already seriously ill, Bacon with celebration informs his friend that the experience has succeeded. The political views of the baccon are set forth in its essay "Experiments" (1597 - 1625), written under the influence of Monten. By giving a tribute to the republic, Bacon considered the monarchy inevitable form of development of the national state and with full indifference to the moral side of the case judged on the methods of maintaining power. Nevertheless, Bacon was not an unconditional supporter of absolutism. The main idea of \u200b\u200bthe philosopher is that the most cruel measures cannot save the state from shocks if the people are hungry. The reasons for rebellies are primarily material, although the reasons for them can be diverse. The impoverishment of the masses cannot be avoided if there are too many unproductive population in the country, that is, the nobles, clergy and officials. The elimination of the reasons threatening the revolution is achieved, according to Beckon, the discovery of trade routes, favorable trade balance, the promotion of manufactory, improvement of agriculture, reducing taxes and duties. Some medieval illusions are joined to these ideas of a pure bourgeois nature. So, for example, Bacon attributes the ability to limit the negative aspects of the developing cash economy. It requires the publication of laws aimed at maintaining a strong peasantry, which, from its point of view, is the basis of prosperity and military power of England. Starting, thus, with the right thought about the dependence of political life from material interests, Bacon retreats to the utopian attempt to merge together two mutually exclusive principles - the free development of capitalist relations and the protection of small peasant property. Such a dual was the attitude of the backone to the nobility. On the one hand, he explicitly makes it clear that the nobles only eat the country, but on the other hand, recognizes the need for a nobility from a political point of view, as a class capable of limiting the absolute power of the monarch. Mercury is also, from his point of view, a useful part of the nation, although the source of its wealth is not quite clean. In general, Bacon seeks to find a scientific formula for reconciling public contradictions of the Renaissance time. Revolutionary storm of the 40s XVII century. He overturned all these constructions. The merits of the Great English thinker lie primarily in the area of \u200b\u200bthe theory of knowledge and philosophical doctrine of nature. Bacon wanted to create an encyclopedia of scientific knowledge. To carry out this intention, he managed only in part in the writings "On the dignity and multiplication of science" (1605-1623) and "New Organon" (1612-1620). The most important part of the teaching of Becon is the criticism of the scholastic method based on the authority of the church and on the logic of Aristotle, torn off from any real content. Unlike Philology-Humanists who adopted before antiquity, Bacon emphasized the meaning of the great discoveries of his time, thanks to which humanity had reached new horizons and surpassed the level of antiquity. To move with even more successful success, it is necessary to discard the usual prejudice. These prejudices or Superstition Bacon breaks into four groups: "Ghosts of the kind", forcing people to judge everything by analogy with a person, "ghosts of the cave" - \u200b\u200ba habit of looking at the world around the world with its narrow point of view, "market ghosts" - conventions, Created by communication with other people, especially with the help of the language, and, finally, the "ghosts of the theater" - excessive confidence in the adopted dogma. Instead of an empty game in Sillogism, science should rely on experience, on the data of our senses. Bacon does not doubt that sensual knowledge gives us a faithful picture of the world, you only need to abandon the excessive fantasy flight, which forces our mind to make unreasonable generalizations. On the other hand, the scientist should not be similar to the ant, turning into a simple assembly of facts. And Bacon offers a whole system of rational data processing of our experience through analysis and cautious generalization. The method proposed by Bacon includes both "ascending" movement from one-to-universal and "descending" - in the opposite direction, from general axioms to private conclusions. However, the author of the "New Organon" did not cope with more complex issues of the scientific method that require a dialectical solution. In the face of these difficulties, he fluctuates either towards one-sided empiricism, or in the direction of fantastic guesses typical of the revival of the Renaissance. This duality passes through the entire system of views of the Great English materialist. Bacon believed that philosophical materialism in itself was not able to explain the unity and inner harness of the universe as a whole and needs an addition in the form of "natural theology." This theological inconsistency is supported by his practical considerations. Bacon looks at religion from a purely political point of view. It is characteristic that the ideal utopian state of the "Bow Atlantis", the state of scientists, has the official Christian church. Considering the religion as an instrument of political interests, in the Spirit of Machiavelli, Bacon himself is forced to submit to its requirements. It comes out of difficulty with the help of an old way, known in the Middle Ages, the "two truths" theories. The fact that ridiculous in the world of science can be understood in the light of religious revelation. Any intervention of faith is unacceptable as we are talking about the study of nature, but beyond the limits of scientific knowledge should be recognized without reasoning the dogmas of the State Church. This point of view is characteristic of the beginning of the XVII century, when on both sides, and from Protestant, and from the Catholic, the church again passed on the offensive against free thought. Among such contradictions, the history of the English culture of the Renaissance era is energized. Her last word was the philosophy of Francis Beckon, who announced the beginning of the rapid development of equipment and natural science.
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Lecture 15.
English poetry of the XVI century. The first poets-Humanists: J. Skelton, T. Wyat, Sarry. The world of high feelings and ideals: F. Sidney, E. Spencer. Prose and dramatic genres in the XVI British literature. D. Lily: Attempts by psychology. T. Nash: the world without embellishment. Morality and interludes: a sharp sense of life. Tragedy: Anxious World of Human Passion. R. Green: An image of a person from the people. K. MARLO: The problem of titanism.
In the XVI century English literature, which entered into the Renaissance, reached a comprehensive development. Along with Renaissance poetry, the novel was established in English soil, and at the turn of the XVI and XVII centuries. Renaissance drama flies.
This rapid rise in English literature, which began at the end of the XVI century. And seized a number of decades, it was prepared to be prepared throughout the century.
Bishops and things are not that the neighbor lives the neighbor, that Gill sheds sweat, that Jack over a lot of spins ... (Per. O. B. Ruermer)
As the poet Skelton is still closely connected with the traditions of the late Middle Ages. He relies on Chosera and folk songs. Following Choseer, he willingly uses Daggeli - short non-remote lines, as well as spacelocks and turnover. Folk laughter supports the lobel brightness of its works ("Beer Elinor Rumming"). This is the same restless spirit, which a few decades later will declare himself in Shakespeare Sir Toby and Falstafe.
In the future, the development of British Renaissance poetry went on a different way. In an effort to the more perfect, "high" style, the English poets of humanists depart from the "vulgar" traditions of the late Middle Ages and turn to Petrarke and antique authors. It is time for the English book lyrics. The same developed as we saw, and French poetry of the XVI century.
The first poets of the new direction were young Aristocrats Thomas White (1503-1543) and Henry Howard, Count Sarry, in the former Russian transcription of Serri (1517-1547). Both of them shone at the courtyard of Henry VIII, and both experienced the severity of royal despotism. Whita spent some time in the conclusion, and Sarry did not only hit the dungeon three times, but also graduated, like Thomas Moru, his life on the plate. For the first time, their works are printed in the collection, published in 1557. Contemporaries highly appreciated their desire to reform English poetry, raise it to the height of new aesthetic requirements. One of these contemporaries - Puttings wrote in his book "The Art of English Poetry": "In the second half of the reign of Heinrich VIII, the new Commonwealth of court poems was made, whose leaders were Sir Thomas White and Count Henry Sarry. Traveling in Italy, they knew there a high sweetness of meters And the style of Italian poetry ... They were thoroughly finished coarse and untreated by our poetry and ended up with the state in which it was before. Therefore, they can fully refer to the first reformers of our metric and our style "[Cyt. By: The history of English literature. M.; L., 1943. T. I, vol. 1. P. 303.].
White first introduced to the use of English poetry sonnets, and Sarry gave a sonnet that the form that subsequently we find at Shakespeare (three quatrains and final two-befed with the rhyme system: avav EDCD EFEF GG). The leading theme of both poets was love. She fills the Beat's sonnets, as well as his lyrical songs ("Lutage of Lover", etc.). Closely following the Petrarch (for example, in the sonnet "No peace, I, at least a war,"), he sang about love that turned the sorrow (song "Will you leave me?" And others). Much experiencing a lot of things in many ways, Wyat began to write religious psalms, epigrams and satires, directed against the judacy of the court life ("Life at the courtyard"), chase for the knowledge and wealth ("On poverty and wealth"). In prison opinion, they are written epigram in which we find the following sorrowful lines:
I fell sighing, tears Lew, the music is the molding challenge ... (Per. V.V. Rogova)
Melancholic tones sound in the lyrics of Sarry. And he was a student of Petrarks, while a very gifted student. One of the sonnets he devoted a young aristocrat of speaking under the name of Jiraldine. An unearthly delegity empowers his lady's English Petrorshot. With the words: "She is similar to Angel in Paradise; Blessed, who will give his love," he finishes his sonnet. As for the melancholic rubinations arising in Sarry's poetry, it was quite enough for them. Brave warrior, a brilliant aristocrat, it becomes a victim of court intrigue more than once. The dungeon became his second home. In one of the poems written in imprisonment, the poet grows about lost freedom and recalls for old joyful days ("Elegy to Death Richmond", 1546). SARRI belongs to the translation of the two songs "Enidida" Vergil, made by white verse (five-stranded turbulent jamb), which was to play such a big role in the history of English literature.
Whita and Sarry laid the foundations of the British humanistic lyrics, testifying to the increased interest in man and his inner world. By the end of the XVI and the beginning of the XVII century. There is a flourishing of English Renaissance poetry - and not only lyrical, but also epic. Following the example of the Pleiada poets, the English jeques of poetry created a circle, the solemnly named "aropag".
One of the most talented participants of the "Areopag" was Philip Sidney (1554-1586), a person of versatile interests and tissues, raised English humanistic poetry on a high degree of perfection. He took place from a noble family, traveled a lot, fulfilling diplomatic orders, was overwhelmingly by the Queen Elizabeth, but her disfavor was brought upon himself, dyeing to condemn the ill-treatment of English lendlords with Irish peasants. In the blooming age he graduated from his days on the battlefield.
A genuine manifesto of the new school was the treatise of Sydney "Protection of Poetry" (approx. 1584, printed in 1595), in many respects the defense and glorification of the French language (du Belly ". Only if Du Belly's opponents were scholars who preferred Latin The Language of French, then Sydney considered his duty to defend poetry (literature), who was attacked by Pozitan's pious. Thus, the apology of poetry meant Sidney's apology in the field of art and culture. Following the ancient Ellities, Sydney calls to believe that " Poets are the essence of the fans of the gods "that" the Higher Divine deigned, with the medium of Gesiod and Homer, under the cover of the fabulous blog to send us all kinds of knowledge: rhetoric, philosophy, natural and moral and even infinitely much. "Together with Scaliger, the author known in the era of the Renaissance" Poetics " (1561), Sydney claims that "no philosophical doctrine will instruct you how to become an honest person, better and rather than reading Vergil ". In short, poetry is a reliable school of wisdom and virtue.
Sydney about the "heroic poetry" says, since the "heroic poet", glorifying the valor, "generosity and justice", permeates the rays of poetry "cowardism and MGLU of lusts."
With each convenient case, Sydney appeals to the authority and artistic experience of antique poets. So, if you need to call the name of the literary hero, able to "revive" and "raise" the human spirit, he calls the name of Enai without hesitation, "How he behaved at the death of the Fatherland, as Saluing the Elderly Father and the objects of God, as did the immortal, leaving Didon ", etc. However, leaning in front of the ancient literature and harshly calling to draw from this source, Sydney did not want English poetry to lose their natural originality. He gratefully recalled the poetic experiments of Whita and Sarry, highly appreciated the poetic genius of Chosera and even confessed ("I am confessing in my own barbarism"), which never missed the old folk ballad about Percy and Douglas, "so that the heart does not recover , as from the tube sound, and it wakes it all the way with some kind of blind man, whose voice is as rude than the syllable intense. " However, a humanist's scientist notices that the named song would produce a much greater impression, "being mescled with the magnificent wist of Pindar." On this basis, Sydney critically refers to the British People's Drama of the Dosekhekpirovsky period, arguing that the drama should be subordinate to the strict Aristotel rules. As you know, the English Renaissance Drama did not go along the way that Sydney was scheduled.
As for the Sydney itself, its best samples are far from lush pindaric watility. Like Ronsar, Sidney is to a clear, completed poetic figure. High artistic perfection reaches it in the development of a sionage form. His love sonnets (Astrophil and Stella cycle, 1580-1584, printed in 1591) had a well-deserved success (Astrophil means in love with the stars, Stella - Star). It is thanks to Sydney Sonnet became a favorite form in the English Renaissance lyrics. In the poems, Sydney resurrect antique myths ("Philomel", Amura, Zeus, Mars Feb judged). Sightly Sydney echoes with Petrarch and Pleiad Poets, and sometimes the entire book cargo discarded with a decisive gesture. So, in the 1st sonnet of the cycle "Intrend of genuine love I imagine to fill with verse", he reports that in foreign creations in vain the words that could be touched by beauty. "Fool," the muse is a voice, "look in the heart and write."
Peru Sydney also owns the unfinished pastoral novel "Arkady", printed in 1590 as other works of this kind, it is written in a very conditional manner. Storm at sea, love stories, dressing and other adventures of this kind, it is written in a very conditional manner. The storm at the sea, love stories, dressing and other adventures and, finally, a safe union make up the content of the novel, the action of which occurs in the legendary arcada. A variety of poems are included in the prosaic text, sometimes very sophisticated, written in a wide variety of sizes and forms of antique and Italian origin (sappific stains, hexameters, tercins, sextones, octaves, etc.).
Another outstanding poet of the late XVI century. He was Edmund Spencer (1552-1599), who took an active part in the creation of the "Areopag". The son of the merchant is cloth, he spent about twenty years in Ireland as one of the representatives of the British colonial administration. He perfectly wrote musical sonnets ("Amorretti", 1591-1595), marriage hymns, including "Epitulam", dedicated to his own marriage, as well as Platonic "hymns in honor of love and beauty" (1596). Great success fell to his "shepherd calendar" (1579), dedicated to Philip Sydney. The pretty to the tradition of European pastoral poetry, the poem consists of 12 poetic eclogs in the number of months a year. In Eklogs, we are talking about love, faith, morality and other issues that attracted the attention of Humanists. Very good, May Eclog, in which an elderly shepherd Palinody, happily welcoming the arrival of spring, alive describes a national holiday dedicated to Merry Maya. The conditioned literary element retreats here before the expressive sketch of English folk customs and morals.
But the most significant creation of Spencer is the monumental knight's poem "Queen Fay", which has created over the years (1589-1596) and the author of the author's loud glory of "Prince poets". The efforts of Spencer England finally gained Renaissance Epos. In the "Poets" of the Renaissance, including the "Protection of Poetry" Sydi, heroic poetry always assigned an honorable place. Particularly highly set Sydney "Aneida" Virgin, which was for him the standard of the epic genre. As a companion of Sidney on the classical "Areopagu," Spencer chose a different way for himself. And although among our famous mentors, he, along with Ariosto and Tasso, calls Homer and Virgil, actually the classic element is not in his poem decisive. However, with the Italian poems "Queen Fay" in contact only in part. It can be considered an essential feature that it is closely related to English national traditions.
In the poem, elements of the court romance arturova cycle with their fabulous fiction and decorative exotic are widely used. After all, the legends of the King Arthur arose in British soil, and the King of Arthur itself for the English reader continued to remain a "local hero", the personification of British glory. In addition, it is in England in the XVI century. Sir Thomas Malory in an extensive epic "Death of Arthur" failed the magnificent result of the legends Arturova Cycle.
But Spencer relied not only for the tradition of T. Malory. He combined her with the tradition of W. Lengland and created a knightly allegorical poem, which was supposed to glorify the greatness of England, illuminated by the radiance of virtues.
In the poem, King Arthur (the symbol of greatness), fell in love in a dream in the "Queen Fay" Glorian (the symbol of fame, the contemporaries saw in her Queen Elizabeth I), looking for it in a fabulous country. In the image of 12 knights - the associates of King Arthur Spencer was going to withdraw 12 virtues. The poem was supposed to consist of 12 books, but the poet managed to write only 6. They commit the feats of knights, personifying piety, moderation, chastity, justice, statelessness and friendship.
On the nature of the poem gives a representation of at least the first book dedicated to the deeds of the Knight of the Red Cross (piety), which the Queen sends to help the beautiful une (truth) to free her parents enclosed in a copper castle. After the brutal battle, the knight wins the monster. Together with his lady, he stops for the night in the hut hut. The latter, however, turns out to be a cunning wizard of Archimao, who sends false dreams to the knight, convincing him in treason. In the morning, the knight leaves a virgin who immediately goes to search for a fugitive. In the way, the Knight of the Red Cross makes a number of new feats. In Meanwhile, he is humbled by its beauty of the Terrible Lion, which henceforth does not leave the beautiful Virgin. And in front of her, finally, the Knight of the Red Cross, whom she is so selflessly looking for. But the joy is premature. In fact, in front of her, the wizard of Archmago, causally who took the way of the knight dear. After a series of dramatic peripetics, Unnu learns that the Knight of the Red Cross is defeated and captured a certain giant with the help of the Duessa sorcerer. She appeals for help to King Arthur, who just passing by in search of Queen Fay. In a brutal battle, King Arthur killed a giant, drives out the sorcerer to Duessu and connects lovers. Folly bypassing the cave of despair, they arrive at the temple of holiness. Here the Knight of the Red Cross is fighting with a dragon for three days, it wins him, combined with a marriage with awie, and then, happy and joyful, goes to the courtyard of Queen Fay to tell her about his adventures.
Even from a brief presentation of one of the first book, it appears that the poem of Spencer Wakes from a variety of colorful episodes that give it greater elegacity. Sparkling of knightly swords, evil wizard tricks, dark depths of Tartar, beauty of nature, love and loyalty, cunning and evil, fairies and dragons, sullen caves and bright temples, - all this forms a wide multicolor picture, able to capture the imagination of the most demanding reader. This is a flashing of episodes, flexible plot lines, addiction to lush scenery and romantic props, of course, cause Aryosto's poem. Only, the story of the Knight's exploits, Ariosto did not hide an ironic smile, he created a magnificent world, which he himself was filled. Spencer is always serious. In this he closer to Tasso and Malory. He creates his world not to edit the reader, but in order to inspire him, to introduce to the highest moral ideals. Therefore, he climbs on Parnass, as if before him, the Department of the Preacher.
Of course, he understands well that the era of the knighthood has long passed. Knights of Spencer exist as clearly outlined allegorical figures denoting either good or evil. The poet seeks to glorify the power and beauty of virtues, and the victorious knights depicted by them are only the individual edges of the human nature of the human nature, the humanists of the Renaissance era more than once. Thus, the poem Spencer answers the question of which there must be a perfect person who can enthusiasm the kingdom of evil and vice. This is a kind of magnificent knightly tournament ending with the celebration of virtue. But the poem contained not only a moral trend. Contemporaries did not catch a political trend in it without reason. Queen Fay was identified with the Queen Elizabeth I, and the Duessu-Zlokoznaya Witch - with Maria Stewart. Under allegorical covers, they found hints on the victorious war of England against feudal-serpentine Spain. In this regard, the Poem Spencer was the apotheosis of the English kingdom.
The poem is written by a complex "Spencerian Stanza", repeating in the first part of the Choseer Structure, to which, however, the eighth and ninth rows are added (rhymes according to the scheme: av TVSvsvs). A five-stranded yum in the final line is inferior to a six-leaved jamb (ie, Alexandrian verse). At the beginning of the XIX century. English romance showed a very big interest in the creative heritage of Spencer. Byron wrote a "Spencerian Straf" his poem "Child Harold Pilgrimage", and Shelly - "Islam Rettaking".
In the XVI century There was also the formation of the English Renaissance Roman, who, however, was not destined to achieve the heights of which reached the French (Rabol) and Spanish (Servanis) novels at that time. Only in the XVIII century. The victorious procession of the English novel in Europe began. Nevertheless, it was in England that the utopian novel arose in the Renaissance Epoch, with all the characteristic features inherent in this genre. Contemporaries warmly accepted Pastoral Roman F. Cindy "Arkady". Noisy, although not durable success fell to the share of the "educational novel John Lily" Evfues, or anatomy of wit "(1578-1580), written by a funeral, exquisite syllable, received the name" Evfisma ". The content of the novel is the history of the young noble Athenian Evfues, traveling In Italy and England. Human weaknesses and vices are opposed in the novel. Examples of high virtues and mental nobility. In "Evfuese" there is little action, but much attention is paid to the experiences of heroes, their cardiac outstudies, speeches, correspondence, the stories of various characters in which Lily shows all the whole His precipose virtuosity. He is looking for all the time and finds new reasons for extensive reasoning concerning the feelings and deeds of people. This analytical approach to the spiritual world of man, the expression of the author "anatomy" his actions and thoughts and constitutes, in essence, the most remarkable and new The feature of "Evfues", which had a noticeable effect on the English literature of the end of the XVI century. and sa My "Evfism" with its English metaphors and antithesis was probably not only a manifestation of salon chemicals, but also an attempt to find a new more complex form to reflect the world, cease to be elementary and internally solid [see: Urnov D.M. Formation of the English novel of the Renaissance // literature of the Renaissance and the problem of world literature. M., 1967. P. 416 and next].
Tomaas Nash's Spanish novel is close to the Spanish novel, the novel of Thomas Nash "The ill-fated slaughterhouse, or the life of Jack Wilton" (1594), the narrative of the adventures of the young rutic Englishman in various European countries. The author rejects the "aristocratic" sophistication of Evfisma, he is completely alien to the court pastoral mascaras. He wants to tell the truth about life without stopping before the image of her gloomy, even repulsive parties. And although in the end, the Hero of the Roman comes to the path of virtue, marries and acquires the desired peace, the work of Nash remains a book in which the world appears without any cloths and illusions. Only outstanding Renaissance culture figures, sometimes appearing on the pages of the novel, are able to illuminate this world with the light of human genius. Reforming a novel to the first third of the XVI century, T. Nash gets the opportunity to fold the beautiful legend of the love of the English poet of Count Sarry to the beautiful Geraldine, as well as to draw portraits of Erasmus Rotterdam, Thomas Mora, the Italian poet and publicist Pietro Aretino and the German "Fruit Scientist" Cornelia Agrippes Nettesheim, who heard the powerful "warlock". Far away from the Isaque novels of Sydney and Lily also housed household or "production" (as they are sometimes called) Thomas Deloni novels ("Jack from Newbury", 1594, etc.).
From this brief list it is clear that on the outcome of the XVI century. In England, for a relatively short period, a number of novels appeared for a relatively short time, indicating that mighty creative fermentation, which swept the country, penetrated all the spheres of literature, everywhere, banning new paths.
But, of course, the most striking success reached English literature XVI century. in the area of \u200b\u200bdrama. Remembering English revival, we undoubtedly first remember Shakespeare. And Shakespeare was not alone at all. He was surrounded by the Pleiad of talented playwrights, who enriched the English theater near the wonderful plays. And although the flourishing of the English Renaissance Drama continued not for a very long time, it was unusually stormy and multicolored.
This flourishing, which began in the eighties of the XVI century, was prepared., For many decades. However, the actual Renaissance drama approved immediately in the English stage. A very long time in the country continued to play the active role of the People's Theater, which established in the middle of the century. Appeals to the mass audience, he often in traditional forms was alive on the questions nominated by the epoch. It supported his popularity, made it an important element of public life. But not all traditional forms have endured testing time. Comparatively quickly fucked by the Mystery, rejected by the Reformation. But continued to loudly declare interlude themselves - the most worldly and cheerful genre of the medieval theater and morality - an allegorical play, which set certain issues of human existence.
Along with the characters, traditional characters began to appear in morality, which must argue new advanced ideas. These are allegorical figures as the mind and science, winning the victory over scholastic. In the play, belonging to 1519, the thirst for knowledge, despite all the efforts of ignorance and uncertainty, helps a person carefully listen to the wise instructions of Mrs. Nature. In the play, the thought is persistent that the earthly visible world is worthy of the most close study. By the middle of the XVI century. These are morality written in defense of church reform. In one of them ("Entertaining Satira about the three estates of the Scottish poet David Lindsa, 1540) not only the numerous defects of the Catholic clergy are pronounced, but also the question of social injustice. The poor man (Paupreker) introduces spectators with his bitter fate. He was a hardworking peasant, but the greedy Squire (landowner) and no less greedy vicar (priest) turned it into a beggar, and the crook-cooled seller of indulgences took possession of his last pennies. What can the poor man hope, when all three estates (clergy, nobility and townspeople) allow deception, lies, a bowl and globalism to manage the state? And only when an honest small John, personifying healthy forces of the nation, vigorously interferes with the course of events, the situation in the kingdom varies to the better. It is clear that the highest circles looked disapprovingly on the plays, containing crazy thoughts, and Queen Elizabeth in 1559 just forbidden to put such morality.
With all the obvious conventions of the allegoric genre in the English morality of the XVI century. Bright household scenes appeared, and even allegorical characters lost their distraction. This was, for example, a judovo figure of vice (VICE). Among his ancestors, we find a unclear of the Allegoric Poem W. Lengland, and among the descendants - a fat sining of Falstafa, vividly depicted Shakespeare.
But, of course, colorful genre scenes should first look for in the interludes (intermondes), which are English variety of French farce. These are the interludes of John Geyvuda (approx. 1495-1580) - merry, immediate, sometimes rude, with characters, directly snatched from everyday life. Without putting on the side of the Reformation, Gaivood at the same time clearly saw the shortcomings of the Catholic clearing. In the intermediate "seller of indulgences and a monk", he forces the greedy servants of the Church to start a scooling in the temple, since each of them wants to pull out of the believers from the pocket as much as possible coins. In "funny action about Money Joan Joan, his wife, his Tib and the priest Sir Jane" (1533), a long-dead man deftly drives a thinking wife along with his lover - a local priest. Along with the morality of the interlude, they played a prominent role in the preparation of the English Renaissance Drama. They preserved the skills of the People's Theater and the sharp sense of life, which in the future determined the greatest achievements of English dramaturgy.
At the same time, morality, and the interludes were in many ways old-fashioned and fairly elementary. The English Renaissance drama needed in a more advanced form, and in a deeper understanding of man. Antique dramaturgy came to the aid of her, as in other countries in the Renaissance Epoch. Even at the beginning of the XVI century. On the school scene were played in the Latin language of the Comedy and Terentation. From the middle of the XVI century. Antique playwrights began to translate into English. The playwrights began to imitate them, using the experience of the Italian "scientist" of the comedy, in his turn to classic samples. However, the classic element did not deprive the English comedy of national identity.
In the formation of the English tragedy, Seneca was noticeable. He was readily translated, and in 1581 there was a complete translation of his tragedies. The Traditions of Seneki are clearly tangible in the first English "bloody" tragedy "Gorbodak" (1561), written by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sexille and had a great success. The plot is borrowed from the medieval chronicle of Galphrid Montmouth. Like Shakespearesky Lir, the humpback shall divide his state between the two sons. But, seeking to capture all the power, the youngest son kills the elder. Move to the death of his firstborn, the Queen-mother challenges the brotherhood. The country covers the flame of the Civil War. King and queen die. Blood the blood of commoners and lords. The play contains certain political trends - it is advocating for the state unity of the country, which must serve as a guarantee of its prosperity. This is directly indicated by a pantomime that anticipating the first action. Six savages are in vain trying to break the bunch of rods, but, pulling out one rod after another, they can easily break them. On this occasion, the play is said: "This marked that the united state opposes any power, but that, being fragmented, it can easily be defeated ..." Queen Elizabeth Queen watched with interest. The classic canon in the "Gorbrus" corresponds to the Bulletin, which tells about the dramatic events playing behind the scene, and the chorus appearing at the end of the act. Piece written by white verse.
For the "Gorbrus" followed a long range of tragedies, testifying that this genre found favorable soil in England. The spirit of the Seneki continued to turn over them, but the playwrights willingly went beyond the limits of the classic canon, connecting, for example, tragic with comic or disturbing cherished unity. Turning to the Italian Novella, antique legends, as well as various English sources, they argued on the stage a large world of human passions. Although this world was still deprived of the present depth, he had already brought the audience for that time, when someone immediately began the wonderful flourishing of the English Renaissance Theater.
This flourishing began in the late eighties of the XVI century. With the speeches of talented drama-humanists, called usually "university minds". They were all people educated who graduated from Oxford or Cambridge University. In their work, classical traditions were widely merged with the achievements of the people's theater, forming a powerful stream of national English dramaturgy, soon reached the unprecedented power in Shakespeare's creations.
Of great importance was the victory, which England won over Spain in 1588 and which not only strengthened the national consciousness of wide circles of English society, but also aggravated interest in a number of important issues of state development. The question of the enormous opportunities of man also acquired a new sharpness, which always attracted the attention of humanists. At the same time, the concreteness and depth of the artistic thinking, which led to the wonderful victories of Renaissance realism. And if you take into account that from the end of the XVI century. The public life of England was becoming more dynamic - because there was a time when the bourgeois revolution broke out in the country, - the atmosphere of tense will understand, and sometimes contradictory creative quests that are so characteristic of the "Elizavtian Drama" that form the highest peak in history English Renaissance Literature.
"University minds", united by the principles of Renaissance humanism, at the same time did not constitute some uniform artistic direction. They are largely different. So, John Lily, the author of the precise novel "Evfues", wrote elegant comedies for antique topics, turning mainly to the court viewer. And Thomas Kid (1558-1594), more sharp, or even rude, continued to develop the genre of the "bloody tragedy" ("Spanish tragedy", approx. 1589).
Robert Green and especially Christopher Marlo deserve more detailed consideration - the most significant predecessors of Shakespeare. Robert Green (1558-1592) was awarded at the University of Cambridge High Degree Master of Arts. However, his life of Bohemia attracted his life. He visited Italy and Spain. Quickly won popularity as a writer. But success did not turn his head. Shortly before the death of Green began to write the repentance of the essay in which he rejected his sinful life and warned readers from a false and dangerous path. Green creative heritage. He owns numerous love novels, novels on historical topics (one of them is "Pandosto", 1588 - used Shakespeare in the "winter fairy tale"), pamphlets, etc.
In the history of English literature, Green entered primarily as a gifted playwright. His play "Monk Bacon and Monk Bongegei" (1589) enjoyed great success. When working on it, Green relied on the English folk book about the Bacon Warlock, seen the light at the end of the XVI century. Like the German Facest, Monk Bacon is a historical face. The prototype of the hero of the people's legend was Roger Bacon, an outstanding English philosopher and the naturalist of the XIII century, who was persecuted by the church, who saw in him a dangerous free-rope. The legend has turned the monk of Bacon in the Warlock and tied it with unclean power. In the play Green Bacon, a significant role is assigned. In the period when an interest in the magic and all kinds of "secret" sciences grew up in Europe, Green brought to the scene a colorful figure of the English Warlock, who owns a magical book and a magic mirror. In the end, Bacon repents in his sinful aspirations and becomes a hermit. But the leading theme of the play is still not magic, but love. The genuine heroine of the play is a beautiful and virtuous girl, the daughter of Forester Margarita. In love with the prince of Wall, but she gives her heart to court prince Count Lincoln. No trials and misadventures are capable of breaking its durability and loyalty. Amazed by the resistance of Margarita, Prince Wellesky ceases its harassment. The bonds of marriage are connected by lovers. Besky intriculture is not needed where a large human love reigns.
With folk english legends, the "pleasant comedy about George Green, the Vekfield Wildlife," sawing the light after the death of Green (1593), and probably him belonging to him. The hero of the play is no longer an arrogant black craft, but a valiant commoner, like Robin Hudo, the folk songs. By the way, Robin Hood himself appears on the comedy pages. Hearing about the valor of George Green, he is looking for meetings with him. In the play, the situation in which the English state threatens at the same time internal and external danger, because the English feudal group headed by Count Kendal and in the Union with the Scottish king raises an uprising against the English king Edward III. However, rebellious feudal plans destroys the field watchman George Green, who first from the face of the citizens of Vekfield resolutely refuses to the rebels in help, and then intensely captures the captive of the Kendal's graph itself and his associates. Wanting to reward George Green, Edward III wants to build him into the knight's rank. But the field watchman rejects this royal mercy, stating that his only desire to "live and die yomen", i.e. a free peasant. The playwright managed to create a very expressive image of commoner: a skillful, strong, honest, resourceful, bold, devoted homeland and a king, in which the greatness and unity of the state are embodied for him. This hero is supplied immeasurably above the arrogant and self-supporting feudalles. If it should be added that in the comedy there are colorful sketches of folk customs and morals and that much in it has grown directly from the folklore. It is not by chance that the contemporaries saw in the Green of the People's Dramatourg. Joining this opinion, prominent Russian scientist, an expert on the English theater of Shakespearean era N.N. Storozhenko wrote: "Indeed, the name of the folk playwright does not go to anyone as to the Green, because we will not find so many modern playwrights to him, so to speak to the lively snatched from English life and All impurities of Evfisma and classical ornamenty "[Storozhenko N. Robert Green, his life and works. M., 1878. P. 180.].
Other R. Green is one time was a talented poet and playwright Christopher Marlo (1564-1593), the authentic creator of the English Renaissance tragedy. Being the son of a shoal master, he, thanks to a happy coincidence, got into the University of Cambridge and, like Green, was awarded a master's master's degree. Marlo knew ancient languages \u200b\u200bwell, carefully read the works of ancient authors, he was familiar with the creations of Italian Writers of the Renaissance. After graduating from Cambridge University, this energetic son of Proshudin could count on a profitable church career. However, Marlo did not want to become a minister of church orthodoxy. It was attracted by the multicolor world of the theater, as well as free-rope, dares to doubt the walking of religious and other truths. It is known that he was close to the circle of Sir Walter Raly, who was subjected to the reign of Elizabeth and graduated from his life on the plate in 1618 at the King Yakov I. If you believe the bisps and jeques The Bible, in particular, denied the divinity of Christ and argued that the biblical legend about the creation of the world was not confirmed by scientific data, etc. It is possible that the accusations of garlo in the "worry" and were exaggerated, but he was a skeptic in religious issues. In addition, without having to hide their thoughts, he sowed the "troubled" in the minds of the people around him. The authorities were alarmed. Above the head of the poet, clouds were increasingly thickened. In 1593, in one tavern near London, Garlo was killed by the Mystery Police agents.
The tragic fate of Marlo echoes the tragic world arising in his plays. On the outcome of the XVI century. It was clear that this Great Century was not idyllic at all.
Garlo, being a contemporary of dramatic events that have walked in France, devoted his late tragedy "Paris Massan" (delivered in 1593).
The play could attract the attention of the audience with her acute topicality. But there are no large tragic characters in it that make up the strong side of Marlo's creativity. Duke Giz, which plays an important role in it, the figure is quite flat. This is an ambitious villain, confident that all means are good to achieve a targeted goal.
It is much more complicated by the figure of the warrava in the tragedy "Maltese Jew" (1589). Shakespearean Shailok from the "Venetian merchant" is undoubtedly in the nearest relationship with this Character Marlo. Like Giza, Varrava is a convinced Machiavellist. Only if the Giza supports powerful forces (Queen-mother Ekaterina Medici, Catholic Spain, Papal Rome, influential colleagues), then the Maltese merchant and the Varrava Roshchist are granted to itself. Moreover, the Christian world represented by the ruler of Malta and his close hostile to him. To save the units from excessive Turkish towers, the ruler of the island, without thinking, ruins Wrava, who owns tremendous wealth. Hatted and angry embraced, Varrava is allocated to the hostile world. Even his native daughter he betrays death for having donated to renounce the faith of ancestors. His gloomy plans are becoming increasingly ambitious until he falls into his trap. Varrava-man is inventive, active. The pursuit of gold turns it into the figure is a topical, formidable, meaningful. And although the strength of the warrava is inseparable from the villain, there are some glimpses of titanism in it, indicating the enormous opportunities of a person.
We find an even more ambitious image in the early two-part tragedy Marlo "Tamerlan Great" (1587-1588). This time, the hero of the play is the Scythian shepherd, which became the powerful lord of numerous Asian and African kingdoms. The cruel, inexorable, shedding "blood rivers, deep, like Nile or Euphrates," Tamerlan in the image of the playwright is not deprived of the features of undoubted grandeur. The author gives it an attractive appearance, he is a smart, capable of big love, faithful in friendship. In his unbridled desire to power, Tamerlan, as it were, caught the spark of the Divine Fire, which Flamen in Jupiter, who overthrew his father from the throne of his Saturn. Tired Tamerlan, glorifying the unlimited possibilities of a person, as if he was pronounced by the Apostle Renaissance Humanism. Only the hero of the tragedy Marlo is not a scientist, not a philosopher, but the conqueror, called "Beach and Anger God". A simple shepherd, he rises to an unprecedented height, no one can resist his sucking gust. It is not difficult to imagine what the impression on commoners who filled the theater, produced scenes in which the victorious Tamerlan triumphed over his hollow enemies, who mocking his low origins. Tamerlan firmly convinced that not the origin, but the prowess is a source of genuine probability (I, 4, 4). Delighted beauty and love of his Zenocrats, Tamerlan begins to seem to seem that only in beauty the pledge of greatness is lurking, and that "true glory is only in good, and only it gives us a nobility" (I, 5, 1). But when the Zenocrat dies, he is in a rustling of violent despair encourages the city's death in which he lost his beloved. The Tamerlan is raised above the steps of power, while inexorable death does not stop his victorious procession. But also parting with life, he does not intend to fold the weapons. He will see a new unprecedented hike, the purpose of which should be the conquest of the sky. And he calls against the colleagues, raising the black banner of death, in the terrible battle, destroy the gods, proudly ascended over the world of people (II, 5, 3).
According to the titans depicted Marlo, the famous Warlock Dr. Faust also includes. He dedicated his "tragic history of Dr. Faust" (1588), which had a significant impact on the subsequent development of a faustrial topic. In his turn, Marlo relied on the German folk book about Faust, seen the light in 1587 and soon translated into English.
If Varrava personified korestolubie, turning a person in the criminal, Tamerlan ended unlimited power, the Faust stretched to great knowledge. It is characteristic that Marlo noticeably strengthened the humanistic gust of the Faust, which the pious author of the German book wrote with undisguised condemnation. Having rejected philosophy, right and medicine, as well as theology as a science, the most insignificant and false (Act I, scene 1), Faust Marlo places all his hopes for magic that can raise him on the colossal height of knowledge and power. Passive book knowledge does not attract Faust. Like Tamerlane, he wants to command the world around. It boils energy. He confidently concludes an agreement with the underworld and even stakes in the facilitates of Bes of Mephistophele, which is mourners on the lost paradise (I, 3). He already clearly sees his coming acts capable of hitting the world. He dreams of surrounding the copper wall of his native Germany, change the flow of Rhine, to merge into a single country to Spain with Africa, master with the help of spirits with fabulous wealth, subordinate to his power of the emperor and all German princes. It appears to him as in the air bridge he goes with the ocean troops and becomes the greatest of the sovereign. Even Tamerlane could not come to mind like bold thoughts. It is curious that Marlo, not so long ago, former student, forces Faust immersed in Titanic fantasies, remember the scarce life of Scholyarov and express the intention to end this poverty.
But the Faust with the help of magic acquires magical power. Does he carry out his intentions? Does it change the outline of the continents, is the powerful monarch? From the play, we will not know anything about it. It seems that Faust did not even attempt to implement their declarations into life. From the words of the choir in the prologue of the fourth act, we only learn that Faust traveled a lot, visited the courtyards of the monarchs that all his scholars were missed, which "in all the regions he thwarts. And the rumor rumbles on Faust mainly because he always acts as a skilled wizard, amazing people with his trips and magical extravagancies. This significantly reduces the heroic image of the daring magazine. But in this, Marlo was walking for the German book, which was its main thing, if not the only, source. The merit of Garlo is that he gave a faast theme for a big life. Latest dramatic processing of legends in one way or another to go to his "tragic history". But Marlo is not yet trying to resolutely change the German legend, who fade into the form of "folk book." Such attempts will be made only by Lessing and Goethe in very different historical conditions. Garlo values \u200b\u200bits source, removing both pathetic and farce motifs from it. It is clear that the tragic final, depicting the death of Faust, who became the extraction of hellish forces, was to enter the play. Without this finals at that time did not think the legend of Faust. Lowflow of Faust in blood pressure was the same necessary element of the legend, as well as low-spirited in Hell Don Juan in the famous legend of Don Juan. But he turned to the legend of Faust Garlo not because he wanted to condemn the sanctifier, and because he wanted to portray a bold free-rigid fool, capable of encroaching on unshakable spiritual foundations. And although his Faust is rising to a huge height, but low falls, turning into a fair focus, he never merges with a gray crowd of Filirend. In any of his magic kunshutyuk, there is a bit of titanic jerking, ascended over a loose crowd. True, the wings found by Faust were, according to the prologue, wax, but it was still the wings of the Grandfather, directed in the immense.
Wanting to strengthen the psychological drama of the play, as well as to increase her ethical scale, Marlo appeals to the receptions of medieval morality. Good and evil angels are struggling for the soul of the Faust, set before the need to choose, finally, the faithful life path. Pious elder calls him repent. Lucifer suits him an allegoric parade of seven death sins "in their true appearance." Bostly Faust overcome doubts. That he considers the diplomas of torment by fanciful fiction and even equates the Christian absentee-free to the ancient elusive, hoping there to meet all the ancient wise men (I, 3), then the coming car deprives him of his peace of mind, and he immerses despair (V, 2). But in the impulse of despair, Faust remains titanium, the hero of the mighty legend, which struck the imagination of many generations. This did not prevent Garlo in accordance with the common custom of Elizavtian drama to introduce a number of comic episodes in the play, in which the topic of magic is depicted in a reduced plan. In one of them, the faithful student of Faust Wagner scares the trapping devices-jester (I, 4). In another episode, Robin's stroke, having pulled the magic book from Dr. Faust, is trying to act as a casternator of unclean strength, but it seeks (III, 2).
White verse is mixed in the play prose. Comic prosaic scenes are to the area seal. But the white verse, which came to replace the rhymed, who dominated the scene of the People's Theater, under the pen Marlo reached wonderful flexibility and soundness. After the "Tamerlan of the Great" they began to use English playwrights widely, and among them - Shakespeare. The scale of plays garlo, their titanic pathos corresponds to a raised magnificent style, abounding hyperboles, lush metaphors, mythological comparisons. In Tamerlane, this style manifested itself with a special force.
It should also be mentioned about the play of Marlo "Eduard II" (1591 or 1592), close to the genre of the historical chronicle, which attracted the close attention of Shakespeare in the 90s.
Before Elizabeth:
1. Without only 16V, Italian literature is very popular in England. Under the influence of Italian samples, many literary genres were reformed and new poetic forms were learned. First of all, the reform touched poetry. In the last years of the reign of Henry 8, the Circle of Court poets has transformed the English lyrics in Italian style. The most important figures of this reform were Wyat and Gray.
2. Tom Wyeth, who was famous for his education, having visited Italy and having acquainted with the Renaissance culture, fond of Italian poetry and tried to imitate her in everything. In his early TV, only the motives of love, and later disappointment in court life felt. His poetry has a book and artificial X-r. Most of all Wyatie was passionate about Petrarchi poetry and under his influence introduced the form of a sonnet into English literature, until then in England, unknown. Whita also made up French and old English poets.
3. Henry Howard, Graph Male. Also in love with Italy. His early poetry is imitation of Wyetu. It continued to improve Italian sonnet in English. + Gray translated into English several songs "Aneida", here. Under Italian influence, white verse is applied.
4. Philippe Sydney, studied in Paris to the Bartholomeev night, then, throwing many countries, returned to his homeland. In the collection of sonnets "Astrofel and Stela", he felt Penelope Devo. + Posted by the pastoral novel "Arkady" and the treatise "Protection of poetry".
Elizavtintsy
1. The largest poet of English Revival is Edmund Spencer. Focusing on foreign literature, tried to create purely English, national poetry. Got a good classic education. Early works - the "Calendar of the Shepherd" (consists of 12 poetic eclogs) and, the beginning of work on the poem "Queen Fay" (9 poetic lines \u003d "Spencer Strak"), the first three books of which are dedicated to Elizabeth, they also brought him literary glory. Shortly before the death, he wrote a treatise "On the current state of Ireland". The first sewers of Petrarca and the translation of Pleiada poetry were becoming the first creations. + wrote many lyrical poems. Satyric features are distinguished by his poem "Return Colin Claut".
The widespread development in the literature 16 in the lyrical and epic genres caused interest in the theoretical problems of poetry at this time. In the last quarter, 16V appeared a number of English poetic, who discussed the issues of English poetry, poetic forms and style. The main ones are the "Art of English Poetry" George Puttenhem and "Protection of Poetry" Philip Sydney.
2. In 17v in England, a novel is also developing. The first English romance of the Renaissance, was Nagon John Lily "Evfues". John Lily, having received a classic education in Oxford University, was also known as playwright ("Safo and Fao", "Edyimion"). Roman Lily consists of 2 parts: 1) "Evfues or anatomy wit" 2) "Evfues and its England". The novel was interesting for contemporaries rather not a plot, but the style that was called "Evfisma" is 1) that arose under strong Italian influence, flowery, especially exquisite speech 2) a tendency to the rhythmization of prosaic speech. Such an exquisite speech in life did not speak. She had an impact on Shakespeare, but he was very freed from her.
3. The traditions of the galant and pastoral novel in English literature continued Thomas Lodge and Robert Green, who spent both playwrights at the same time. Lodge owns three novels. The best of them is Rosalind, who gave Shakespeare the plot of the comedy "how you like it." The style of the lodge is permitted by antithesis, comparisons, quotes from the classics and the latest foreign poets. He does not seek to convey the historical truth or a valid life.
Early works of Robert Green are also written in the "evfuese" manner. In these works, as "Morando or three parts of love", "Mamil or the English Ladies Mirror", Green draws attention to the plot of less than a witty dialogue, which most often takes the form of a dispute to philosophical topics. In the late TV-ve Green, a special group is a number of small stakes in which it deviates from the former conditional and gallant manner and gives a number of domestic paintings of real life, based on autobiographical memories. (On a penny wisdom acquired by a million repentance "," never late "and others).
4. The household novel of Thomas Nash "Evil Traveler, or the life of Jack Wilton" is also approaching the Spanish Plutoman Novel. Nash was very poor and earned himself to the fact that Satira wrote to London London ("Purchase of the Pierce of Supremely To the Devil"), literary pamphlets against writers and critics of their time. For his play "Dog Island", in which England was Omezyna, Nash even went to jail (the play did not reach us). One of the most important works is the "ill-fated traveler", which Nash put the basis of the British domestic novel. (More than Spanish Plutovskaya Roman).
6. At the end of 17 V with special types of special types, fully designed for readers from artisans, industrial workers, etc. Speakers Thomas Deloni. His life is little known. I purchased glory as the author and singer ballad and as a pamphletist. Deloni ballads - poetic responses to various events of current life. One of the Romanov of Deloni ("An entertaining story of John Winchcomba, in his young years called Jack from Newbury") is dedicated to all employees of the English Sukna. Although his books are little known now, but sometime they were popular.
7. An unusual rise of drama activities accounts for the second half of 16 and the beginning of the 17th century. At this time, many paid theaters appear in London. There is interest in theatrical skill. For these theaters, there are many playwrights with Shakespeare at the chapter. Because The flourishing of the English drama is approximately for the period of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, then this dramaturgy is usually called Elizabetynsk. However, the old theater also continued to exist. Still existed morality. Now promoting humanistic ideas, an example is the works of John Beil, who wrote the plays for religious stories and morality of theological content (about "John, King of England", the cat. He is a prototype chronicle ")
Another common view of theatrical ideas in England was an interlude (plays of comic content with the participation of two or more persons). They served to develop a household comedy and were like French farces. Such a X-P has interludes from John Haywood, who was close to Thomas Mor.
With the development of humanism, the effect of antique drama samples increased. Began to imitate thoroughties and plate. Nicholas Judelle first created the "right" English comedy in 5 acts "Ralph Roister Doyster". An even more English for household paints and techniques of the composition is the comedy of John Style "Needle Kumushki Gerton".
Private and public theaters differed from each other with the composition of the audience and the ability of the acting groups. In early 80s, John Lily, the author of the Roman "Evfues" spoke, was written for the court theater. These comedies are dramatic pastorals saturated with antique mythology. In the plays, Lily, a graceful prosaic dialogue replaced the former poems.
Thomas Kid and Christopher Marlo walked along another way.
The breakdown of English Revival literature falls at the end of the XVI - the beginning of the XVII century, when the crisis of humanism was clearly marked in a number of Western European countries. English Renaissance literature can be considered hardly the youdest young of the revisions. But, quickly developing, young literature soon surpassed its predecessors, especially in theater sphere. She was called upon to display the complexity of the life of England of that time with her sometimes tragic contradictions. In the country, thanks to the great geographical discoveries in the center of new world trade routes, began to quickly lent the process of bourgeois development. He was facilitated by the fact that as a result of long-term interne-friendly wars, the English and white rose (1455-1458), the English feudals in a large part were destroyed each other. Instead of the old aristocracy, a "new nobility" appeared, which gradually overlooked. At the same time, the process of the establishment of a nation and national self-consciousness was burly proceeded in England.
A well-known impact on the formation of British humanistic literature was provided by the earlier humanism of other European countries (Erasmus Rotterdam, I. Vives et al.).
Having achieved a heyday in the XVI - early XVIII century, English Humanism had a preparatory period coming to the end of the XIV century. Humanistic features were laid already in creativity Jeffrey Chosera (1340-1400), the author of a wonderful work in the poetic form "Canterberry stories", not inferior to the artistic brightness and cheerfulness of the "Decameron" Boccaccio.
Oxford University becomes the center of humanistic thoughts. The brightest figure from Oxford Humanists was Thomas Mor. (1478-1535), politician (Chancellor of King Henry VIII), philosopher and writer, author of the famous "Utopia".
The highest development from all literary genres reached the English Revival Epoch dramaturgy, Having deep folk bases and not alien to the impact of ancient authors, especially the Float and Renaissance Italian Novelists. For its approval on the stage of English theaters, a lot of dramatic groups, Shakespeare's predecessors, nicknamed for the high education "university minds" (J. Lily, R. Green, T. Kid, K. Marlo, etc.).
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) - Brilliant playwright and poet-bard not only England Renaissance, but also all over the world and all times. With constant success, they go on theatrical scenes, in various languages, in front of many generations of viewers of a changing world, its powerless dramatic works. The Shakespeare Dramatic and Poet includes the capacious characteristics of the Renaissance figures as "titans for the strength of thought, passion and character" (F. Engels). His titanisism - in the extraordinary depth of disclosure of the contradictions of his complex era, reflected in the characters of his heroes with their passions, quests, doubts, the providence of the future, in the show of how unfair public procedure perverts "Willing Creation" - a person - and as a person still turns out to be able to defeat All abuse and injustice of life.
The scarcity of information about the life of Shakespeare gave rise to the middle of the XIX century. The hypothesis, according to which the author of 37 plays, two poems and 154 sonnets were not actor William Shakespeare, but some other person, for unknown reasons to wish to hide their name. So "Shakespearevsky Question" was born, who lied in a long argument of Stratfordians and Antistatfordians, based on a huge gap between the "content of the works of Shakespeare and its Being". The response to this question gave the Scientific Secretary of the Shakespeare Commission at the Russian Academy of Sciences I.M. Gilles in the book "Game about William Shakespeare, or the Mystery of the Great Phoenix" (M., 1997). Shakespeare Mystery is akin to the secret of Atlantis. Shakespeare, as it turned out, there is a huge mysterious country, patiently waiting for more than two centuries to extract the treasures buried under the layer of unknown. Thanks to this book, the mysterious country "Shakespeare" begins to "pop up" from the depths of the uncertainty. The author knows her well the story of "Shakespeare's question", i.e. Problems of authorship, and therefore chose the only right path - scientific. It can be argued that this is no longer version, but herself riprage. For all the science of the book I.M. Gililova, reinforcement of each phrase by documents and facts collected by the previous generations of researchers and most of the author, - no other answer to the question of the authorship of Shakespeare Works to the author of the section is not possible. The greatest in history is a hoax, as I.M. Gililov, has been done by the family Pair Roger Manners, Graph Retland (1576-1612), and Elizabeth Manners, Retold Countess (1585-1612). Humanity will continue to use the name "Shakespeare", but at the same time know who is behind him.
Shakespeare creates works of incredible ideological and artistic value. Outstanding poetic works include its 151 sonet Created between 1592 and 1598. (Published in 1609). Their lyrical hero is a rebirth person who is inherent in the high understanding of friendship, love, art and concern about the fate of all mankind. The picture of the triumphant evil makes life almost unbearable for him. He's insensitive to see "the dignity that he asks false. Vice ... "(Translation S. Marshak). However, this very gloomy sonnet (66) ends with a solution to stay alive for each other: "Everything is volatile, I see around, / but sorry to leave you, a dear friend." In some sonnets, concern for each other, the image of which sometimes develops into all future generations of people, is noticeable even more, which gives verses a life-affirming nature. The artistic form of sonnets, sincere, deprived of exaggerations created under the law of truthful art, proclaimed at 21 out of 54 sonnets, are distinguished by great perfection: "In love and in the Word - True, my law", "beautiful perfectly in a hundred times, topped with truth."
Dramatic chronicles Shakespeare, from which his path of playwright began, nine pieces called the names of kings - "King John", "Richard II", Richard III and others reproduce mostly paintings of the life of medieval England. Although as the main characters in them, it appears to know, but there is also a broad social ("Falstafa" background), where there are broken knights (Falstaf and others), and proud Shakespearean Yomena, and craftsmen, and servants, and soldiers. The chronicles serves the attitude of the people to events and rulers ("Heinrich VI"). As a force guiding the course of history, Shakespeare puts forward "Time Time", approaching the idea of \u200b\u200bhistorical patterns.
Comedy Shakespeare differ primarily by the great cheerfulness that reigns in them the atmosphere of fun.
In the comedies always won all the human - smart and kind, triumphant over stupid and evil ("Windsor mockery", "two Veronea", etc.) - This manifests the author in the victory of good began in life, his skill, laughing, parting with suspended.
Anthem in the glory of large Renaissance love, not considered with a medieval feudal host of families to which those beloved, is tragedy "Romeo and Juliet" (1595). It carries a bright life-affirming beginning. Young Romeo and Juliet are dying, but buried age-old feudal prejudices, who have enjoyed enmity in the family of their parents who are reconciled over the bodies of their children.
The tragedy "Hamlet, Prince Danish" (1601) is distinguished by an exceptional depth and complexity. It is not by chance that thousands of scientific research are devoted to her. The in-depth socio-psychological and artistic meaning of the tragedy manifests itself in approving the need for the struggle against the evil, in marginal indignation against everything that perverts the nature of man, depriving him of true humanity.
The expressive of this indignation and the defender of humanity is Hamlet - a typical renaissance figure with the aggravated critical thought, power of passion and character. In the prologue of the play Hamlet, the Danish prince, a student of Wittenberg University, is the shadow of the dead father, who asks his son to take revenge on the killer. The father was ideal for Hamlet: "He was a man, a man in everything." Hamlet's father's killer is his uncle Claudius, a sneaky and powerful, "having pulled the precious crown and put it in his pocket." Hamletu Hamalist soon became clear that the crime of Claudia was only a particular case of evil, reigning in the Danish kingdom, where it was clearly "something burned." The expression of this rottenness is both the behavior of Mother Hamlet, Queen Gertruda, too soon after the death of her husband who became the wife of Claudia, which is especially wounds the soul of her son. The seal of the royal yard with his rotting lies even on the young bride of Prince Ophelia. Hamlet in the end comes to an inevitable severe conclusion that not only Denmark, but the whole world is "prison, and excellent: with a lot of shutters, dungeons and dungeons." Hamlet is also clear that the "age loosened" and that he, Hamlet, in response to give him strength. Therefore, a specific one, the private task facing the Hamlet is revenge for his father, - develops for him to awareness of the need to combat evil age. The task of it is immensely becoming more complicated and becomes for him that struggling in essence alone, incredibly severe. Hence the tragic meditation of Hamlet over her weight, as it can be seen from his famous monologue "to be or not ...", where we are talking about the most different forms of evil in the surrounding world: about the "grouse strong", "worship of the authorities", about insults caused by the "frivolous merit" and much more. Under the weight of the fulfillment of his task, Hamlet dies, expressing his fate of the humanists of his time. Although "the brown crowd is addicted to him, he remains a single wrestler. And this is his tragedy. The only true friend of the prince remains alive - Horatio, who will fulfill the last will of Gamlet: Tell the truth to people about him. "The hero turns out to be defeated by no enemies, not a weakness, but history" (A. Kettle). For the Danish throne, Fortinbras, standing a lot above the villain of Claudia, but "Not able to understand what Hamlet understood" (A. Kettle). The image of hamlet is very complex in psychological relation, received a different interpretation in its stage incarnation. The history of the Danish Prince raised by the genius of Shakespeare before the expression of the tragedy of all mankind at a certain stage of development.
Of great depth of the problems and expressiveness in the outcome of characters, the subsequent tragedies of the playground differ in the disclosure of human passions. AT "Othello" The clash of the carriers of the Renaissance traits - Othello and Dzentmones - with cynicism and predatoryness of the anti-immantine forces embodied in Yago. And although the clash of "nobility and confidence in person" (A. Pushkin) with cunning and meanness leads to a tragic outcome - to the death of innocent, the complete charm of Dzememon and then Othello, the moral victory remains behind the carriers of humanism. Othello, who executed himself for a crime, perfect according to the fault of Yago, dies enlightened, again gained by the former faith in man.
In the tragedy "King Lire" are presented two worlds: the world of true humanity and the peace of predators and worm egoists, embodied in the senior and middle daughters of Lira Horilee and Ragan, Cornwall and Edmund. The composition of the world of humanity in the tragedy is changing. At first, this is the youngest daughter Lira Cordelia and Kent, then Edgar joins them, then Lear himself with his joke and Gloucester. Especially remarkable the fate of Lira, who comes to the world of humanity, passing through the immense sufferings, giving him the opportunity to fully understand the whole of the wrong and the illusions of his former life. The strong generalizations of Shakespeare for the tragedy of the Lira, who had no roof over his head, saw the fate of many English "homeless horses", doomed to poverty with a criminal system of "enhancement". Although the Final "King Lira" is tragic - the noble Cordelia and a prominent lire are dying, "he is still not deprived of optimism, and even more than in the" Gamlet ".
The work of Shakespeare is basically deeply popular, humanistic and realistic. The principles of realism are not only embodied by practically in his drama, but also directly set out in the creations, and especially expressively in the "Gamlet". Creativity Shakespeare is the great synthesis of the Renaissance, which combines its achievements and discoveries. It is immortally and unstarting. They are inspired by composers, painters, film chills.
