Man's racial differences are variable. Racial Differences (Racial Differences)
All people, regardless of racial, have the overall history of evolution. It is extremely unlikely that the selection factor varies significantly from the group to the group. All people have come across the same common problems throughout the almost all of their history of evolution. OK. 6% of genetic discrepancies in humans as the species are explained by racial, 8% - differences between populations within racial groups and over 85% - differences between individuals of the same populations within racial groups.
In zap. The world division into races is often based on skin color. However, another Charles Darwin reasonably noted that "the color is usually assessed by naturalist-systematics as an insignificant sign." Differences such as morphology, physiol are much more important. And behavior.
Phys. Differences may be the result of natural selection, mainly due to adaptive evolution. For example, most groups inhabiting high arctic latitudes are distinguished by a chorey torso and short limbs. This type of body leads to an increase in the ratio of its mass to the total area of \u200b\u200bits surface and, therefore, to a decrease in thermal energy loss while maintaining the body temperature. High, thin, long-legged representatives of Sudan tribes, supporting the same body temperature as Eskimos, but inhabitants in extremely hot and wet climatic conditions, developed a physique, which implies Max. The ratio of the total surface area of \u200b\u200bthe body to its mass. This type of body best meets the methods of heat dissipation, which would otherwise lead to an increase in body temperature above the norm.
Dr. Phys. Differences between groups may arise due to non-adaptive, neutral with t. S. Evolution of changes in different groups. For most of its history, people lived in small generic populations (Dimami), in which the random variability of the gene pool, provided by the founders of this Dima, became fixed signs of their offspring. Mutations arising within Dima, if apparent, spread first within this Dima, then in neighboring dits, but probably did not reach spatially
remote groups.
If we consider R. r. with t. S. Physiol. (metabolism), a good example of how the genetic influence on the differences between races can be explained, there will be a sulfur-cell anemia (SKA). SKA is characteristic of the Black Population Zap. Africa. Since the ancestors of black Americans lived in Zap. Africa, this disease is subject to the Blue Population of America. People suffering from them live less. Why is the likelihood of SK disease so high only for certain groups? Allyson found that hemozygous hemoglobin 5 gene (one gene from this pair causes the cremp of erythrocytes, and the other is not) people turn out to be quite resistant to malaria. People with two "normal" genes (i.e. hemoglobin a) genes are exposed to a significantly higher risk of malaria, people with two sickle-shaped genes suffer from anemia, and with heterozygous genes are at least less risks of the other disease. Diseases. This "balanced polymorphism" was formed independently - presumably as a result of the selection of random mutations - in a number of different racial / ethnic groups in the infected malaria regions.
A variety of types of anemia arising due to sickle cells are not genetically identical in various racial / ethnic groups, but they all have the same basis - the advantage of heterozygility.
Since we still do not have all the facts, such information is as it were for the warning signal: despite the fact that R. r. They may exist, the reasons for these differences require comprehensive and thorough research. Repeated genetic differences may be represented by their origin. - or exclusively - due to media factors.
It has long been known that black Americans get lower indicators on the tests of intelligence (10) than white Americans. At the same time, it was repeatedly reported that Asian's faces show higher results on the tests of intelligence than white ones, these tests b. h. have been standardized. The question of at least about the differences between black and white is not that there are differences in their test indicators, and in whether there may be the causes of these differences.
The controversy in respect of 10 again aggravated after a certain funeral period as a result of the publication of Arthur Jensen article. Although Jensen accurately outlined in his article the data available to him in relation to the intragroup inheritance, later research. It was found that intragroup differences are much less susceptible to genetic control than Jensen considered. In addition to this, Hirsch et al. Showed that even if intragroup differences have a genetic basis, these differences are not in fact relevant when evaluating the degree of genetic influence on differences between groups.
De Fris and others published an article, about the movie it is especially appropriate to recall in this context, as it shows that the differences between generations of the same ethnic groups are close to the magnitude of the difference between black and white Americans. Differences between generations and sexual differences are well consistent with changes in status (eg, the formation of parents, profession), which came from generation to generation, is a strong argument in favor of a significant impact of the environment for cognitive tests.
Personality characteristics are harder to measure than the level of intelligence. The results of personal tests that assess the actual characteristics are potentially fuzzy, due to changes in mood, emotions and behavior. R. r. In personality features (eg, aggressiveness, caringness) may exist. It is usually considered that these differences are associated exclusively with the effects of the medium. However, it seems that it is an overly simplified look at things. Friedman and Friedman presented data proving the existence of genetically determined R. r. In terms of person. Dr. Data indicate the presence of the genetic component of variability of personal traits inside the racial / ethnic groups studied. Group differences may exist, although rather on the subgroup than at the racial level.
The initial package of Sovr. Research in the region R. r. It is that R. r. There really exist and can have a genetic basis. However, the differences between races are smaller than the differences between their subgroups, and differences between races, as well as between their subgroups (whether they are due to genetic factors, environmental factors, or their interactions or relationships) are, in turn, insignificant in comparison with Differences between individually included in them.
See also Cross-Cultural Psychology, Instruction, National Character
Here some cruel left-liberal dudes tried to object to me regarding my past post (do not be lazy, go). Paphos their speech consisted in which: ah, argue that Negros are dumber than whites - it is racism! .. This reaction is not surprising: the left-liberal infection of American campuses gradually penetrates the Boschka and our people. And they are approved in the dogmas of the left liberalism, one of which: colored, white, men and women are absolutely equal in their properties and qualities. Left liberalism generally confuses legal equality with actual.
But the fact that people of different sexes and different races are different, in general, citizens are unwritten visible to the naked eye. They have a skin color different, for example. Growing different. Hormonal level ... And with this, the left-liberal Mrazness agrees: "Yes, physically we are different. But what relating to psychological and cognitive abilities, there is no difference!" This dogmatic does not withstand a theoretical or practical verification. In fact, cognitive abilities depend on "physics" - brain devices (its fields, departments, etc.), from hormonal background and other things, and all of the following is a consequence of genetics.
Well, to finally dispel the left-liberal marrow, turn to science.
Dependence of intelligence from race
Philippe Rushton and Arthur Jensen, prepared by the University of Western Ontario Rushton, prepared by the University of Western (Arthur Jensen) from the University of California in Berkeley, sixty-walled labor "30 years of research of racial differences in the field of cognitive abilities" (Thirty Years Of Research On Race Difference) will be published In the June issue of the magazine of the American Association of Psychologists "Psychology, Public Policy and Law".
According to the data collected by the authors of the study, there is a clearly traceable dependence between the level of intelligence of the subject and the color of its skin, it is said in the press release of the Charles Darwin Research Institute. The authors reinforce their statements by the array of statistical data collected in the last 90 years: Starting from the time of the First World War, when they first began to test soldiers called for military service to the US Army, and ending an even more impressive study of American office employees, military and university students. (Higher-Education Test Takers) in 2001, when six million people were tested.
According to Mr. Rashton, even with the coincidence levels of parental education, the difference in the levels of intelligence between representatives of different races is already manifested at a three-year-old, and, accordingly, it cannot be written off to the impossibility of obtaining decent education and other limiting factors. Having tried to determine the reason for such an explicit differentiation, Rashton and Jensen broke their conclusions for ten categories.
1. Despite the fact that IQ tests were designed white and white, Asians show a higher level of intelligence than white, regardless of the place of residence. The average IQ for Asians is about 106, for whites - about 100, for blacks - from 85 in the United States to 70 in the area of \u200b\u200bthe so-called Black Africa (SUB-Saharan Africa).
2. Brighter than all racial differences are manifested in tests that measure the so-called "overall level of intelligence coefficient" (there are tests that measure mathematical, verbal abilities and spatial intelligence). The difference in the level of white and blacks is stronger than the "Backward Digit Span" type tests (you need to remember and pronounce in reverse sequential up to nine arbitrarily issued numbers) and weaker "Forward Digit Span" tests (the same, but in direct sequence) .
3. Gene-Environment Architecture (Gene-Environment Architecture) IQ is about the same for all races and mainly depends on heredity. Surveying the unnamed number of twins of the Negroid, Mongoloid and Caucasian races, the researchers came to the conclusion that hereditary factors account for 50% of the weight in the formation of intelligence.
4. Studies using the magnetic resonance method show that the correlation between the level IQ and the weight of the brain is approximately 0.4. The more the brain, the more neurons and synapses in it, thanks to which the speed of information processing also grows. By the time of maturity, the average volume of the Asian brain exceeds the white brain volume on one cubic centimeter. In turn, the white overtakes black on five cubic centimeters.
5. The difference in the levels of intelligence is maintained in cases of interracial adoptions. If the White family belonging to the middle class adopts a black child, to achieving the age of majority, it will demonstrate on average the worst level of IQ than his parents. In the case of the adoption of the Asian child, the situation will be directly opposite.
6. The level of IQ among black is associated with a touch of the skin: the skin is lighter, the average, above IQ. In South Africa, the level of IQ methives averages about 85, clean blacks - about 70 and white - 100.
7. The IQ level always strives for the average value established for representatives of this race. Parents demonstrating a very high level of intelligence, as a rule, have enough of medium children in this sense. If the parents belonging to the Negroid and Caucasian races, IQ 115 was recorded, their children will have IQ at level 85 and 100, respectively.
8. There is an explicit dependence between the racial affiliation and the rate of cultivation of an individual (this indicator includes the achievement of physical and puberty, the development of personality and social skills and even time through which the baby began to crawl, run and dress independently). Here the situation looks like this: blacks grow faster, Asians - later. White, as expected, trample somewhere in the middle.
9. Racial differentiation in terms of intelligence confirms the concept of origin of humanity in Africa with its gradual expansion to the north. The more severe conditions of the life of the upper latitudes demanded a higher intelligibility of our ancestors.
10. Arguments of critics of racial theory, written off racial differences on a different level of education and social environment, apparently cannot explain the statistical patterns over the past 90 years. The elimination of racial segregation and the policy of "Affirmative Action" (the so-called "positive discrimination", which puts representatives of the once oppressed social and ethnic groups into a privileged position compared to the heirs of the former oppressors) have not yet given any effect.
S. Drobyshevsky:You understand everything correctly! There is no in nature in the nature of "European" or "disgusting" haplogroup. Races allocated on the external signs of modern people. Haplogroups are variants of genes that are found in different morphological races with different frequency. Just some genetics tend to either simplify the record, or do not understand what they themselves write. When some haplogroup is often found among the European winds, genetics call it "Europeanoid". When she often meets in Kaki peoples, they can easily call her "Turkic", "Indo-European" or "Finno-Ugorskaya". And this is completely nonsense because linguistics with races and genes are not directly connected at all.. But it happens convenient. In short, than to say: "a haplogroup, which with the greatest frequency is found among representatives of peoples speaking in the languages \u200b\u200bof the Ugric linguistic family compared to representatives of other peoples." If the haplogroup is found in Central Africa, it means that it is there and the same "non-frosted", like "Europeanoid". And we can weave some migrations in both directions. And even more so nonsense - to attribute to the carriers of a certain haplogroup of a particular skin color! Skin color is determined by the mass of genes that have their own history. Now in Africa, the carriers of this haplogroup have a black color, why then the haplogroup should certainly be brought by white people? And if somehow it was proved by the Dogotocene movement of the carriers of the haplogroup, it is silly to talk about the color of the skin, because we really do not know what he was then. It was not at the modern version to the Coolcene of the Europeanoids at all, it was already 50-60 years old. With the same success, you can talk about the migrations of Slavs on average Paleolith. Some and say, however ...
Letter to the editor:Are the dark-skinned South Insiates by Australoids? Or, the Australoids are only the Negritos, the inhabitants of Melanesia and Australian Aborigines, and the South Insiates closest to Europeoids?
SD: Dark-skinned South Insiates are Vietnamese with Yavanyans? Or Data with Bajao? Or semangga with NATUs? This is not the same thing. If the Vietnamese with Yavalents - then they relate to the South Ohaazita race of the Mongoloids and the Europeanoids are not much closer than the same melanesians; But they themselves are not Australoids themselves. If Dwekyaks with Bajao, then they are classically belonging to domes, although I personally have great doubts about this regard, but in any case they will be representatives of the Eastern Equatorial Equatorials with some admixture of the South Asian race; They will belong to Australoids in a broad sense (synonyms - Eastern Equatorial, Australia Melanesoids), but not to Australoids in a narrow sense (this is only Australian aborigines). If you meant semangov, ATA and Andamanians, then this is the negritos who are remembered, which accurately belong to Australoids in a broad sense. None of the memories are not closer to the Europeanoids. The Europeoids are closer to African Negros, representatives of the Ural race and part of the Western Mongoloids mixed with Europeanoids - people of the South-Breaker race.
Mr_Bison. (Forum Paleo.ru.) : Is it possible to say that the mixing of races in the genetic plan does not have harmful consequences for the offspring and are there any exceptions (pigmeas?)?
S.M.:Absolutely, we can say that there is no harmful consequences. It was checked and rechecked, in terms of the frequency of diseases, mental disorders, fertility, child performance indicators in school and so on. Moreover, methius studied the most different: non-European-European different spills, Polynesian-Japanese-European, Japanese-Negrine, Bushmen-European, Mongoloid-European, Australian-European, Russian-Buryat, Russian-Kazakh, and so on. Now in general, a good percentage of the population of the Earth is metis of different options. More than half of the population of Central and South America, for example. Almost all Mexicans. But Pigmeys are just very weakly meticulated. It is the flow of genes to the blacks from them, and no one goes to pigmeas. The methuses of blacks and pygmeys are quite normal, it is a considerable percentage of the population of Central Africa.
The fact is that races differ from each other very weakly, mostly external signs, but not even at the level of subspecies. Actually, the difference between races from the subspecies is that the subspecies are usually well insulated, and the races are not isolated, there are always transitional options. And always, at all times the mixing went. Therefore, there is no harmful effects. Not so long ago, the races arose and have never been separated by sharp barriers.
Svetlana Borinskaya:There may be different effects. According to interracial offspring, I did not look at the articles - you can ask the anthropologists, but the colleagues-genetics have data on inter-ethnic marriage. Children from inter-ethnic marriages in Moscow (it is necessary to see more details - this is a long-standing work of Yu.P. Altukhov) at birth, there were no lower health indicators on birth. By distribution, for example, weight, often feared in the middle of the bell-shaped curve of the weight distribution (which is optimum), and in the edges. The descendants of the Russian and Selkups on average, cholesterol levels were higher than that of Russians or near the Selkups (the work of M.I.Vevodods seems). Causes can be like genetic ( parents are adapted to different environmental conditions, and what will the child be adapted?), and social - in inter-ethnic marriages in Moscow at least one spouse with a high probability was visiting, and visitors may have less favorable social conditions.
MR_BISON: Could you call as an example of some differences in the phenotype of races that are not adaptive, and are caused by the effect of the bottleneck and / or random mutations? Do these non-adaptive differences prevail over adaptive?
SD: Blonde hair in many groups is such an example. The light hair color seems to be adaptable or very poorly adaptive. And many times arose independently: in Northern Europe, in the North Caucasus, at the Cabilov in the Atlask Mountains, in the residents of Hindukusch, the Melnersians of the Solomon Islands, among the Aborigines of the Central and Northern Australia. Most likely, this breath is connected just with the effect of the bottleneck of the neck on the scale of small isolated populations.
Probably, Epicantus also arose - the version that he protects the eye from dust, although it is widespread, does not stand criticism (the mass of groups lives in dusty places without Epicatus - Bedouins, Arabs and Australians, for example, - and the Mongoloids have no dusty places).
The nose backrest form is most likely from this series, although it may experience sex selection.
It is difficult to say what prevails. On the one hand, we may not know adaptive value, on the other - we generally represent a clear adaptive value for a very small number of signs. In addition, one thing does not interfere with: value can be so weak that the statistical effects of changes in gene frequencies can outweigh this value. In general, it is difficult to calculate the signs. Hair color is considered as one sign or a few, given that even black is encoded in the genome of different people in different ways? Such calculations will be speculative in definition.
SB:Genetic neutral differences between races are full. For example, the same haplogroups of MTDNA or Y - (for individual haplogroups it was assumed to communicate with adaptive signs, but it seems that it was not proved).
MR_BISON: It is possible to say that when mixed races, the health of the offspring is more likely to increase, and not decrease, since the likelihood of the transition of harmful recessive genes characteristic of each race is reduced in a homozygous state and a heterozygous advantage (like HBSHBS mutation protecting from malaria or CFTR protecting Cholera) Currently, almost lost its role while its harmful side effects in a homozygous state remained?
SB:It is impossible. According to HBS, most of the representatives of the groups where Malaria raided, and without additional efforts heterozygous. At the population level, interracial or inter-ethnic marriages are insignificant to reduce the frequency of homozygotes (and so 1% -2% are not essential for the survival of the population, although substantially for a separate family in which the sick child may be born).
There are many such works. For example,
GENETIC STRUCTURE OF HUMAN POPULATIONS.
ROSENBERG NA, PRITCHARD JK, WEBER JL, CANN HM, KIDD KK, Zhivotovsky
WITHIN-POPULATION DIFFERENCES AMONG INDIVIDUALS ACCOUNT FOR 93 TO 95%
of Genetic Variation; Differences AMONG MAJOR GROUPS Constitute Only 3
MR_BISON: I met a few times the statement that the genetic distance between large races does not exceed 0.03 by Masatoshi Nei, but unfortunately did not find a trustworthy source. Only messages on the forums. Is it true? And is it equal to the genetic distance between the subspecies according to it 0.17-0.22?
SB:There are many such works. For example, GENETIC STRUCTURE OF HUMAN POPULATIONS.ROSENBERG NA, PRITCHARD JK, WEBER JL, CANN HM, KIDD KK, ZHIVOTOVSKYLA, Feldman Mw.SCience. 2002 Dec 20; 298 (5602): 2381-5: WITHIN-POPULATION DIFFERENCES AMONG INDIVIDUALS ACCOUNT FOR 93 TO 95% OF GENETIC VARIATION; Differences AMONG MAJOR GROUPS Constitute only 3TO 5%.
MR_BISON: Do I understand correctly what to talk about the effect of heterosis (an increase in the viability of hybrids) when mixing various races is not less, it is impossible, since the races are too close to each other genetically?
SB:It is correct that the effect of heterozis in relation to interracial or interethnic marriages is not applicable. Wrong in the description of the reasons. The label of race or nationality is important, and the fact that harmful effects for offspring has accommodation in an environment to which a person is not adapted. And it is usually adapted to those conditions in which his ancestors lived. Representatives of different races (or ethnic groups) were adapted to different medium. The consequences for offspring depend on how much the medium of residence from the one to which the ancestors transmitted to him was adapted.
For example, Europeans Allel E4 The apolipoprotein gene is associated with an elevated cholesterol level and occurs with a frequency of 5% to 15%. Africans (allele frequency up to 40%) Allel E4 cholesterol level does not increase, and in African Americans, cholesterol is raised, but less than Europeans.
Actually, over the past 10 thousand years, most people have not lived in such conditions to which their ancestors have been adapted - ceased to be gathered hunters. Genetic changes have occurred, but no changes are kept - the medium changes faster than genes. See the hypothesis of "economical genes" in the article "Gene and the Food Traditions". With interracial or interethnic marriages, a child can get both the benefits of both parents and non-adaptive signs. Therefore, from the point of view of genetics, the question is only that the habitat and lifestyle corresponds to the genotype.
Vasily (letter to the editor; Stylistics Saved): And they could not answer the question. The Komanonians and their Eastern contemporaries people from the pedestality extinct or have their genes in modern Europeans and what nations on them are similar. And how are they extinct if people now live as if primitive them in the structure of the skull. Australians for example.
SD:The question of the continuity of the Upper Paleolithic European Comanons and modern Europeans has two versions of the solution. Anthropology testifies that Kromanonians are quite suitable for the ancestors of mesolitic Europeans, and the last - neolithic, and those - modern people. Moreover, many modern groups in Europe do not fundamentally differ from Cryanons and, apparently, are their more or less right descendants - groups in Northern Europe, England, in the Balkans, in the Caucasus (taking into account all sorts of migrations and mixing, of course). But the genetic data gives two versions. One, approximately 95% of modern Europeans - the descendants of Cryanonians, the remainder of 5% are the descendants of neolithic immigrants from the Middle East, which brought agriculture, which "Cryanonians" mastered. In an amazing way, other calculations of other genetics show that 95% of modern Europeans are descendants of neolithic immigrants from the Middle East, which brought agriculture, and the remainder of 5% - the descendants of therigonians who were completely advanced migrants. How to understand such a difference in calculations is a question for genetic groups. It seems that the approach is erroneous with the counting of interest of local and immigrants. Migration was not alone and did not happen simultaneously, part of the genes was originally general, the part was disappeared due to all gene drifts, the part was greatly changed. The problem is that genetics analyze only modern DNA (and what they have some samples ??? did they watched everyone ???), and the conclusions do about Paleolithic and neolithic. And it is wrong.
The question is - what nations are like Krohanyonians, it makes no sense, because the peoples are determined by social characteristics, and now no one hunts on the mammoths and hurts the burial. Anthropologically similar to many groups (not peoples!), Mainly on the periphery of Europe, as logically in something. But the complete set of Cryanon Damn is now in Europe not found, except in the individual case. It is clear that for 20 thousand years, everyone was mixed and reministed several times, it would be strange to look for Cryanons, even if Europe had been an isolated island of Tasmania type.
Australians are not primitive to therchonians on the structure of the skull. What, actually, primitiveness? In a smaller brain volume? Then the Europeans are primitive than Cryanons. In strong development of Visbrovaya? At Kroanonians, it was also unlawful. In large sizes of teeth? Kromanonians are not less. Primitiveness is generally determined by approximity to the ancestral state. Australians are not closer to some heelbrzhtsam than European Comanonians. In general, the question is how to extinct therible, if anyone is primitive, seems strange. First, who said that Kroanonians extinct? Secondly, how could the population of Australia prevent or help me extroset some group in Europe? Globalization of the Stone Age? Now Tritons, Latimaria, Foraminifera are still not dying out because they also don't get on the planet. And then there is a difference in levels where more.
Question Svetlana Borinskaya from the editorial office of the portal Anthropogenesis.ru:On October 8, a film with the odious name "Genetics against Darwin" comes on the channel "Russia-1". In the announcement of the film, among several well-known surnames, appears and your ...
This is once in some kind of corridor to the request to comment on the considerations of some Frick (which monkeys occurred from a person), replied that it was a complete nonsense.
I was not informed that my interview would be included in the film with the name "Genetics against Darwin". Naturally, I'm not against Darwin. I am against fraudsters on television.
In modern humanity, three main races are distinguished: the Europeanid, Mongol-Indian and Negroid. These are large groups of people who are distinguished by some physical signs, such as facial features, skin color, eyes and hair, hair shape.
For each race, the unity of origin and formation on a certain territory is characteristic.
The European-like race includes the indigenous population of Europe, South Asia and North Africa. Currents are characterized by a narrow face, strongly protruding nose, soft hair. The skin color in northern European views is light, the southern - mostly dark.
The mongoloid race includes the indigenous population of Central and East Asia, Indonesia, Siberia. Mongoloids are distinguished by a large flat-widespread face, eye cut, hard straight hair, dark skin color.
In the Nero-shaped race, two branches are distinguished - African and Australian. For a neotroid race, dark skin color, curly hair, dark eyes, wide and flat nose.
Racial features are hereditary, but at present they do not have significant importance for human vital activity. In addition, in the distant past, racial signs were useful for their owners: dark skin of blacks and curly hair, creating around the head of the air layer, protected the body from the action of sunlight, the shape of the face skeleton of the Mongoloids with a more extensive nasal cavity may be useful for Heating of cold air before it enters the lungs. According to mental abilities, i.e., the abilities for knowledge, creative and in general work, all races are the same. Differences in the level of culture are not connected with the biological characteristics of people of different races, but with the social conditions of the development of society.
The reaction essence of racism. Initially, some scientists confused the level of social development with biological characteristics and tried among modern peoples to find transitional forms, binding a person with animals. These errors used racists who began to talk about the allegedly existing inferiority of some races and peoples and the superiority of others to justify merciless operation and direct destruction of many peoples as a result of colonization, the seizure of foreign land and unleashing wars. When European and American capitalism tried to conquer the African and Asian peoples, White Race was declared the highest. Later, when Hitler's Hordes stepped in Europe, destroying the captured population in death camps, the so-called Aryan race was announced, to which the Fascists ranked German peoples. Racism is a reactionary ideology and policies aimed at justifying human exploitation by a person.
The failure of racism is proved by the present science on races - the emission. Distoping studies racial features, origin, formation and history of human races. The data obtained by the emission indicate that the differences between races are insufficient in order to consider races by various biological species of people. Mixing races - mohethisation - happened constantly, as a result of which interim types, smoothing differences between races occurred at the boundaries of representatives of various races.
Will races disappear? One of the important conditions for the formation of races isolation. In Asia, Africa and Europe, it to some extent exists today. Meanwhile, the recently populated regions, such as North and South America, can be compared with the boiler in which all three racial groups are interposed. Although public opinion in many countries does not support interracial marriages, there is almost no doubt that the mixture of races inevitably, and sooner or later will lead to the formation of a hybrid population of people.
Currently, several groups of signs well studied at the gene level can be distinguished. Many genes function in all people, showing only small quantitative differences in expression level. For example, each person has genes encoding the structure of the enzymes necessary for the implementation of basic metabolic processes. The carriers of rare mutations of these genes suffer from congenital metabolic errors. Many such genes may even have other living beings.
There are genes common to all representatives of some kind of race. The number of such signs is small. For example, the vertical fold of the upper eyelid in the Mongoloids.
There are signs that are found only in one of their three main races, and in two others are missing. This is a large number of genes that make up the system of genetic polymorphism. For example, Diego's blood factor, discovered in 1953, from representatives of the four generations of one Venezuelan family; It has been shown that most of the white people there is no factor of Diego. The phenotypic frequency of this factor in populations of American Indians is from 0.025 to 0.48. From the Mongoloids it is found, but with a lower frequency. These data confirm the assumption put forward in classical anthropology that American Indians are part of a large mongoloid race.
There is another class of signs that in some populations are more common than in others. For example, signs and alleles existing in all human races, but occurring with different frequencies. For example, the alleles of most systems of genetic polymorphism and genes, determinizing quantitative signs, such as growth, body proportions and physiological functions. The available data indicate the similarity of the frequencies of some homologous genes in different populations and that the construction of racial classifications is not easy task: intragroup differences between representatives of any racial group often exceed the differences between representatives of different large races.
The main factor of the omegenesis is the natural selection that causes adaptation to various environmental conditions. In order for the selection that leads to the emergence of genetic differences between large races was effective, a significant reproductive insulation of subpopulations is necessary. As you know, in the early history of mankind (about 100 thousand years ago), the huge surface area of \u200b\u200bthe earth was covered with glaciers. Himalayas and Altai Mountains with the Glaciers located on them were divided by the Eurasian continent into three areas, thereby creating conditions for separate evolution of whites in the West, the Mongoloids in the East and Negroids in the south. Although modern areas of settlement of three large races do not fully coincide with these areas, the inconsistency can be explained by migration processes.
The most notable differences between big races are differences in skin pigmentation. Most modern primates have dark pigmentation, therefore, probably, human ancestors were also dark-skinned if we consider the fact that the first people arose in Africa.
According to one hypothesis, in places of the settlement of European views and the Mongoloids there was an adaptation of people to the low level of ultraviolet irradiation (UFO). UFO is involved in the transformation of provitamin d in vitamin D to the skin. His lack leads to rickets. In weakly pigmented, the UVO skin penetrates easier than in a strongly pigmented. Therefore, with the same dose of UVO in light skin, vitamin D is formed than in the dark.
Duffy blood group is related to the functioning of receptors for Plasmodium vivax. Almost all Africans are Duffy-negative. High frequencies of Duffy negative allele prevented the malaria caused by P. Vivax, became endemic in West Africa.
Some faces cannot carry lactose and use cow's milk. In order for the absorption of lactose in the small intestine, it should be hydrolyzed by a special enzyme lactase, which is localized in the brush cut of the intestinal epithelial cells. The activity of lactase is high in newborns and breast-age children, belonging to any population and races, and decreases with breasts. In the future, lactase activity is maintained at a low level, making usually less than 10% of the enzyme activity in the newborn. Persons with high lactase activity can carry large amounts of lactose. In their blood, after a lactose load, the amount of glucose and galactose increases significantly. In people with low lactase activity after the use of milk, the increase in glucose in the blood is either not occurring, or it is insignificant. After receiving 0.5 liters of milk, such people show clinical symptoms of intolerance.
In most populations of the Mongoloids, Indians and Eskimos, as well as most Arabs and Jews, in the populations of tropical Africa, the Australian Aborigines and Melanesians have the preservation of lactase activity in older children and adults are very rare or not found at all. However, for residents of Northern and Central Europe and for their descendants on other continents, the predominance of persons who preserve lactase activity in adulthood (more than 75%) are characterized. In the population of Spain, Italy and Greece found intermediate frequencies (30 - 70%). The high activity of the lactase was found in African nomads-cattle breeders. In the population of American blacks, the frequency of this feature is somewhat higher than the Africans. The preservation of lactase activity in adulthood is characteristic only for whites, for them it is the norm. Lactomatic insufficiency is inherited autosomal-recessively. Lactose's "suction" are either homozygotes or heterozygotes on the lactose absorption gene, and persons with impaired suction of this gene do not have. The preservation of lactase activity in adults can be compared with the preservation of fetal hemoglobin.
The preservation of people in most populations of persons capable of sucking lactose, the presence of this feature in other mammals indicates that the gene responsible for the preservation of lactase activity arose during the evolution of a person repeatedly as a result of mutation and that high frequencies of this gene in some populations are due to its selective advantage. . About 9 thousand years ago, intensive domestication of dairy cattle began, which led to the selective advantage of individuals, which could satisfy most of their food needs in protein, using milk. It is also known that lactose can replace vitamin D, improving the absorption of calcium, which is important for the population of the northern regions, where the level of UFO is low.
It has been known since 1959 the genetic polymorphism of the -2 -2-protein protein of human serum detected by immunological methods. Currently, many alleles of this system (GC-proteins) are described, which transfer vitamin D. The first data on the frequencies of these genes showed that in very arid areas, the GC allele is rare. Later, data appeared indicating the relationship between the intensity of solar illumination and the GC allele polymorphism. In most populations living for a long time in areas with low intensity of sunlight, high frequencies GC 2 are detected. Such a geographical distribution testifies to the selective advantage of GC 2. It is possible, it is due to the fact that this allel provides more efficient transportation of vitamin D. This in turn can lead to a decrease in the frequency of Rakhit or in individuals, heterozygous by the GC 2 allele, or homozygous individuals, or from those and others.
In addition to the above examples in this section dedicated to population genetics, very little is known for the selective advantage or harmfulness of racial signs. It can be assumed that a small growth and a dense physique of the Eskimos, as well as the thick layer of subcutaneous fat characteristic of them, give certain advantages in the cold climate, and the wide chest of South American Indians living high in Andes is related to respiratory adaptation to life in high spirits. Representatives of different racial groups in the United States and other developed countries detect differences in exposure to multifactorial diseases. For example, American negros more often suffer from hypertension than white. There are differences in the population frequency of such diseases as diabetes, atherosclerosis. Indians living in Trinidad have higher indicators of the population frequency of these diseases.
However, the reasons for such differences are not entirely understood and require further population studies.
Questions to chapter 6.
1. Systematic position of a person.
2. Where is the pranodine man and what are modern hypotheses based on?
3. What are chromosomal mutations arising in the process of evolution, underlie anthropogenesis?
4. What data of molecular genetic studies confirm the human relationship with anthropoid monkeys?
5. Is it possible to "hardifying" monkeys in our time?
6. Name the main populations of people and their characteristics.
7. What is inbreeding and how to evaluate it?
8. What are the features of the action of the Hardy-Weinberg law in human populations?
9. What is the polymorphism of human populations, its causes?
10. Explain the differences between the races of a modern person from the standpoint of evolutionary teaching.
11. Some science fictions believe that the future person will have a huge head and a small torso. Is there such a way of evolutionary development for a person possible?
Conclusion
Questions of origin and evolution of living organisms worried a person from prehistoric times. The history of the development of evolutionary ideas is devoted to the 1st head of the benefit. Special attention in this chapter is given to the evolutionary theory of Lamarck, which differs from transformist representations by the fact that it represents evolution as a universal phenomenon of wildlife, and most importantly, it explores its driving forces. However, the scientific explanation of the driving forces of evolution for the first time did Ch. Darvin, showing that the uncertain inheritance volatility, the struggle for the existence and occurring in the process of this struggle of the natural selection is necessary and enough to explain any changes in organisms in the process of evolution. These issues are set out in the 2nd chapter.
Almost a 150-year period of development of the theory of evolution confirmed not only the correctness of the main provisions of Darwinism, the logicality of reasoning and evidence, but also reinforced these provisions with these sciences, primarily paleontology and genetics. The main provisions of the current theory of evolution are set out in the 3 chapter.
Modern evolutionary theory uses genetics data widely. Such sections of an evolutionary theory as a speciation and the role of evolutionary factors today cannot be understood without knowledge of common and population genetics. These issues in the manual paid great attention to the 4th chapter.
The study of the problems of macroevolution, especially the evolution of ontogenesis, as well as the evolution of organs and organ systems, makes it possible to understand the causes of ontogenetically and phylogenetically determined malformations in humans, outline their early diagnosis and prevention. This issues are devoted to the 5th Head of the benefit.
The sixth chapter is devoted to the issues of anthropogenesis and the evolution of human populations. This chapter discloses modern ideas about human origin on the basis of these comparative anatomy, embryology, paleontology, biochemistry, genetics and other sciences.
At the end of each chapter, control questions are given to test knowledge. In the manual given exemplary topics for discussion at the seminar and the list of primary and additional literature for self-preparation for the lesson.
1. The history of evolutionary teachings. The main provisions of the exercise of Ch. Darwin.
2. What is the synthetic theory of evolution, its founders?
3. The concept of micro and macroevolution.
4. The population and its main characteristics. Hardy Weinberg law; Content and its mathematical expression.
5. Elementary evolutionary factors (mutations, population waves, insulation, gene drift, natural selection).
6. Characteristics of the mutational process.
7. The role in the formation of isolation and drift of genes. Types of insulation.
8. Natural selection. Efficiency and speed of natural selection. The creative role of natural selection.
9. Forms of natural selection acting in natural populations.
10. Ways and methods of species.
11. The ratio of onto and phylogenesis in the evolution of organs and systems of organs.
12. Anthropogenesis. The main stages and mechanisms of human evolution.
13. The population structure of mankind. Races and mergenes.
14. Features of the action of evolutionary factors in human populations.
15. The concept of genetic cargo and its biological essence.
16. Features of modern human populations.
A) basic
1. Anthropology: Reader. Tutorial / Authors-compilers: Cand. biol. Sciences, Doc. LB Rybalov, Cand. biol. Sciences, Doc. Ie .rsolimo, I.A. Moskvina-Tarkhanova. - M.: Publishing House of the Moscow Psychological and Social Institute: Voronezh: Publishing House of NGO "Modek", 2002.- 448 p.
2. Biology. 2 kN: studies. For meditors. specialist. universities / V.N. Yarygin, V.V. Sinelshchikova; Ed. Yarygin V.N., - 4th ed., Act. and add-m.: Higher. Shk., 2001.
3. Yablokov A.V., Yusufov A.G. Evolutionary teaching (Darwinism): studies. For biol. specialist. universities. - 3rd ed., Pererab. and add. - M.: Higher. SK, 1989 - 335 p.
B) Additional
1. Ayala F. Introduction to population and evolutionary genetics: per. from English- M.: Mir, 1984.- 232 p.
2. Berman Z.I., Zelikman A.L., Polyansky V.I., Polyansky Yu.I. The history of evolutionary teachings in biology. - M.-L., Science, 1966. - 324 p.
3. Biological evolution and man. / Ed. Roginsky Ya.Ya., M., 1989.
4. Grant V. Evolutionary process: a critical review of evolutionary theory: Per with English. - M.: Mir, 1991.- 488 p.
5. Darwin C. The origin of species by natural selection: kN. for teacher / comments. A.V. Yablokova, B.M. Mednikova. - M.: Enlightenment, 1986. - 383 p.
6. Inge-Evenomov S.G. Genetics with selection bases. M., 1989.
7. The history of biology (from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present day). M., "Science", 1975. - 660 p.
8. Seversz A.S. Fundamentals of the theory of evolution. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1987.-320 p.
9. Fogel F., Motulski A. Genetics of a person. In 3 T.: Per. From English - M.: Mir, 1989-1990.
10. Fowie R. Another unique view. Environmental aspects of human evolution: per. from English- M.: Mir, 1990.- 368 p.
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