The concept of operant learning. The theory of the operator caused by Skinner and its value for behavioral psychotherapy. Principles of operant conditioning

Psychological concepts - learning, training, teaching describe a wide range of phenomena related to the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, skills in the process of active relationship with subject and social world - in behavior, activities, communication.

When it comes to learning, the researcher refers to such aspects of this process as:

Gradually change;

Role of exercise;

The specifics of learning compared to the congenital features of the individual.

Usually, the term training and teachings denote the process of acquiring individual experience, and the term "learning" describes the process itself, and its result.
So, learning (learning, teaching) is the process of acquiring new ways to carry out behavior and activities, fixation and / or modifications. Changes in psychological structures, which occurs as a result of this process, provides the possibility of further improvement of activities.
Known classic concepts of learning. This, for example, the teaching of I.P. Pavlova (1849-1936) on the formation of conditional reflexes. As a result of one or more presentations of the indifferent delimiter (conditional incentive) and following it, the unconditional stimulus (food), which causes an unconditional, congenital reaction (salivation), the indifferent stimulus itself begins to cause a reaction. In the process of establishing a temporary connection, the unconditional stimulus performs the function of reinforcement, conditional - alarm value, and the reflex contributes to the adaptation of the organism to the changing environmental conditions.
For the first time, the laws of learning established by experimental methods were established within biheviorism. These patterns, or "laws of learning", are formulated by E. Torndayk and are complemented, as well as modified by K. Hall, E. Tolman and E. Gazry.

They are:

The law of readiness: the stronger the need, the more successful learning. The law is derived from establishing a relationship between needs and learning.

The effect of the effect: behavior that leads to a beneficial action causes a decrease in the need and therefore will be repeated.

The law of exercise: Upon other things being equal, the repetition of a certain action makes it easier to carry out behavior and leads to a more rapid fulfillment and reduction of the probability of errors. Later, Torndayk showed that the exercise is not always, the repetition contributes to the simplification of the skill, although in motor learning this factor is very important, contributing to the modification of behavior.

The law of recent: it is better to memorize that material that is presented at the end of the series. This law contradicts the effect of primaryness - tendency to better memorize the material that is presented at the beginning of the process of learning. The contradiction is eliminated in the formulation of the law "Edge Effect". The U-shaped dependence of the degree of meant of material from its place in the process of learning reflects this effect and is called a "positional curve".

The law of compliance: There is a proportional relationship between the probability of response and the probability of reinforcement.

Now let's turn to the theories of learning in the psychology of the person.
Theories come from two provisions:

1. Any behavior is absorbed in the process of learning.

2. In order to comply with scientific strict when checking hypotheses, it is necessary to comply with the principle of data objectivity. As variables that can be manipulated, external causes (food remuneration) are selected, unlike "internal" variables in the psychodynamic direction (instincts, protective mechanisms, I-concept), which cannot be manipulated.

In the theories of learning (I.P. Pavlov), the adaptation is considered as an analogue of human development. It can be carried out by different paths, for example, by means of classical resolution on Pavlov.

At the same time, important phenomena were investigated:

Generalization - a conditional reaction to the initial neutral stimulus applies to other incentives similar to the conditional stimulus (fear that arose to a particular dog is then distributed on all dogs).

Differentiation is a specific reaction to similar stimuli, which differ in the degree of reinforcement (for example, differentiation of reactions to the circle and ellipse).

The foaming is the destruction of the relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the reaction, if it is not accompanied by reinforcement.

A typical experiment was that the dog was fastened with belts, limiting her movement, then turned on the light. After 30 seconds, after the light was lit, the dog's mouth lay a little food, which caused salivation. The combination of light and food is repeated several times. After some time, the light, originally speaking by an indifferent stimulus, in itself began to cause the response of salivation.
Similarly, the conditional defensive reactions to the initial neutral incentives can be developed. In the first studies on defensive conditioning, a special harness was put on a special harness to keep it in the machine, and the electrodes were attached to the paw. The supply of electric current (unconditional stimulus) on the paw caused the depression of the paw (unconditional reflex), which was a reflex reaction of the animal. If a call was called directly before the shock, then the sound was gradually the sound itself was able to cause a defensive reflex to pull down the paws.
By Terminology I.P. Pavlova, food (or shock) was unconditional stimuli, and light (or sound) - conditional. Slyunomotellation (or pulling the paws) when the food appears (or shock), it was called unconditional reflex, and the salivation on the switching on light (or pulling the paw on the sound) is conditional. Reactions that studied Pavlov began to be called response, or respondents, as they automatically arose after known incentives (food, current). Leading in the model I.P. Pavlova is a stimulus, whose manipulation leads to new forms of behavior.
So, the classical condition is the process, the open I.P. Pavlov, due to which initially neutral stimulus begins to cause a reaction due to its associative communication with an incentive, automatically generating the same or similar reaction.
Theory developed by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), is called the theory of operant conditioning. He said that a scientist, like any other organism, is a product of unique history. The field, which he chooses for himself as preferred, will partially depend on his personal biography.
Interest in the formation and modification of behavior arose from Skinner after acquaintance with the work of I.P. Pavlova "Conditional reflexes" and an article (critical in its direction) Berran Russell. The articles of the latter not only did not pushed from Pavlovsk ideas, but, on the contrary, they strengthened their influence.
Skinner set itself the goal to explain the mechanisms of learning from humans and animals (rats and pigeons) based on a limited set of basic principles. The basic idea was to manage the medium, control it, while obtaining ordered changes. He said: "Control the conditions (Wednesday), and you will open a order."

Definition of operant conditioning

The learning procedure was called - "Operant Conditioning". It consisted in the desire of the experimenter to establish a link between the stimulus (S) and the reaction (R) by reinforcement - promotion or punishment. In the scheme, the stimulus reaction (S-R) key for the skinner was the reaction. Reactions were considered in terms of simplicity. Easy - salivation, hand pulling; Complex - solving mathematical problem, aggressive behavior.
Operant conditioning is a process by which the response characteristics are determined by the effects of this reaction.
Further, Skinner differed (1) reactions, which are caused by certain incentives (pulling out the hand from the hot object) - in this case, the connection of the stimulus and the reaction is unconditional; and (2) reactions that are not directly related to the incentive. Recent reactions are produced by the organism itself and are called operators. Skinner believed that in itself the incentives do not force an individual to respond to them. The initial reason lies in the body itself. In any case, behavior occurs without the impact of some special encouraging incentive. The implementation of the operant behavior is laid in the biological nature of the body. Recognition was considered by Skinner as a process. No (especially complicated) operant does not occur immediately. The process is a promotion of the operant behavior of the animal. Promotion or punishment is a reinforcement, or an incentive that follows the reaction and increases the likelihood of its appearance. When the pigeon pokes the beak into the disk (or the rat presses the paw on the lever) is a operant behavior at which, if it is accompanied by reinforcement, the likelihood of its repetition increases. "Operant conditioning forms behavior as much as the sculptor sculpts a figure of clay. Although at some point the sculptor, it would seem, creates a completely new object, we can always go back to the beginning of the process, to the initial undifferentiated blank and highlight how small Steps, or consecutive steps, following which you can walk to the desired condition. None in any particular one may not appear anything that it would be very different from what he preceded ... Otranta is not what appears in the behavior already completely In the finished form. This is the result of the continuous process of formation "(quota by: Pervin L., John O. Personality Psychology. Theory and Research. M., 2000. p.350).

Principles of operant conditioning

Reinforcement is one of the principles of determine. Already from infant age, according to Skinner, the behavior of people can be adjusted using reinforcing stimuli. There are two different types of reinforcements. Some, such as food or solving pain, are called primary reinforcements, because They have a natural reinforcing force. Other reinforcing incentives (smile, adult attention, approval, praise) are caused by reinforcements. They become such as a frequent combination with primary reinforcements.
Opportal condition based on a positive reinforcement, i.e. For such consequences of reactions that are supported or enhanced, for example, food, money remuneration, praise. Nevertheless, Skinner emphasizes the importance of negative reinforcement, which leads to the fading of the reaction. Such reinforcing stimuli can be physical punishment, moral impact, psychological pressure. When punishing an unpleasant stimulus follows the reaction, reducing the likelihood that the reaction will appear again. Skinner said with regret that the punishment is "this is the most common technique for control over behavior, used in the modern world. Scheme is known to everyone: if a man behaves not as you like, hit his fist, if the child behaves badly, spank it, If people in another country behave badly, drop the bomb on them "(Cyt. Software: Crane W. Secrets of personality formation. SPb.: Praim-Evnognak, 2002. P. 241).
In addition to reinforcements, the principle of determine is its immediateness. It was found that in the initial stage of the experiment, it is possible to bring the reaction to the highest level only if it is reinforced immediately. Otherwise, the reaction that began to be formed, quickly fades.
At the operant, as well as the respondent, the condition is observed generalization of incentives. GENERALIZATION - this is the resulting associative connection of the response with incentives similar to those on which the conditioned reflex was originally developed was originally developed. Examples of generalization are the fear of all dogs, which was formed due to the attack of some kind of dog, the positive reaction of the child (smile, the word "dad", movement to the meeting, etc.) on all men resembling his father.
The formation of the reaction is a process. The reaction does not occur immediately and suddenly, it is decorated gradually, as a number of reinforcements are made. A consistent reinforcement is the development of complex actions through a reinforcement of actions that are gradually increasingly similar to that final behavior that was expected to form. Common behavior is formed in the process of reinforcement of individual elements of behavior, which in the aggregate add up into complex actions. Those. A series of originally learned actions in the final form is perceived as holistic behavior.
The process itself is supported by the so-called reinforcement mode. Reinforcement mode is the percentage and interval reinforcement of reactions. To study reinforcements, Skinner invented the Skinner Box (Skinner Box), thanks to which he watched animal behavior. Schematically, it looks like this:
S1 - R - S2,
where S1 is a lever;
R - Pressing the lever;
S2 - Food (reinforcement).
Behavior is controlled by changing the environment (or reinforcements). Them, for example, can be given (1) after a certain period of time, regardless of the number of reactions; (2) through a certain number of reactions (pressing on the lever), etc.

Reinforcement regimes

Such regimes of reinforcements were allocated: continuous reinforcement - the presentation of reinforcements each time the subject gives the desired reaction; Intermittent, or partial, reinforcement.
For a more strict classification of reinforcement modes, two parameters were allocated - temporary reinforcement and proportional reinforcement. In the first case, they are supported only when the period has expired during which it was necessary to perform appropriate activities, in the second reinforce the volume of the work (the number of actions), which was to be produced.

Based on two parameters, four reinforcement modes were described:

1. Reinforcement mode with a constant ratio. Reinforcement is carried out in accordance with the established amount (volume) of reactions. An example of such a regime may be a payment for a certain, constant work. For example, the payment of the translator for the number of translated signs, or the typist for the amount of printed material.

2. Reinforcement mode with a constant interval. Reinforcements are made only when firmly established, fixed time interval expired. For example, monthly, Monday, hourly pay, rest after a rigidly set time of physical or mental work.

3. Reinforcement mode with a variable relation. In this mode, the body is supported on the basis of some on average predefined number of reactions. Thus, the purchase of lottery tickets can be an example of such a reinforcement mode. In this case, the purchase of a ticket means that the winnings can fall out with some probability. The probability is increasing if not one is bought, but a few tickets. However, the result is in principle a little predictable and inconsistent, and a person is rarely managed to return money invested in the purchase of tickets. Nevertheless, the uncertainty of the result and waiting for a large winnings lead to a very slow blowing of the reaction and the fussing of behavior.

4. Reinforcement mode with a variable interval. The individual receives reinforcement after an indefinite interval passes. Like the reinforcement mode with a constant interval, in this case the reinforcement depends on time. Time interval is arbitrary. Short intervals tend to generate high response rate, and long - low. This mode is applied in the educational process when an estimate of the level of achievements is carried out irregularly.

Skinner spoke about the individuality of reinforcements, on the variability of the development of a particular skill among different people, as well as in different animals. Moreover, the reinforcement itself is unique, because It is confidently impossible to say that this person or an animal can act as a reinforcement.

Personal growth and development

As the child develops, its reactions are absorbed and remain under the control of reinforcing environmental impacts. In the form of supporting effects, food, praise, emotional support, etc. The same idea is set out by Skinner in the book "Verbal Behavior" (1957). He believes that the speech masters occurs according to the general laws of the operated content. The child receives reinforcement when pronouncing certain sounds. Reinforcement is not food or water, but approval and support for adults.
With critical comments, the famous American linguist N. Khomsky spoke to the concept of Skinner in 1959. He denied a special role of reinforcement during the mastering speech and criticized Skinner for neglecting the syntactic rules that play a role in the awareness of the person of language structures. He believed that the training of the rules does not require a special educational process, but is performed due to a congenital, specific speech mechanism, which is called the "speech mastering mechanism." Thus, the mastering speech is not as a result of learning, but through natural development.

Psychopathology

From the point of view of psychology of learning, there is no need to seek explanation of the symptoms of the disease in hidden deep reasons. Pathology, according to behaviorism, not undigested, and either (1) the result of an untapped reaction, or (2) an assimilated non-adaptive reaction.

(1) Unspeed reaction or behavioral deficit occurs as a result of the lack of reinforcement in the formation of the necessary skills and skills. Depression is also considered as a result of the lack of reinforcement for the formation or even maintaining the necessary reactions.

(2) A non-adaptive reaction is the result of the assimilation of the action unacceptable to society that does not meet the norms of behavior. Such behavior arises as a consequence of the reinforcement of a unwanted reaction, or as a result of a random coincidence of the reaction and reinforcement.

Changes in behavior is also built on the principles of operated content, on the system of modification of behavior and related reinforcements.
A. Change of behavior may occur as a result of self-control.

Self-control includes two interdependent responses:

1. A controlling reaction that affects the environment by changing the likelihood of secondary reactions ("care" so as not to express "anger"; removal of food to drop away from overeating).

2. A controlling reaction aimed at the presence of incentives in a situation that can make the desired behavior more likely (the presence of a table for the implementation of the educational process).

B. Change of behavior may occur due to behavioral consulting. In many ways, this type of consulting is based on the principles of learning.
Wolpe (Wolpe) determines the treatment of behavior as determine therapy, implying the use of education principles formulated during the experimentation process in order to change inadequate behavior. Inadequate habits are weakened and eliminated; Adaptive habits, on the contrary, are introduced and enhanced.

Consulting goals:

1) change in inadequate behavior.

2) Recovery of decision making.

3) preventing problems by anticipating behavior results.

4) Elimination of the deficit in the behavioral repertoire.

Consulting steps:

1) behavioral assessment, information collection of acquired actions.

2) relaxation procedures (muscular, verbal, etc.).

3) Systematic desensitization - the relationship of relaxation with an alarm image.

4) Training Assurance

5) reinforcement procedures.

Advantages and disadvantages of theories of learning

Advantages:

1. The desire to strict testing hypotheses, experiment, control of additional variables.

2. Recognition of the role of situational variables, environmental parameters and their systematic study.

3. Pragmatic approach to therapy allowed us to create important procedures for changing behavior.

Disadvantages:

1. Reductionism - the comprehension of the principles of behavior obtained on animals to analyzing human behavior.

2. Low external validity caused by experimenting in laboratory conditions, the results of which are difficult to transfer to natural conditions.

3. Ignoring cognitive processes when analyzing S-R connections.

4. Large gap between theory and practice.

5. The behavioral theory does not give stable results.



• 6.1.1. Definition of operant conditioning
• 6.1.2. Principles of operant conditioning
• 6.1.3. Reinforcement regimes
• 6.1.4. Personal growth and development
• 6.1.5. Psychopathology
• 6.1.6. Advantages and disadvantages of theories of learning

Psychological concepts - learning, learning describe a wide range of phenomena related to the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, skills in the process active relationship Subject with subject and social world - in behavior, activities, communication.

• When it comes to researchThe researcher refers to such aspects of this process as:
• gradually change;
• role of exercise;
• the specifics of learning compared to the congenital features of the individual.

Typically terms training and doctrine denote process Acquisition of individual experience, and the term "learning" describes and Self process, and it result.
So, research (training, teaching) is the process of acquiring new ways to carry out behavior and activities, fixation and / or modifications. Changes in psychological structures, which occurs as a result of this process, provides the possibility of further improvement of activities.
Known classic concepts Research. This, for example, the teaching of I.P. Pavlova (1849-1936) on the formation of conditional reflexes. As a result of one or more presentations of the indifferent delimiter (conditional incentive) and following it, the unconditional stimulus (food), which causes an unconditional, congenital reaction (salivation), the indifferent stimulus itself begins to cause a reaction. In the process of establishing a temporary connection, the unconditional stimulus performs the function of reinforcement, conditional - alarm value, and the reflex contributes to the adaptation of the organism to the changing environmental conditions.
For the first time, the laws of learning established by experimental methods were established within biheviorism. These patterns, or "laws of learning", are formulated by E. Torndayk and are complemented, as well as modified by K. Hall, E. Tolman and E. Gazry.

• They are:
• Law of readiness: The stronger the need, the more successful learning. The law is derived from establishing a relationship between needs and learning.
• Law effect: behavior that leads to a useful action causes a reduction in the need and therefore will be repeated.
• Law Exercise: For other things being equal, the repetition of a certain action facilitates the conduct of behavior and leads to a more rapid fulfillment and reduction of the probability of errors. Later, Torndayk showed that the exercise is not always, the repetition contributes to the simplification of the skill, although in motor learning this factor is very important, contributing to the modification of behavior.
• Law of recentness: It is better to memorize that material that is presented at the end of the series. This law contradicts the effect of primaryness - tendency to better memorize the material that is presented at the beginning of the process of learning. The contradiction is eliminated in the formulation of the law "Edge Effect". The U-shaped dependence of the degree of meant of material from its place in the process of learning reflects this effect and is called a "positional curve".
• Law of Compliance: There is a proportional ratio between the probability of response and the probability of reinforcement.

• Now let's turn to the theories of learning in the psychology of the person.
  Theories come from two provisions:

1. Every behavior is absorbed in the process of learning.
2. In order to comply with scientific strictness, when checking the hypotheses, it is necessary to comply with the principle of data objectivity. As variables that can be manipulated, external causes (food remuneration) are selected, unlike "internal" variables in the psychodynamic direction (instincts, protective mechanisms, I-concept), which cannot be manipulated.

In the theories of learning (I.P. Pavlov), the adaptation is considered as an analogue of human development. It can be carried out by different paths, for example, by means of classical resolution on Pavlov.

• At the same time, important phenomena were investigated:
• Generalization - The conditional reaction to the initial neutral stimulus applies to other incentives similar to the conditional stimulus (fear that arose to a particular dog is then distributed on all dogs).
• Differentiation - A specific reaction to similar stimuli, which differ in the degree of reinforcement (for example, differentiation of reactions to the circle and ellipse).
• Correction - the destruction of the relationship between the conditional stimulus and the reaction, if it is not accompanied by reinforcement.

A typical experiment was that the dog was fastened with belts, limiting her movement, then turned on the light. After 30 seconds, after the light was lit, the dog's mouth lay a little food, which caused salivation. The combination of light and food is repeated several times. After some time, the light, originally speaking by an indifferent stimulus, in itself began to cause the response of salivation.
Similarly, the conditional defensive reactions to the initial neutral incentives can be developed. In the first studies on defensive conditioning, a special harness was put on a special harness to keep it in the machine, and the electrodes were attached to the paw. The supply of electric current (unconditional stimulus) on the paw caused the depression of the paw (unconditional reflex), which was a reflex reaction of the animal. If a call was called directly before the shock, then the sound was gradually the sound itself was able to cause a defensive reflex to pull down the paws.
By Terminology I.P. Pavlova, food (or shock) was unconditional stimuli, and light (or sound) - conditional. Slyunomotellation (or pulling the paws) when the food appears (or shock), it was called unconditional reflex, and the salivation on the switching on light (or pulling the paw on the sound) is conditional. Reactions that studied Pavlov began to be called response, or respondents, as they automatically arose after known incentives (food, current). Leading in the model I.P. Pavlova is a stimulus, whose manipulation leads to new forms of behavior.
So, classic conditioning - This is a process, open I.P. Pavlov, due to which initially neutral stimulus begins to cause a reaction due to its associative communication with an incentive, automatically generating the same or similar reaction.
Theory developed by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), is called theories of operant conditioning. He said that a scientist, like any other organism, is a product of unique history. The field, which he chooses for himself as preferred, will partially depend on his personal biography.
Interest in the formation and modification of behavior arose from Skinner after acquaintance with the work of I.P. Pavlova "Conditional reflexes" and an article (critical in its direction) Berran Russell. The articles of the latter not only did not pushed from Pavlovsk ideas, but, on the contrary, they strengthened their influence.
Skinner set itself the goal to explain the mechanisms of learning from humans and animals (rats and pigeons) based on a limited set of basic principles. The basic idea was to manage the medium, control it, while obtaining ordered changes. He said: "Control the conditions (Wednesday), and you will open a order."

"If you want to know how something is arranged, see how it was formed" Herclite Efesse, IV-V century to N. E. The need to successfully transfer their experience to the following generations forced to empirically improve the learning procedure. Through the learning, we receive knowledge, we master the tongue, we form relationships, values, fears, personal features and self-esteem. Research (learning, teaching) is the process of acquiring new ways to carry out behavior and activities, fixation and / or modifications. By the time of the beginning of experimental research, the problem of learning in psychology, there were already certain everyday ideas about how and what should be learned. Skinner preferred to refer to spontaneous reactions, operators.

Skinner also believes that psychology, before trying to understand and predict complicated behavior, should refer to simple behavioral events. He argued that psychology, especially the scope of learning, was not well developed in order to find the rationale for the construction of a large-scale, formalized theory. He stated that it was not necessary to carry out theoretically aimed research, as they give "an explanation of the observed facts that appeal to the events described in different terms and measured if they could be measured in different quantities." He also challenged the theory of human behavior, giving psychologists a false sense of confidence in his knowledge and in fact do not include relations between the process of behavior and circumstances of the environment, which preceded this behavior.

Biographical data BE RES Fre Deric Skinner (Burrhus Frederic Skinner) was born in 1904, Pennsylvania. The atmosphere in his family was warm and relaxed, the teaching was respected, the discipline was strict, and the awards were given when they were deserved. Skinner writes about his childhood: "I have always built something roller scooters, managed wagons, sledges carousels and slides again and again tried to make a glider to fly most often collected and sold elast berries, and I built a system that allows Separate mature berries from green. For many years I worked on the eternal engine. (He did not work) "1926 - In Hamiltonian College, Skinner received a bachelor's degree from humanitarian sciences in English literature.

As a student, Skinner did not attend a single psychological course. After college, Skinner returned to the parent house and tried to become a writer. But, his desire to be a writer did not lead to anything good: "I read aimlessly, built the models of the ships, played on the piano, listened to the only invented radio, shouted humorous notes to the local newspaper, but I didn't write anything else and I wrote anything else about the visit to the psychiatrist "In the end, Skinner refused the writer's career and entered Harvard University to study psychology. In 1931, he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Science, at this time Skinner a lot and worked creatively and acquired fame as one of the leading behaviorists of the United States.

Skinner was the author of many works. Among his books: "The behavior of organisms" (1938); "Walden-2" (1948); "Science and human behavior" (1953); "Verbal behavior" (1957); "Reinforcement regimes" (1957); "Summation of observations" (1961); "Training Technology" (1968); "Random reinforcement" (1969); "Outside freedom and dignity" (1971); "On behaviorism" (1974); "Details of my life" (1976); "Reflections: behaviorism and society" (1978) and others. In the "Walden-2" novel, Skinner describes a utopian community based on behavior control through the principles of reinforcement. Children were brought up in "air chambers" in public kindergartens. All adult members of society were considered to be the parents of all children. Private property has been canceled. In fact, there was no government. The division of labor has disappeared, the competition was not encouraged.

Skinner Animal is placed in t. N. "Skinner Box" (a close cell that provides the ability to only for those roots of rats that the experimenter can control or observe). The rat should press the lever several times to get a portion of food. This pressing is called the operant reaction. Encouraging (displacing food) for a certain number of pumminations or for pressing with a certain interval, you can get stable response methods.

In 1944, the second daughter was born in the family of Skinners - Deborah, which was very afraid of the Skinner's wife, who did not want more children. And then Skinner began to build a special device. Initially, it called it "mechanical nanny", then the device received a trade name "Air Chamber". The skinner device provided a unique living space for its newborn daughter - a thermostat with adjustable environmental parameters, a closed chamber with a safety glass viewing window and an elastic floor with a gauze litter, easily changed as contamination. The child was kept in perfectly comfortable conditions for him without any pajamas on the clasps and even without a diaper. Deborah enjoyed the extraordinary freedom of movements and grew a strong, healthy child. In addition, the camera freed the news. She no longer needed to constantly follow the state of Deborah, although at any time she had the opportunity to remove the child from the camera to hold on handles or play

The main provisions of the theory of Skinner Certain schemes (modes) of reinforcements generate characteristic and repeated changes in response, both in supported responses and in extrasion. It was experimentally proven that: a) the conditioning can occur both with awareness and without awareness (i.e., a person learns to respond to a certain conditional incentive, not aware of this fact); b) the condition is capable of persist for a certain time, regardless of awareness and volitional effort; c) the condition is most effectively if it occurs if a person is desired and its willingness to cooperate in this process.

The situation of the theory: Underlining the role of a verbal environment in the formation of human behavior, a person in his behavior is experiencing a constant influence on the part of others. This is the influence of the environment (in which, which is very important, the person itself is included) determines the behavior, supports and modifies it. One of the specific features of social behavior is that the reinforcements that a person receives in response to his behavior only partially depend on its own behavior: the answer depends not only on its action, but also from how it was perceived by others. The emphasis on individuality, on the individual behavior of the person, Skinner focuses on the functional, and not on the structural analysis of the person, the main object of his theory and experiments is modifiable behavior.

! It is important to consider the following. First, under control Skinner means modifying behavior (i.e., control is achieved by modifying behavior, and not by suppressing undesirable forms of behavior). Secondly, it attached the value and genetic conditionality of the body's sensitivity to reinforcement and recognized the presence of individual differences in the ease of either difficulty of determining other specific forms of behavior; Moreover, he believed that some forms of behavior only have a genetic basis, so they are not subject to modifications under the influence of experience. Third, Skinner recognized as a scientific fact that there is no tough dependency between the stimulus and the reaction, so the same stimulation does not necessarily produce the same behavior.

Personality in the theory of Skinner is identitious to the skinner as the sum of behavior patterns, a set of reactions and is the result of learning and unique innate abilities. According to the skinner. Environmental impact determines our behavior when reinforcing to explain the behavior (and thus to implicitly understand the person), we need to analyze the functional relationship between behavioral analysis of the visible effect and visible, the person is considered as consequences. The body that has a purchased set of behavioral reactions.

Skinner did not highlight the structural variables, it is interested in modifiable behavior. Replacing the undesirable type of behavior by another, more acceptable and normal, reappection method, which is carried out by manipulating the medium using the operant technician. Modeling accelerates the process of "necessary" behavior: the necessary "complex" behavior is divided into sequential stages and is gradually being implemented, step by step, from simple to complex. In this regard, the positive personal changes are the ability of an individual: minimizing the impact of negative for its ongoing and vital activity of factors, to develop useful control over the external environment for it.

Total assessment. Conclusions of the scope: Ø Ø Ø control over missiles, space technologies, psychopharmacology, tests of psychoactive drugs, studying the influence of drugs for behavior, technology of education, including psycholinguistics and formation of verbal behavior, child development, development of experimental cultures or societies, Industrial management, including job satisfaction and relationship relations from employees, therapeutic treatment of psychological problems (for example, alcoholism, drug addiction, mental retardation, children's autism, phobias, nutritional disorders). The most effective examples are the use of determine the techniques with positive reinforcements with autistic children, with psychotic patients. In this case, therapists: a) are engaged in the actual behavior of the patient, and not its internal states, b) consider the symptom as a disease, in the sense that it should be modified and deleted.

According to the skinner, the operant conditioning can be applied not only to control the behavior of other people, but also to control their own behavior, to improve the society and "competently" people. Self-control can be achieved by creating the conditions for the desired behavior to receive reinforcements. Sheremetyevo Airport, center of behavioral therapy. Psychological assistance to passengers suffering from Aerofobia. 2013 Photo: Transaero.

Criticism: Q Experiment is carried out with relatively simple organisms, with a relatively simple history, and in relatively simple environments - does not allow to explain such complex forms of behavior that are associated with the processes of thinking, which form the inner world of a person (sometimes to solve the problems of a separate concrete person alone only behavioral methods may not be enough); q gap between theory and practice; q ignoring the fact that the body is not "Tabula Race", whose final state is determined only by the stereotypes of the stimulus reaction; q does not give stable results; q Low external validity caused by experimenting in laboratory conditions, the results of which are difficult to transfer to natural conditions.

The merit of the operant learning: q Home merit - application in pedagogy of programmed learning ideas; q is a larger translation of psychology to the level of objective scientific knowledge; q Robust base in the form of laboratory data obtained in carefully controlled conditions, a detailed specification of the process of learning and desire to eliminate contradictions not by calls, but experiments; The ability to correct mentally disorders acquired as a result of the erroneous past learning (no matter how self-disseminating or pathological can be the behavior of a person - it is the result of the environmental influence, which reinforces and strengthens it. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the desired new behavior and determine the reinforcement modes that are required, To form this behavior) - t. n. "Zeton System" Q

In this theory, most forms of human behavior are arbitrary, i.e. operant; They become more or less likely depending on the consequences - favorable or unfavorable. In accordance with this idea, the definition was formulated.

OPENT (instrumental) learning - type of learning in which the correct reaction or change in behavior is supported and becomes more likely.

This type of learning was experimentally studied and described American psychologists E. Torndayk and B. Skinner. These scientists contributed to the process of learning the need to reinforce the results of exercises.

The concept of operant learning is based on the "Situation - Reaction - Reinforcement" scheme.

The psychologist and teacher E.Trndayk introduced into the learning scheme as the first link the problem situation, the way out of which was accompanied by samples and errors leading to accidental success.

Eduard Lee Torndayk (1874-1949) - American psychologist and teacher. Conducted studies of animal behavior in "Problem Boxes". Author of the theory of learning by samples and errors with a description of the so-called "curve of learning". Formulated a number of well-known laws of learning.

E.Turniker conducted an experiment with hungry cats located in problem cells. An animal placed in a cage could get out of it and get feeding, only by entering a special device, by pressing the spring by pulling the loop, etc. Animals made a lot of movements, threw up in different directions, the box was scratching, etc., until one of the movements accidentally turned out to be successful. With each new success in the cat, the reactions leading to the goal are increasingly observed, and more and less common - useless.

Fig. 12. Problem cells, by E. Torndayku

"Samples, mistakes and random success" was such a formula for all types of behavior of both animals and a person. Torndayk suggested that this process is determined by 3 laws of behavior:

1)the law of readiness - for the formation of skill in the body should be a state pushing to activity (for example, hunger);

2)law Exercise - the more often any action is committed, the more often this action will be selected subsequently;

3)law effect - Exactly repeats the action that gives a positive effect ("awarded").

Referring to the problems of school learning and education, E. Torndayk determines the "art of training as an art to create and detain incentives in order to cause or prevent those or other reactions." At the same time, stimuli can be words facing a child, a look, the phrase, which he read, etc., and responses - new thoughts, feelings, actions of the student, his condition. This provision can be considered on the example of the development of learning interests.

The child, thanks to his own experience, has a variety of interests. The task of the teacher is to see among them "good" and, on the basis of them, develop the interests necessary for learning. Guiding the interests of the child in the right direction, the teacher uses three ways. The first way is to associate the work done with something important for the student who gives him satisfaction, for example, with the position (status) among peers. The second is to use the imitation mechanism: the teacher himself is interested in his academic subject, and the class in which he teaches. The third is to inform the child such information that sooner or later will cause interest in the subject.

Another famous science-beat B. Skinner revealed a special role to reinforce the correct reaction, which implies the "design" of the exit from the situation and the obligation of the correct answer (this consisted of one of the grounds for programmed learning). According to the laws of the operant learning, behavior is determined by the events that follow it. If the consequences are favorable, the probability of repeating behavior in the future is enhanced. If the consequences are unfavorable and not supported, the probability of behavior decreases. Behavior that does not lead to due effect are not learned. You will soon stop smiling to a person who is not smiling in response. There is a crying in a family where there are small children. Crying becomes a means of exposure to adult people.

The basis of this theory, as well as in Pavlovskaya, there is a mechanism for establishing links (associations). The basis of the operant learning also contains mechanisms of conditional reflexes. However, these are the conditional reflexes of a different type than classic. Skinner called such reflexes opponent or instrumental. Their feature is that activity is first generated by no signal from the outside, but the need from the inside. This activity is chaotic random character. In the course of its conventional signals, not only congenital responses are associated, but any random actions that received a reward. In the classic conditional reflex, the animal seems to be passively waiting for, which will be done with him, in the operant reflex - the animal itself actively seeks the right action and when it finds it, then it absorbs it.

The technique of production of "operant reactions" was applied by the followers of Skinner when teaching children, their upbringing, in the treatment of neurotics. During World War II, Skinner worked on a draft use of pigeons to manage firing by airplanes.

Having visited the lesson of arithmetic in college, where his daughter was engaged, B. Communner was horrified, how little psychology data are used. In order to improve teaching, he invented a series of training machines and developed the concept of programmed learning. He hoped based on the theory of operant reactions, to create a program of "manufacturing" people for a new society.

Burres Frederick Skinner was one of the most famous psychologists of his time. It was he who stood at the origins of the direction, which today in science is called behaviorism. Even today, his theory of learning plays an important role in psychology, pedagogy, management.

Experiments of the scientist

Skinner's theory is described in detail in one of its basic works, which is called the "behavior of organisms". In it, the scientist sets out the principles of the so-called operant conditioning. The easiest way to understand these principles, considered one of the most typical scientist experiments. Rat weight reduced to 80-90% of the usual. It is placed in a special device that bears the name of the skinner drawer. It is given the opportunity to make only the actions that the observer experimenter can see and control.

The drawer has a hole through which the animal feeds food. To get food, the rat should click on the lever. This pressing in the theory of Skinner is called the operant reaction. As a rat manages to click on this lever - through paws, nose, and maybe tail, it does not matter. Operating response in the experiment remains the same, as it causes only one consequence: the rat gets food. Encouraging animal food for a certain number of pushups, the researcher forms sustainable ways to respond in an animal.

Skinner behavior

Operating response in skinner theory is an arbitrary and targeted effect. But Skinner determines this focus in terms of feedback. In other words, certain consequences of the animal are affected.

Skinner agreed with the views of Watson's scientists and Tornadayka for the two-way nature of mental development. They believed that two types of factors were influenced by the formation of psyche - social and genetic. With operant learning, special operations are supported, which are committed by the subject. In other words, genetic data appear the basis on which socially determined behavior is built. Therefore, development, Skinner believed, is a learning due to certain incentives of the external environment.

Skinner also believed that it could be used not only to monitor the behavior of other subjects, but also with respect to its own behavior. Self-control can be achieved by creating special conditions in which the desired behavior will be reinforced.

Positive reinforcement

Operant learning in the theory of reinforcement of Skinner is based on the active actions of the subject ("operations") carried out in a specific environment. If some spontaneous action becomes useful to replenish a certain need or achieve the goal, it is supported by a positive result. For example, a pigeon can learn a comprehensive action - a ping-pong game. But only if this game becomes a means to get food. Encouraging in the theory of Skinner received the name of reinforcements, since it is precisely the most desired behavior.

Consistent and proportional reinforcement

But the pigeon cannot learn to the ping-pong game if the experimenter will not form this behavior by discriminatory learning. This means that the individuals of the pigeon are supported by scientists consistently, selectively. In the theory of B. F. Skinner Reinforcements can be either distributed by chance, occurring at certain time intervals, or occur in certain proportions. Promotion, distributed randomly in the form of periodic money winnings, provokes the development of gaming addiction in humans. Promotion that occurs at certain time intervals - salary - contributes to the fact that a person remains in a certain service.

Proportional encouragement in the theory of Skinner is so powerful reinforcement that animals in his experiments practically knew themselves to death, trying to earn more delicious food. Unlike reinforcement behavior, the punishment is negative reinforcement. With the help of punishment it is impossible to teach a new behavioral model. It only makes the subject constantly avoid well-known operations followed by punishment.

Punishment

The use of punishment, as a rule, has negative side effects. In the theory of Skinner's learning, the following consequences of punishment are indicated: a high level of anxiety, illness and aggressiveness, care of itself. Sometimes punishment forces an individual to stop behaving in a certain way. But its disadvantage is that it does not contribute to the formation of positive behavior.

The punishment often forces the subject not to abandon an unwanted model of behavior, but only to transform it into a hidden form, which is not punished (for example, it can be the drinking of alcoholic beverages at work). Of course, there are many cases when the punishment seems to be the only method of suppressing socially dangerous behavior, which threatens the life or health of other people. But in ordinary situations, the punishment is an ineffective means of exposure, and it is necessary to avoid it possible.

Pros and cons of the theory of Operant learning Skinner

Consider the main advantages and disadvantages of the Skinner concept. Her advantages are as follows:

• Strict checking hypotheses, control of additional factors affecting the experiment.
• Recognition of the importance of situational factors, the parameters of the external environment.
• Pragmatic approach that has allowed to create effective psychotherapeutic procedures for converting behavior.

Cons Skinner's theory:

• Reductionism. The behavior demonstrated by animals is completely reduced to the analysis of human behavior.
• Low validity due to experiments in laboratory conditions. The results of the experiments are difficult to transfer to the conditions of the natural environment.
• Attention is not paid to cognitive processes in the process of forming a certain type of behavior.
• The theory of Skinner does not give stable, sustainable results in practice.

Motivation concept

Skinner also created the theory of motivation. Its basic idea is that the desire to repeat this or that action is due to the consequences of this action in the past. The presence of certain incentives causes certain actions. If the consequences of one or another behavior are positive, then the subject will behave in such a situation in the future.

His behavior will repeat. But if the consequences of a certain strategy are negative, then in the future he or will not respond to certain incentives or will change the strategy. The theory of skinner motivation is reduced to the fact that repeated repeats of certain results lead to the formation of a particular behavioral plant in the subject.

Personality and learning concept

From the point of view of Skinner, the personality is the experience that is acquired by an individual during life. In contrast, for example, from Freud, supporters of the concept of learning do not consider it necessary to think about mental processes that are hidden in the mind of a person. Personality in the theory of Skinner is a product, for the most part formed by external factors. It is the social environment, and not the phenomenon of internal mental life, identify personal features. Human psyche Skinner considered the Black Box. It is impossible to investigate emotions, motifs and instincts in detail. Therefore, they must be excluded from the observations of the experimenter.

The theory of operant learning Skinner, over which the scientist worked for many years, was supposed to summarize its extensive research: everything that man does, and what it is in principle, determined by the history of the awards received by him and punishment.