Results of the Paris and Washington conferences for the victorious powers. Paris Peace Conference. Paris Conference Agreements
By the end of the 19th century, the world was almost completely divided between the leading European powers. The only exceptions were the United States, which managed to defend its independence from England. China, into which European monsters did not consider it necessary to go deep, and Japan, which is of little interest in colonial terms. Actually, the section ended at the beginning of the century.
But a lot has changed since then. In Europe, after centuries of oblivion, a great power, Germany, was reborn. Germany did not have colonies, due to which England, France or Holland was enriched, she did not have time to divide the world. The power traditionally striving for expansion was categorically not satisfied with its modest position.
For the first time, the new Germany (then Prussia) showed its teeth in 1870, when, during the Franco-Prussian war, France was completely defeated and lost the most important economically provinces - Alsace and Lorraine.
The victory over France allowed Prussia to complete the unification of Germany under the scepter of Wilhelm I. Under the rule of the Prussian kings, and after the victory in the war - the German emperors - was the largest Western European country with a multimillion hardworking population.
The cause of the first world war is an ambitious Germany
The economy of the united Germany grew rapidly. The coal mines and iron mines of the Ruhr, Saar, Silesia, Alsace-Lorraine provided primary strategic resources. By the beginning of the 20th century, Germany in coal mining, iron and steel production was more than one and a half times greater than the "workshop of the world" - England.
In the domestic market of the growing industry of Germany, it was crowded, and by the beginning of the twentieth century, German goods began to seriously compete with English goods on the world market.
Germany was denounced as a deadly rival to British global dominance, first by journalists and then by official politicians, including Prime Minister Rosebery.
They had reasons for this. The main competitor of the British magnates for the gold and diamonds of South Africa was the Deutsche Bank. In China, Germany occupied the strategically important Shandong Peninsula. Exports of German goods to China grew rapidly, threatening British economic interests.
And the construction of the Baghdad Railway by Germany, the territory of which had a special status in the Turkish Empire, created a direct threat to British communications with India, the most important British colony.
The relations between Germany and France were explosive. The German occupation of Togo and Cameroon posed a threat to French West Africa.
German banks were becoming dangerous competitors to French financial circles. The loss of Alsace and Lorraine sat like a painful thorn in the mass consciousness of the French. Revanchist sentiments in France dominated all sectors of society.
Knowing this, the German ruling circles were looking for any excuse to inflict another blow on France and break her power forever. Minor colonial conflicts in Morocco in 1905 and 1911 nearly sparked a war between the two powers.
Relations between Germany and Russia were not the best. Germany was Russia's main economic partner, a consumer of its grain and timber. Again, Germany was the main supplier of machinery and equipment for the Russian economy, since the British imposed a number of important restrictions on their exports to Russia.
Taking advantage of this, the Germans by all means underestimated the prices of Russian export goods and overestimated imports. An extensive campaign was waged in the Russian press for a radical revision of relations with Germany; it was supported by many Duma deputies and a number of ministers.
The situation in the Balkans was tense. Austria-Hungary sought territorial expansion in the region, while Russia declared itself the protector of all Slavs and opposed all Austrian plans.
Large-scale armed conflict was almost inevitable. Realizing this, Germany in 1882 signed an agreement on mutual assistance with Austria-Hungary, which was looking for an ally against Russia, and Italy, which sought to oust France from Tunisia (Triple Alliance). At the same time, the previously existing "Union of Three Emperors" (Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary) collapsed.
In the face of a clearly opposed new alliance, Russia hastened to ally itself with France. The signing of the Anglo-French agreements in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian agreements in 1907 completed the formation of a new military-economic bloc - the Entente (Entente - French consent).
From the coal a flame flared up
The beginning of the First World War in the summer of 1914
The war broke out in the summer of 1914. The reason was the assassination in Bosnia by a certain young radical of the heir to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand. On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
Russia declared that it would not allow the occupation of Serbia and announced a general mobilization.
In response, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, France and Belgium on August 3, England entered the war against Germany on August 4, and Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia on August 6.
In terms of its scale, the war had no equal in the entire previous history of mankind.
It was attended by 38 states, where more than 1.5 billion people, or three-quarters of the world's population, lived. The total number of mobilized reached 73.5 million people. The death toll exceeded 10 million - as many as died in all European wars in the previous thousand years.
France against Germany in the early days of the war
From the first days of the war, the French theater of operations acquired the main importance. It was here that the largest military groupings of the opposing sides were concentrated, and decisive battles unfolded here.
By the beginning of the war, the strength of the German army here was 1,600,000 people with 5,000 guns, the French - 1,300,000 people with 4,000 guns.
The allied forces of England and Belgium were relatively small - respectively 87 and 117 thousand people. During the hostilities, the forces of both sides more than doubled.
In the potential direction of the main German attack, France had two powerful defensive lines. The first was the fortresses of Verdun-Belfort-Toul-Epinal, the second - Dijon-Reims-Laon.
Considering the French fortifications as practically invincible, the Germans were guided by the so-called "Schlieffen plan", according to which the offensive was carried out bypassing the fortresses and the main French forces, through the territory of Belgium.
The rapid defeat of France was declared a paramount task. French plans called for an offensive in the first place in Alsace and Lorraine, in order to deprive Germany of the most important industrial areas.
The coordinated actions of the German troops in Belgium allowed them to reach the French border by August 20. During the Battle of the Border, in which more than 2 million people participated on both sides, three French armies and an English corps were defeated.
The French offensive in Alsace and Lorraine also ended in defeat. The Germans were rapidly moving inland, towards Paris, covering the main French forces from the flanks. The French government moved to Bordeaux, not sure of the ability to defend the capital.
However, at the end of August the situation changed. The French formed two new armies and advanced them to a new line of defense along the Marne River.
At the same time, all means were used for the rapid transfer of troops, including Parisian taxis. At the same time, the commander-in-chief, General Joffre, replaced 30% of the generals.
Personnel changes had the most favorable consequences.
Russian intervention changed the war
An important role in the turning point was played by the actions of the Russian troops who invaded East Prussia. Germany was forced to transfer two corps to the east, which allowed the French and British to gain a numerical advantage at the front.
Fresh French armies hit the flank of the advancing Germans. During the week-long battle on the Marne, the German troops were completely defeated and rolled back 50-100 km. It was a turning point in the course of the war. Until then, the Anglo-French troops had been incessantly retreating, but now the moral advantage has passed to the allies.
In addition, this was the first victory of the French over the Germans after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871, which had tremendous moral significance. The German plan for the lightning defeat of France failed, the war took on a positional character
In 1915, the front practically did not move, despite attempts by both sides to resume the offensive. Defense in depth - several lines of trenches, barbed wire, pillboxes and dugouts - made it possible to successfully resist any attacks. The use of the latest means of attack - aviation, poison gases - also proved to be ineffective.
Even heavy artillery was powerless against the dug-in troops, despite their incredible power at that time. So, the famous German "Big Bertha" had a caliber of 420 mm, the weight of the projectile was 900 kg. The attacking efforts of the opposing sides led only to slight shifts in the front line (no more than 10 km.) And were accompanied by huge casualties.
The relative calm on the French front was explained by the fact that Germany shifted its focus to the east, deciding to withdraw Russia from the war. The Russian army suffered a number of defeats and gave up significant territories, but then the front stabilized.
The combat power of the Russian troops was greatly undermined, but still they were a formidable force. 
The German offensive stalled. Therefore, the German command again put forward the defeat of France as the main goal of the 1916 campaign, going on the defensive on the Eastern Front.
It was in 1916 that the most bloody battles of the First World War took place - the battle of Verdun (Verdun meat grinder) and the battle on the Somme. During these battles, tanks and flamethrowers were used for the first time.
The results of the battles were very limited, the German offensive was stopped, the losses were huge - the German army lost up to a million people, the Allies - about 1,300,000.
The battles of 1916 were one of the last powerful German efforts to wrest victory. Germany and its allies - Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria - lost the economic battle to the Entente. Fuel crisis, devastation, food shortages - France also suffered from all this. But the more significant economic power of the Entente, as well as significant assistance from America, made the crisis much less acute than in Germany.
Eventually, at the end of 1916, Germany sued for peace. Many politicians in France favored ending the war. But these conversations were quickly stopped by the new Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, a supporter of continuing the war to a victorious end, a firm and resolute person. If he had been at the helm of France in 1939, World War II might not have taken place. But every time has its heroes.
By the way, once in his youth, Clemenceau challenged the famous duelist Dantes. To the very same. But Dantes did not accept the challenge, and the possible revenge for Pushkin did not take place.
Fracture in World War I
1917 was the year of the final turning point in the war. The offensive power of Germany was broken. The balance of power has changed radically. After the February Revolution, Russia practically stopped active hostilities.
However, in April, America declared war on Germany, whose transport ships were regularly sunk by German submarines. By early 1918, the number of American troops in France exceeded one million. Fought in France and the Russian expeditionary force of up to 400 thousand people.
In March 1918, the German army made its last offensive attempt in Picardy, and the German forces were inferior to the Entente in all respects: in terms of numbers - 4 million people against 5 million among the Allies, in artillery - 15 thousand guns against 16,000, in aviation - 3000 aircraft against 3800, for tanks - 10 against 800.
Nevertheless, at first, Germany was successful. The first blow fell on the British troops, who, after stubborn battles, began to retreat.
Only after this, the French army began active operations, commanded by General Petain, the hero of Verdun and the future traitor to the motherland, the head of the Vichy puppet government in Nazi-occupied France.
But the French did not immediately stop the enemy advance. The German units were approaching the forward lines of the defensive area of Paris. The capital of France was subjected to shelling from long-range guns and night raids by bombers.
However, as they approached Paris, the stubbornness of the French grew.
In the end, the offensive of the German army was stopped at the turn of the Marne, in the same place as in 1914. And on August 8, the Allies launched a counteroffensive. The German line of defense was broken through, the losses of the German troops only on the first day of the offensive amounted to 27,000 people, 400 guns, 62 aircraft. Germany could not continue the war.
Famine raged in the country, mass demonstrations of soldiers, workers, sailors began, which grew into armed uprisings and, ultimately, a revolution. Wilhelm II fled to Holland, after which the new German government accepted the terms of the French ultimatum and signed the surrender on November 11, 1918. Germany's allies surrendered even earlier.
Surrender of Germany
The act of surrender was signed in the forest of Compiègne, in the staff car of Marshal Foch. Under the terms of the surrender, Germany was obliged to give the Allies a large number of warships, cannons, mortars, machine guns, cars, locomotives and wagons.
The country pledged to pay huge reparations - 269 billion gold marks, which is equivalent to about 100,000 tons of gold. Subsequently, the amount was reduced to 132 billion. By the way, Germany completed the payment of reparations for the First World War only on October 3, 2010, transferring the last tranche of 70 million euros.
The entire German navy was to be disarmed. The left bank of the Rhine was occupied by the Allied troops, and a demilitarized zone was created on the right bank.
Later, during the Paris Peace Conference, territorial changes were formalized. France got back the coveted Alsace and Lorraine, the coal mines of the Saar basin, in Asia - Syria and Lebanon, in Africa - part of Cameroon and Togo.
The French delegation insisted on the dismemberment of Germany in order to permanently deprive her of the opportunity to threaten France. However, the allies opposed this demand with a united front - the dominance of France in continental Europe did not suit them in any way.
It is interesting that in 1940 the wagon in the museum, in which Marshal Foch accepted the surrender, was brought to Compiègne Forest by order of Hitler. And already the Fuhrer himself, sitting on the same chair as Foch in the 18th, signed the act of capitulation of France. When in 1945 it became clear that the defeat of Germany was inevitable, the SS destroyed the car, and buried its remains. Hitler was afraid that Germany would again be forced to sign a surrender in the famous carriage.
France was the most affected side among all the participants in the war. On the territory of its most developed industrial regions, military operations were conducted for 4 years. The scale of destruction was colossal. The losses of the French army in killed amounted to about 1300,000 people - twice as many as all the other allies on the Western Front combined.
However, France could not take full advantage of the fruits of victory. Yesterday's allies - England and the USA - insisted in 1924 on the adoption of the so-called "Dawes Plan", supposedly designed to ensure the payment of German reparations to France.
Under this plan, French troops were withdrawn from Germany (France was losing Saar coal), and Germany received significant loans from the United States and England - up to 400 billion dollars at the rate of 1999. At the same time, there were no restrictions on the sale of the latest industrial technologies. All this allowed Germany to quickly restore its industry and prepare for revenge - the Second World War.
World War I – VIDEO
The First World War created new international tensions. In Europe and the Middle East, the old Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were destroyed. The clash of political or economic interests of people led to the emergence of new power conflicts.
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Organizer Paris Peace Conference was the winning side - the Entente countries, a bloc of more than twenty states. The conference, albeit with interruptions, lasted more than a year - from January 18, 1919 to January 21, 1920. Winners and losers discussed the scheme of the post-war world - what will it be like?
Participating countries.
At the beginning Paris Peace Conference 1919 years, it was attended only by states from the Entente bloc - the winners in the ended war. It was they who drew up agreements, contracts and conditions for the losers.
Germany and its allies were invited to Paris later - and not to discuss the decisions taken, but simply to announce the final positions.
Russia, which took the largest part in the First World War, was completely left out of the conference. None of the leaders who could govern the country at that time were invited to Paris.
The main role at the conference in Paris was played by representatives of three countries - Clemenceau from France, Lloyd George from Great Britain and Wilson from the USA. They were also called the "Great Three". It was they who actually made the decisions, discussing the options among themselves.
Paris Conference Agreements.
After a year of work, the Paris Peace Conference was able to prepare several treaties regarding the post-war division of the world and sanctions for the defeated countries:
- Treaty of Saint Germain;
- Treaty of Versailles;
- Trianon Treaty;
- Treaty of Neuilly;
- Treaty of Sevres.
It was these agreements that became the cornerstone of the Versailles-Washington system, established in the world.
The “Armenian issue” can be taken out as a separate item. Armenia, which suffered the most during the war, was not invited to the conference, just like Russia - they were too busy redistributing the lands. However, this country independently sent its delegations and presented demands to the contracting parties: to recognize the independence of Armenia, to give security guarantees to the new state, to pay reparations and punish those responsible for the Armenian genocide.
In 1920, during the signing of the Treaty of Sevres, these demands were heard and fulfilled.
Results of the Paris Peace Conference.
Several treaties Paris Peace Conference 1919 significantly influenced the world map and the fate of the defeated countries.
Germany was forced to part with most of the conquered territories - Alsace and Lorraine returned back to France, Poznan, Pomerania and part of West Prussia - to Poland. Belgium got back Malmedy and Eupen, and in addition, Germany recognized the sovereignty of Austria, Poland and Czechoslovakia.
Many districts of the losing country were demilitarized, the colonies went to the victorious countries.
Following the Treaty of Saint-Germain, Austria officially became a separate state from Hungary, was forced to limit its armed forces and pay monetary compensation to the affected countries.
Hungary also lost most of its military forces and paid reparations to the affected parties. In addition, Transylvania and part of the Banat went to Romania, Bačka and Croatia went to Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia received Slovakia and part of Transcarpathia.
And finally, Turkey, as a result of the Treaty of Sevres, also lost part of its territories. The lands of the Ottoman Empire were finally divided.
§7. Difficult path to peace. Versailles-Washington system
Goals and results of World War I (§§3-5, 7, 9 A.A. Kreder)
| Country | Goals | Results |
| Germany | Germany planned to create a Baltic duchy headed by one of the representatives of the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty [§9]. |
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| Austria-Hungary | Tried to establish control over the Balkans [§3]. Since the beginning of the century, Russia has been drawing closer to Serbia and Montenegro, acting as a guarantor of their independence in the face of the hostile actions of Austria-Hungary [§4]. | The Yugoslav peoples united around Serbia in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes [§7]. |
| Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919):
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| Ottoman Empire | Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918): |
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| Bulgaria | Claimed to Macedonia, like Serbia [§7]. | |
| England | destruction of the German fleet [§7]; | the destruction of the German fleet (Germany could not have submarines, military and naval aviation) [§7]; |
| The British dominions took control of part of the Germanic colonies (probably in Africa and Oceania) [§§4, 7]; |
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| According to the Anglo-French-Russian agreement on the division of the Ottoman Empire (1916): Russia - Constantinople (Istanbul) and part of Transcaucasia, the rest was divided between England and France[§five]. | the metropolis took control of part of the Ottoman Empire; |
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| securing peace through disarmament; | Germany was only entitled to a 100,000-strong army; |
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| ensuring peace through the creation of the League of Nations; | Creation of the League of Nations; |
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| When defining borders in post-war Europe, she suggested proceeding from the principles of self-determination [§7]. | The Paris Peace Conference authorized the creation of two new states - Poland and Czechoslovakia. |
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| received 22% reparations [§7], |
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| France | the imposition on Germany of the maximum possible reparations; | received 52% reparations, |
| claimed part of the legacy of the Ottoman Empire; | ||
| the creation of an independent German buffer state on the left bank of the Rhine; | Germany had no right to place garrisons in the Rhineland [§7], the German territory on the coast of the Baltic Sea - Memel (Klaipeda) came under the control of France [§9], |
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| return of Alsace and Lorraine [§7]; | return of Alsace and Lorraine [§7], |
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| Russia |
| Peace of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918):
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| Belgium | to Belgium - districts of Germany [§7], |
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| Serbia |
| The Yugoslav peoples united around Serbia in Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes[§7] . |
| Japan | She demanded that Germany transfer her territories in China to her (1914) [§4]. | it was decided to transfer to Japan the German colonies in China [§7], |
| Italy |
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| Romania | Transylvania, Bukovina and Banat (1916) [§5]; | captured Bessarabia [§7]; |
| USA | saving the world by creating a more democratic order based on new principles: | |
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| creation of the League of Nations, but the US Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles [§7]; |
Questions 7.
1. When and why did Soviet Russia withdraw from the war?
2. What events hastened the defeat of Germany and its allies?
3. What were the terms of the armistice concluded by the Entente countries with defeated Germany?
January 18, 1919
A conference of the victorious powers in the world war began in Paris, at which 27 states, who fought with Germany. The most important positions at the conference were UK, USA and France.
1. Contradictions between the victorious powers [§7 p.1 Zagladin].
Serious disagreements arose between the conference participants - British Prime Minister D. Lloyd George, US President W. Wilson, French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau and other leaders.France sought to expand its colonial empire and to weaken Germany as much as possible through reparations and the exclusion of territories along the western bank of the Rhine from her.
Great Britain intended to expand her colonial empire, but did not want Germany to be excessively weakened, so as not to upset the balance of power in Europe in favor of France.
Special terms of peace defended by the President USA W. Wilson. During the war, American exports quadrupled. The leading European countries owed the United States $12 billion for wartime supplies. The enormous economic and financial potential made the United States particularly interested in free access to world markets. Therefore, the United States did not support the aspirations of the European powers to expand their colonial empires, did not want to undermine the power of Germany with reparations, because this would reduce its purchasing power.
Even before the end of the war, Wilson defined his views on the principles of the future world order. In order for the experienced war to be the last, the conditions of peace, according to Wilson, should not humiliate the dignity of the vanquished. At the beginning of 1918, V. Wilson formulated 14 basic principles of the post-war world. They assumed the provision of freedom of trade and navigation, taking into account the interests of the peoples of all, including the colonial countries.
The preservation of peace for the future must be guaranteed by a new international organization - The League of nations
,
ensuring strict observance by all countries of international legal norms. In the event of disputes between states, the League of Nations must play the role arbitrator, and in the event of a military conflict - to organize collective action to stop the aggression.
Arbitration court- resolution of the conflict between states by peaceful means with the involvement as an arbitrator (judge) of a third, neutral, party trusted by both parties to the conflict. The arbitrator may be an international organization or a neutral state.
The proposed Charter of the League allowed for the possibility of imposing international sanctions against the aggressor country, ranging from an economic blockade to the use of military force. At the same time, the US delegation insisted that the Charter of the League be included as an integral part of the peace treaty with Germany.
2. Conditions of the Versailles Peace [§7 p.2 Zagladin].
The ideas of W. Wilson seemed to the European leaders either hypocritical or naive and idealistic. With great difficulty, a compromise was found, fixed in a peace treaty with Germany, signed June 28, 1919Compromise- settlement of the conflict by mutual concessions of its participants. A compromise is, for example, the division of a disputed territory, the rejection of such demands addressed to another state that are unacceptable to it.
Britain and France agreed to the formation of the League of Nations.
The colonies captured from Germany and Turkey were declared under the control of the League of Nations. She handed over to the Entente countries mandates, that is, the right to manage them. France received Syria and Lebanon, Great Britain - Iraq, Palestine and most of the German colonies in Africa.
She regained Alsace and Lorraine, annexed to Germany after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.
The former German region of the Saar, rich in coal, was transferred to the control of the League of Nations, its fate was to be decided by a popular vote - plebiscite.
demilitarized zone, that is, fortifications and German troops were not to be built there, except for police formations.
Germany was found guilty of starting the war, she was ordered to pay compensation for the damage caused (reparations ). The advance was determined in 20 billion marks
Photo 6.D. Lloyd George, J. Clemenceau and V. Wilson are sent to sign the Treaty of Versailles
Germany
| What goals did you pursue? | What concessions did you get? |
| France got Syria and Lebanon. |
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| Germany ordered to pay compensation for damages (reparations ). The advance was determined in 20 billion marks, and the final amount was to be calculated later. |
| A special conference in 1921 fixed the total amount of reparations in 132 billion gold marks, of which France (52%), England (22%) and Italy (10%) were to receive (§§3-5, 7, 9 Kreder). |
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| France after defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 paid 5 billion francs in gold, i.e. 10 times less! [AND I.] |
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| Germany according to the contract was losing1/8 part of its territory
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| Germansky district Saara, rich in coal, was transferred to the control of the League of Nations, its fate was to be decided by a popular vote - plebiscite. |
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| German territory along the western bank of the Rhine was proclaimed demilitarized zone . |
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| Germany forbidden to have armed forces numbering more than 100 thousand people, to create military aviation and a submarine fleet, to build surface warships. |
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| Germany without an army now none and call in no way [A.Ya.]. |
Paris conferencerecognized the borders of the new European states - Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria and Hungary. Poland was given the eastern lands of Germany, Romania - Transylvania (formerly part of Austria-Hungary) and part of the territory bordering Bulgaria. Serbia, which became the core of a new state - Yugoslavia (the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes), received the largest territorial increment.
3. Contradictions of the Versailles system [§7 p.3 Zagladin].
Laid down by the allies foundations of the post-war European and world order wereimperfect , carried the beginnings of many problems and conflicts.According to one of the most famous economists of the XX century. J. Keynes, a serious mistake of the Entente was underestimation of the significance of the economic problems of the post-war world order , the desire to get as much as possible from the vanquished, while it was necessary to think about helping them to restore the economy. This led to social and political upheavals in Central and Eastern Europe, exacerbation of ethnic problems.
The borders of the new states in Europe were determined without taking into account the interests of the peoples inhabiting their territories.
About 30 million people found themselves in a situationnational minorities (Germans in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungarians in Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Ukrainians and Belarusians in Poland). Many of them were forced to emigrate, but dreamed of returning to their native lands.
After the creation of Yugoslavia, Croats and Slovenes who profess Catholicism (31% of the population) and Muslims living in Bosnia and Macedonia (10%) found themselves in a position religious minority. Orthodox Serbs (43% of the population) considered the reunification of the Slavs to be their merit, controlled the army and the central government of the new state, acquired a decisive role in it, which carried the germ of future conflicts.
Germany accepted the terms of the Treaty of Versailles only after the threat of resumption of hostilities by the allies.
In Germany, Hungary and Bulgaria the problem the return of territorial losses became the main one in domestic politics, the basis for the consolidation of militaristic, revanchist forces.
Italy belonged to the camp of the winners, but most of its politicians believed that the Paris Conference did not take into account its interests in the division of the colonies.
It did not include Russia engulfed in civil war.
Supporters of the isolationist policy in the US Congress disrupted the ratification of the Charter of the League of Nations, because some of its provisions contradicted the Monroe Doctrine, according to which the United States could not take part in conflicts outside the Western Hemisphere.
Ratification- approval by the country's supreme legislative body of the signed international agreement. It is generally accepted that without ratification, agreements that assume that the state assumes certain obligations do not enter into force.
4. "The Russian Question" at the Paris Peace Conference [§7 p.4 Zagladin].
The most important source of the weakness of the Versailles system was the non-participation of Russia in it.April-June 1918 after the conclusion of peace between Russia and Germany, the allies landed troops in Russian port cities (Japan - in Vladivostok, England - in Murmansk), in order to prevent the transfer to the Germans of stockpiles of weapons previously delivered to these cities. After the surrender of Germany, the Allies also occupied port cities of the Black Sea region. The territories occupied by the troops of the Entente countries became the base for the activities of anti-Bolshevik forces - from monarchists to left SRs.
Chairman of the Supreme Military Council of the Entente Marshal F. Foch proposed to solve the problems of Russia through open intervention.
However, dissatisfaction among the troops, tired of the war, demanding demobilization, public protests, fears that interference in Russia's internal affairs would result in a protracted and unpopular war in Western countries, forced the allies in the summer of 1919, evacuate troops from the European part of Russia. They decided to limit themselves to the economic blockade of Soviet Russia, to help the anti-Bolshevik movements, and to supply him with weapons.
5. Washington Conference [§7 p.5 Zagladin].
During the war years, Japan approximately quadrupled its industrial output, bringing its share of world industrial production closer to that of France.This violated the principles of "open doors" and "equal opportunities" in China, adopted before the war. In addition, Japanese troops invaded Russian territory in the Far East and occupied the northern part of Sakhalin.
Similar strengthening of Japan, expanding its spheres of influence causedanxiety other great powers.
1) "Treaty of the Nine".
She had to make serious concessions. Japan:
abandoned the "21 conditions" to China,
returned to him the captured former German port of Qingdao,
confirmed its adherence to the principle of "open doors".
2) "Treaty of Five".
It was concludedagreement on the limitation of naval armaments , which was supposed to prevent the emergence of rivalry in sea power between the winners.The conference established that for battleships, considered the main striking force of the fleet, the proportions between the USA, Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy could be approximately 5:5:3:1.75:1.75.
The only concession made to Japan was the obligation of the United States to refrain from military development on its islands in the Western Pacific and the Philippines.
At the Paris and Washington conferences the interests of the peoples of the colonial and dependent countries were not taken into account. This exacerbated the contradictions between the leading industrial countries and the metropolises. in the 1920s-1930s
Questions and tasks
Explain the essence of the principles proposed by W. Wilson for the organization of the post-war world. What do you think they were dictated by? Was it possible to implement them after the war? Why?
Fill the table "The intentions of the victorious powers at the Paris Conference".
Conclude why, after the end of the war, contradictions arose between the victorious powers.
Describe the main conditions of the post-war peace treaties. Show on the map the territorial changes in the world after the First World War.
Explain what was the weakness of the Versailles-Washington system. What reasons determined it?
When and for what purpose was the League of Nations created? Why didn't the USA and Russia join it?
How did World War I change the map of Europe?
Documentary materials
From W. Wilson's message to the US Congress (January 8, 1918):In this war, we do not require anything special for ourselves. We demand that the world be safe, that the world be safe for every peace-loving nation that, like ours, would like to lead its own way of life, establish its own institutions, be sure of justice and honesty from other peoples of the world, not allowing the use of force and aggression.
From the works of J. Keynes:
The peace treaty did nothing for the economic recovery of Europe, nothing to turn the defeated Central Powers into good neighbors, to give stability to the newly created states, to reason with Russia. It did not prepare the way for the realization of economic solidarity among the Allies themselves. In Paris, they did not come to an agreement on the restoration of the upset finances of France and Italy, they did nothing to harmonize the system of Europe and the New World.
Clemenceau was thinking about how to strangle the economic life of the enemy. Lloyd-George - how would it be more successful to make a deal and bring home something that will withstand criticism for a week. The President of the United States - how not to do something contrary to justice and law<...>.
The main economic problem of Europe, exhausted and decaying before our eyes, was the only issue to which it proved impossible to draw attention.
Question 8.How does J. Keynes feel about the signed peace treaty? Find in the text of the document an assessment of the activities of the leaders of the victorious powers.
XX century in faces
Thomas Woodrow Wilson(1856-1924) - President of the United States in 1913-1921. from the Democratic Party.Coming from a family of a Presbyterian pastor, he was brought up in the spirit of Protestant religious traditions. Renowned scholar, specialist in law and state building, rector of Princeton University. He left this post, having come into conflict with the trustees and teachers of the university, who did not like Wilson's rigidity, his penchant for administrative experiments.
Nevertheless, in 1910, Wilson achieved election to the post of governor of New Jersey, and in 1913 he became president of the United States. Under Wilson, reforms were carried out in the field of customs, tax, banking policy (the introduction of a system of progressive taxation, state control over banking activities), the rights of trade unions were expanded, and antimonopoly legislation was tightened.
V. Wilson believed that the policy of the state should be aimed at the implementation of moral, ethical and religious norms. He wanted the United States to play an active role in the international arena, guaranteeing stable order in the world with its might. The refusal of the US Congress to support the idea of the League of Nations developed by Wilson was a heavy blow for him. He fell ill and retired, leaving control of the White House apparatus to his wife.
Unlike 2005, when cars in Paris were set on fire mainly by migrants and their children, this time the protests involve the urban middle class, outraged by rising fuel prices.
The protests that have been shaking France for two weeks now are gradually turning into a factor in European politics and make us think about what forms and methods of optimal interaction between the people and the authorities are in modern society.
The prehistory of the problem is quite well known: against the backdrop of a global trend with rising oil prices and in the context of a stormy romance between the French socialists and the “green” lobby, motor fuel prices in France have grown significantly faster in the past two years than in other EU countries. The fact that diesel fuel, which has always remained 10-15% cheaper than gasoline, has become especially piquant to the situation since 2013, due to the introduction of various “environmental fees”, has become more expensive at an accelerated pace. In the last 12 months alone, prices for it have increased by 22% and diesel has caught up in price with gasoline. As of November 30, diesel fuel was sold at a price of €1.43 per 1 liter (which corresponds to 108 rubles at the current exchange rate), and at some gas stations even more expensive. At this price, taxes are about 59%, but the state wanted more, because in the price of 95th gasoline this share reaches 66%, and it was decided from January 1, 2019 to further increase taxes on "harmful" diesel. This threatens to lead to an additional increase in the cost of fuel by 7.6 euro cents per liter, or almost 5%.
Here the people did not hold back. The protests began peacefully, as, in fact, happens in Europe in most cases. But they immediately received wide support from the population, as people have long been tired of the government’s insane even by European standards (taxes in France are the highest in Europe - in order to get €100 in their hands, the employee and his employer must pay another €131 “on top”) . On November 24, the number of protesters across the country exceeded 100,000. France's interior minister accused Marine Le Pen, leader of the far-right National Front, who ran against Emmanuel Macron in the 2017 presidential election, of organizing the riots. Of course, among the protesters there could and certainly were her supporters, but for the majority, these arguments became additional evidence of the inadequacy of the authorities, and the situation escalated. As a result: a hundred burned cars, almost a thousand demonstrators arrested, two hundred injured policemen and four dead, including an 80-year-old pensioner who was accidentally killed in Marseille by a police stun grenade.
At the direction of President Macron, Prime Minister Edouard Philippe has begun negotiations with the protesters, but the degree of confrontation has not yet subsided.
It can be stated that today the French protests have significantly surpassed those that took place in 1995, when the country was paralyzed by general strikes provoked by the reform of the pension system (in other words, raising the retirement age) launched by the cabinet of Prime Minister Alain Juppe after fourteen years of the rule of a socialist president François Mitterrand.
It must be admitted that modern democracy is becoming less stable. In countries where the democratic choice is real and rich, victory is increasingly achieved by a very small majority (or even a minority), and the scale of disagreement between the opposing political camps is so great that each side then begins to be guided solely by hatred of the other. Where there is no real choice due to all kinds of "filters" and party restrictions, but democratic procedures are still accepted formally, turnout decreases everywhere, and the winner then faces indifference and distrust. In both cases, the legitimacy of power turns out to be relatively conditional, and therefore, to its traditional logic - “there are still five [four, three] years before the elections, so you can do almost whatever you want” - you should definitely add elementary caution and understanding that the electorate should not be angry. All sorts of “maidans” in the world of postmodern politics and social networks are becoming more widespread and successful precisely because the slightest disappointment in power demoralizes its supporters and at the same time unites opponents who are convinced that the legitimacy of institutions is relative.
In France today we are witnessing just such a situation, and not a banal strike, of which there have been many. Now a number of analysts are counting losses and losses this fall, comparing what is happening with the events of 2005. In my opinion, this is completely wrong. Then the protests began in the suburbs of Paris, in poor and predominantly immigrant areas, and cars were burned mainly by migrants and their children, thereby expressing their outrage at the prevailing "injustice". Today the situation is reversed: the urban middle class is taking to the streets - and the central ones, who no longer want to pay rabid taxes, a significant part of which is spent on benefits and SMIC (minimum wage) for those who smashed everything around 13 years ago. The authorities have faced what is probably the most serious protest since the revolutionary year of 1968. Everything merged in it: dissatisfaction with high taxes and the cost of living, disappointment with the ongoing social policy, fear of growing immigration, a sense of isolation of French and European politicians from the people. The French president, elected last year almost as the savior of the nation, today enjoys the support of only 25% of voters.
However, the problem is not limited to the scale of protest and the depth of frustration. Two factors significantly complicate matters. On the one hand, this is the support of the protesters by the population: according to the latest data, it is approaching 84%, which makes it almost impossible to apply any harsh measures to the demonstrators. On the other hand, the current protest, unlike the events of half a century ago, does not have an organized core - leaders with whom, if desired, the authorities could initiate a dialogue. All this extremely limits the actions of the government, reducing them, in fact, only to the arrest of the instigators and the most active participants in the protest. Such a tactic has little chance of success, because in no European country today it is possible to arrest several thousand people in the hope of keeping them in cells for more than one or two days. And street protests in the country are not going to decline yet. And all this leaves the Elysee Palace with no other option but to retreat. There is no way to win the confrontation that President Macron has been drawn into. Concessions are needed here and now, otherwise it may be too late.
I think that the current French authorities will have enough political wisdom to understand this and adequately abandon unpopular decisions. It is quite possible that in the remaining few years of his tenure, the "technocratic" president will be able to regain the trust of the voters.
The protests in France, in my opinion, show that even in prosperous and wealthy societies with relatively uncorrupted authorities, the population has a long list of complaints against their rulers. It is obvious that in the politics of the 21st century there are no and cannot be firmly established terms of staying in power, guaranteed obedience of the people against the backdrop of arbitrarily adopted laws and rules. Today, the state rises not above the masses and classes, as it was a hundred years ago, but above a mobile multitude of individuals who are sometimes able to mobilize for reasons in which it is difficult to see in advance a reason for discontent.
Watching the events in France, first of all I want to ask myself, can something similar happen in Russia, where gasoline has long been accustomed to rise in price against the backdrop of falling oil prices? On the one hand, both in Russia and in most other countries of the post-Soviet space, the population is not ready to take to the streets against the systemic deterioration of the economic situation affecting the majority of citizens. Performances like these have not been seen in these countries since the early 1990s. And even the pension reform, not to mention the increase in VAT or the rise in gasoline prices, did not cause anything in Russia comparable in scale and bitterness to the French protest.
On the other hand, the Paris protests raise another very important question: how will the Russian government respond to protests even remotely similar in scale and character to the French ones? Personally, I have no doubts here: the reaction will be many times more radical than in Europe. And if this happens, then no one will be able to predict the reaction of the crowd. Moreover, no one will be able to guarantee the loyalty of ordinary policemen or riot police to the authorities if, instead of sending giggling teenagers to paddy wagons, it comes to real street clashes.
On Monday, December 10, French President Emmanuel Macron addressed the citizens of his country. The video message was broadcast by the main French TV channels.
Macron announced an increase in the minimum wage (SMIC) and the abolition of overtime from 2019 with social charges, and also asked employers to pay employees New Year's bonuses. This will cost the government at least 15 billion euros, wrote in Twitter Paris Match journalist, citing the calculations of the National Assembly Commission on Social Affairs.
- The events of recent weeks have deeply stirred France. They mixed both the legitimate demands of the people and the unacceptable acts of violence., Emmanuel Macron began his address.
Experts heard this as a threat to everyone who is guilty of riots and pogroms in many French cities. They will be punished. All who participated in the protests, the president called "opportunists" who took advantage of the "legitimate" popular anger to achieve their goals. Among these opportunists, Macron also mentioned "irresponsible politicians" who are leading the country "to chaos and anarchy." However, he did not become personal.
In a video message, the French President announced four key measures that should improve the well-being of the population and calm the dissatisfied. In other words, he made concessions and practically announced the fulfillment of all the requirements of the “yellow vests”.
First, the minimum wage will be increased in France in the near future. In 2019, it will grow by 100 euros. “It won't cost businesses one euro more,” the president stressed. That is, the increase will be provided from the state treasury.
Secondly, from next year tax collections for overtime hours will again become a thing of the past. At one time, such a reform was introduced by Nicolas Sarkozy, but Francois Hollande canceled it.
Thirdly, Macron asked employers to pay employees a year-end bonus, or, as the people called it, the “New Year's bonus”. In some countries this is called the thirteenth salary. The President stressed that it would also not be taxed.
And fourthly, Macron promised to cancel the increase in the collection of CSG planned for 2019 for pensioners - social benefits that finance the state health system and the unemployed relief fund. The increase has been implemented in France since 1991 and increases with each new government. But this will not apply to all pensioners, but only to those whose income is less than 2,000 euros per month.
All these measures should increase the purchasing power of the French, Macron is sure.
In his video message, the president also literally declared war on "tax fugitives" who register in countries with lower taxes and work in the Fifth Republic. Macron vowed to ensure that subsidiaries of foreign enterprises operating in the country pay their taxes in France.
- When violence begins, freedom ends. Now republican order and tranquility must return to France. We will do everything for this. We can't build anything as long as we fear for the peace in our streets. And I have already given the government the most stringent instructions on this matter. But at the same time, I do not forget that there is anger in the country. Many of us feel it. And this anger is expressed not only in the unacceptable destruction that I spoke about. Of course, this is anger against the tax, and the prime minister has already canceled its increase, scheduled for the beginning of the year. But this anger can be our opportunity. This has been felt for the last 40 years: it was felt by the workers, it was felt in the villages, where public services were provided less and less ... For 40 years, people felt that they were not heard. All this came to us from afar, but it is happening here, now! For a year and a half, we could not find a quick and effective solution to the problem. And I feel my responsibility, - Macron's speech lasted about 13 minutes.
Emmanuel Macron's proposals could jeopardize France's compliance with one of the main requirements of the European Union, according to which the budget deficit should be less than 3% of GDP. The European Commission said they would closely monitor the economic situation in France.
Opposition party leaders condemned the president's statements. Some of them called on the French for a "civil revolution".
At the same time, as the LCI edition notes, referring to the data of a sociological survey, the majority of the French support the economic measures of the President of France and are satisfied with his video message. This was stated by 54% of the respondents.
