Africa countries after World War. African countries after the Africa war after World War II
In terms of territory (more than 30 million km2), Africa is the largest of the main geographic regions of the world. And in terms of the number of countries, it is also much ahead of any of them: in Africa now 54 sovereign states. They are extremely different from each other in the area and the number of residents. For example, Sudan is the largest of the countries of the region - it takes 2.5 million km2, he is a little inferior to Algeria (about 2.4 million km2), followed by Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Chad, Ethiopia, South Africa (from 1 million to 1 , ZMLCM2), whereas many are island states related to Africa (Comoros, Cape Verde, Sao Tome and Principe, Mauritius) - just 1000 to 4000 km2, and the Seychelles - and less. These are the same differences between the African countries and in the number of residents: from Nigeria from 138 million to Sao Tome and Principe from 200 thousand people. And in geographical location, 15 countries that are not exiteding the sea are formed (Table 6 in the book I).
Such a situation on the political map of Africa has developed after World War II as a result of the decolonization process. Prior to this, Africa was usually called the colonial mainland. And indeed, by the beginning of the XX century. She was, by expression I. A. Vittler, literally torn apart. They were part of the Colonial Empires of Great Britain, France, Portugal, Italy, Spain, Belgium. Back in the late 1940s. At least, only Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia and the South African Union (Dominion of Great Britain) could be attributed to the number of at least formally independent countries.
In the process of decolonization, Africa distinguishes three consecutive stages (Fig. 142).
At the first stage, in the 1950s, the independence of the more developed countries of North Africa - Morocco and Tunisia, who had been to the French possessions, as well as the Italian colony of Libya, were achieved. As a result of the anti-refortel and anti-capitalist revolution, Egypt was finally released from English control. After that, Sudan became independent, formally considered by the condominium (condominium) of the United Kingdom and Egypt. But decolonization touched and black Africa, where the British Colony of the Golden Beach, who became Garya, and the former French Guinea became the first to achieve independence.
Most of these countries came to independence relatively peacefully, without armed struggle. In conditions when the United Nations has already adopted a general decision on decolonization, the metropolis countries could not behave in Africa in old. But nevertheless, they tried in every way at least somehow slow down this process. As an example, it is possible to try to attempt to organize the so-called French community, in which almost all former colonies entered the rights of autonomies, as well as the wards of the territory (before the First World War they were the colonies of Germany, then became the submissive territories of the League of Nations, and after World War II - Installation territories of the UN). But this community was short-lived.
The second stage was 1960, which in the literature was called the name of Africa. Within this year, there were independent 17 former colonies, mainly French. It can be said that from this time the process of decolonization in Africa has become irreversible.
At the third stage, after 1960, this process was actually completed. In the 1960s After the eight-year war with France, the independence of Algeria has achieved. They received it and almost all the British colonies, the last colonies of Belgium and Spain. In the 1970s. The main event was the collapse of the colonial empire of Portugal, which occurred after the democratic revolution in this country in 1974, as a result, became independent Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau and Islands. The independence has gained some more former possessions of Great Britain and France. In the 1980s. British South Rodezia (Zimbabwe) added to this list, and in the 1990s. - Southwest Africa (Namibia) and Eritrea.
As a result, on a huge African mainland, now the colonies are no longer. As for some of the islands, the remaining in colonial addiction, their share in the area and population of Africa is measured by hundredths of percent.
However, all this does not mean that the course of decolonization in the third stage was only peaceful and mutually agreed. Suffice it to say that in Zimbabwe the national liberation struggle of the local population against the racist regime established here by the White Minority continued a total of 15 years. In Namibia, which after World War II was actually illegally joined by South Africa, the national liberation struggle, including armed, lasted 20 years and ended only in 1990. Another example of this kind is Eritrea. This former Italian colony, after the war under the control of Great Britain, was then included in Ethiopia. The Folk Front of Eritrea's liberation fought for its independence for more than 30 years, and only in 1993 she was finally proclaimed. True, another Ethiopian Eritrean War flashed out five years later.
At the beginning of the XXI century. In Africa, perhaps only one country remains, the political status of which is still not defined. It is Western Sahara, which until 1976 was the ownership of Spain. After Spain brought his troops from there, the territory of Western Sahara occupied her neighboring countries: in the north - Morocco, and in the south - Mauritania. In response to such actions, the People's Front for the liberation of this country proclaimed the creation of an independent Sugar Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), which has already been recognized by dozens of countries of the world. Now he continues armed struggle with the remaining Moroccan troops in the country. The conflict around the garden can be viewed as one of the most striking examples of territorial disputes that are so many in Africa.
It is quite natural that in the process of decolonization, very large changes have occurred in the state-owned African countries.
At the form of the board, the overwhelming majority of independent countries of Africa (46) refer to the presidential republics, while the parliamentary republics on the continent are very few. Monarchies in Africa and earlier were relatively slightly, but nevertheless treated Egypt, Libya, Ethiopia. Now the monarchy remains only three - Morocco in the north of Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland - in the south; All of them are kingdoms. But at the same time, it should be borne in mind that the military, or even frankly dictatorial, authoritarian regimes, often hid behind the Republican Form of the Board. In the mid-1990s. Of the 45 countries of tropical Africa, such regimes had a place in 38! This is largely due to internal causes - heritage of feudalism and capitalism, extreme economic retardation, low cultural level of population, trabalism. But along with this important reason for the emergence of authoritarian regimes, the confusion of two world systems has been and continued. One of them sought to consolidate capitalist orders and Western values \u200b\u200bin young liberated countries, and the other is socialist. We must not forget that in the 1960s 1980s. Pretty many countries of the continent proclaimed a course on a socialist orientation, the refusal of which occurred only in the 1990s.
An example of an authoritarian can serve the regime of Muamar Gaddafi in Libya, although this country in 1977 was renamed them to the Socialist Libyan Arab Jamahiri (from Arab Al-Jamahiriya, that is, the state of the masses). Another example is Zaire during a long rule (1965-1997) the founder of the ruling party Marshal Mobutu, as a result of overthrown from his post. The third example is the Central African Republic, which in 1966-1980. President J. B. Bokassas led, then proclaiming himself with the emperor, and the country is the Central African Empire; He was also overthrown. Often, by the number of countries with replacing each other, military regimes also include Nigeria, Liberia and some other countries in Africa.
The opposite example is the victory of the democratic system - is the South Africa Republic. At first, this country was British Dominion, in 1961 became the republic and left the Commonwealth, headed by Great Britain. The racist regime of a white minority dominated the country. But the national liberation struggle, which was led by the African National Congress, led to the victory of this organization in elections to the country's parliament in 1994. After that, South Africa returned to the world community, as well as the Commonwealth.
In the form of an administrative and territorial device, the overwhelming majority of African countries relate to unitary states. Federal states here are only four. It is South Africa, consisting of nine provinces, Nigeria, which includes 30 states, the Comoros, which includes four-district-islands, and has become a federation in 1994, Ethiopia (consists of nine states).
However, it should be borne in mind that African federations differ significantly, say, from European. V. A. Kolosov allocated even a special, Nigerian type of federations to which in Africa refers Nigeria and Ethiopia, calling them with young highly centralized federations with unstable authoritarian regimes. They are characterized by the weak local government and the intervention of the center "from above" into many cases of the regions. Sometimes in the literature you can also meet the statement that South Africa is actually a unitary republic with elements of federalism.
The main political organization of Africa, which unites all independent states of the continent, was the organization of African unity (OAU), established in 1963 with the center in Addis Ababa. In 2002, it was transformed into the African Union (AS), a model for which, can be considered, served as the European Union. As part of the AU, the Assembly of Heads of State and Government, the AC, the African Parliament, is planned to create a court and the introduction of a single currency (Afro). Objectives AS - maintaining peace and acceleration of economic development.
This long-suffering continent historically could not qualify for leadership in the global economy, and even today the overwhelming majority of African countries are peculiar to extreme backwardness not only in economic, but also social development. If you try to identify something in common inherent in the whole region, it is worth identifying the agricultural nature of the economy of Africa countries, as well as the colonial nature of economic relations in foreign trade.
In general, the economy of Africa is based on agriculture, mining industry, the jurisdiction of small-handed and natural economy. Another important feature of the "black continent" is a concentration of active economic activity in large metropolitan centers, which makes a very large gap in the levels of settlement of territories and countries, as well as in the levels of their economic development.
African economy in the 19th century
We will not forget that Africa is extremely rich in the most diverse natural resources. Mineral raw materials, fuel raw materials, copper and cobalt ores, gold, platinum, diamonds, phosphorites, uranium - All this traditionally attracted colonialists, among which the Great Britain, France and Portugal were the greatest influence. And indeed, the main
the incentive, forced the European powers to fight for Africa, can be considered the economic benefits of mining mining and enslaving the local population.
Nevertheless, even in the south of the continent, rich in diamonds and gold deposits, obtaining huge profits became possible only with large investments:
- intelligence of natural wealth
- creating communications systems
- reorienting the local economy to their own needs
- suppression of protests of indigenous people, etc.
African economy after World War II
War of the Second World War was touched by Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea, nevertheless, the Metropolis Army was actively gained by the military, the number of which was several thousand people. These people did not fight, but rather, they worked for military needs and served troops. Immediately after the war, fairly important processes began to occur in Africa. In particular, the continent formed 17 new states - most of their former French colonies. Of course, the destruction of the remaining colonial regimes has become a matter of time, which means that the economy of Africa was waiting for serious changes.
Even in the conditions of market transformations, the African continent did not get rid of many old problems. The reason for this is extremely non-professional and inefficient leaders. In addition to the total bureaucracy and complete amorphy of any social structures, the economy of Africa continues to torment endless military coups. African dictators and applicants for their role began to fight for huge capital, while 80% of the population of the continent and today continues to have a beggar existence.
The economy of the majority of the countries of the Black Continent is functioning poorly today, moreover, the problems associated with illegal gold production, the production and distribution of drugs, trafficking in persons again gain turnover. At the moment, the proportion of Africa in world exports is reduced that many experts are associated with artificial injection of anxiety situation on the part of some highly developed countries that have their economic interests here.
Charter of the Organization of African Unity. We, the heads of African states and governments, gathered in the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, ...
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Charter of the Organization of African Unity
We, the heads of African states and governments, gathered in the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, is convinced that this is an integral right of all people to control their own fate, realizing the fact that freedom, equality, justice and dignity are important goals to achieve legal The aspirations of African peoples, conscious of their responsibility for the use of natural and human resources of our continent for the overall development of our peoples in all spheres of human activity.
Inspired by the general aspirations contribute to mutual understanding between our peoples and cooperation between our states in response to the aspirations of our peoples on Brother Hood and Solidarity, in larger unity overcoming ethnic and national differences.
I am convinced that in order to translate this determination in the dynamic force in the case of human progress, the conditions for peace and security should be created and supported, determined to preserve and consolidate the difficulty of conquered independence, as well as the sovereignty and territorial integrity of our state, and fight against neocolonialism in all its forms,
Allocated for universal progress of Africa,
Convince that the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the principles that we reaffirm our commitment reaffirmation provide a solid foundation for peaceful and constructive cooperation between states,
Wanting all African states from now on to unite so that the well-being and well-being of their peoples can be confident
Committed determination to strengthen the relationship between our countries by creating and strengthening common institutions,
Agreed with this Charter.
Institution
1. The organization should include continental states of Africa, Madagascar and other nearby islands.
1. The organization has the following goals:
() to promote the unity and solidarity of African states;
(b) coordinate and intensify cooperation and effort to achieve a better life for the peoples of Africa;
(c) to protect their interests, their territorial integrity and independence;
(d) in order to eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa, as well as
(e) promoting international cooperation, taking into account the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
2. For these purposes, Member States ~ coordinate and coordinate their general policies, especially in the following areas:
() Political and diplomatic cooperation;
b) economic cooperation, including transport links;
(c) educational and cultural cooperation;
(d) health, sanitation and nutrition cooperation;
(e) scientific and technical cooperation and
(g) cooperation for defense and security.
Principles
Article III
Member States in achieving the goals specified in the article solemnly confirm and declare their commitment to the following principles:
1. Sovereign equality of all Member States.
2. Non-interference in the internal affairs of states.
3. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each Santa "and its inherent right to independent existence.
4. Peaceful settlement of disputes through negotiations,
5. Unconditional condemnation, in all its forms, from political "murder, as well as subversive activities of any other states.
6. Absolute commitment to the general emancipation of Africa: territories that are still dependent.
MEMBERSHIP
Each independent sovereign African state has the right to become a member of the organization.
Rights and Responsibilities Member Siates
All Member States should enjoy equal rights and have equal duties.
Member States undertake to strictly observe the principles listed in Article III in this Charter.
Institutions
Article VII
The organization should achieve its goals through the following major institutions:
1. The Assembly of Heads of State and Government.
2. Council of Ministers.
3. General Secretariat.
4. Commission on mediation, reconciliation and arbitration.
Assembly of heads of state and governments of countries
Article VIII.
The Assembly of Heads of State and Government should be the highest body of the Organization. This proposal, taking into account the provisions of this Charter, discussing the general interest for Africa to coordinate and coordinate the general policy of the organization. It is possible, in addition to considering the structure, functions and actions of all organs and any specialized agencies that can be created in accordance with this Charter.
The meeting will consist of heads of states and governments or their properly accredited representatives and is going at least once a year. At the request of any member state, and, according to the approval of two thirds of the votes of Member States, the Assembly meets at an extraordinary session.
2. All resolutions should define two thirds of the votes of members of the organization.
3. Questions of the procedure require a simple majority. Regardless of the availability or absence, we are talking about the procedure, is determined by a simple majority of votes of all Organzation Member States.
4. Two thirds of the total number of members of the organization form a quorum at the meetings of the Assembly.
The Assembly has the authority to determine its own RUL "procedures.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
Article XII.
1. The Council of Ministers consists of ministers of foreign affairs or other ministers that are appointed by the governments of Member States.
2. The Council of Ministers holds meetings at least twice a year. At the request of any member state and approved by two thirds of all Member States, it is going to an extraordinary session.
Article XIII.
1. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. It must be entrusted with the responsibility for the preparation of the Conference of the Assembly.
2. It takes any question conveyed to the Assembly. It must be entrusted to the implementation of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. It should coordinate interconnected cooperation in accordance with the instructions of the Assembly in accordance with Article II (2) from this Charter.
Article XIV.
2. All resolutions are determined by a simple majority of the members of the Council of Ministers.
3. Two thirds of the total number of members of the Council of Ministers constitute a quorum for any meeting of the Council.
The Council has a top to determine its own rules of procedure.
General Secretariat.
Article XVI
There must be the Secretary General of the Organization, which are appointed by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. The Secretary-General is headed by the Secretariat.
Article XVII.
There must be one or more assistants of the Secretary-General of the United Nations that are appointed by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government.
Article XVIII.
Functions and conditions of the Secretary-General's service, from the Secretary-General's Assistants and other Secretariat staff will be regulated in accordance with the provisions of this Charter and Rules approved by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government.
1. In the performance of their duties, the Secretary-General and the Secretariat staff should not request or receive instructions from any government or from any other body that is not related to the Organization. They should refrain from any actions that could affect their position as international officials responsible only before the organization.
2. Each member of the Organization undertakes to respect the exclusive nature of the responsibilities of the Secretary-General and staff and do not try to influence them when they are fulfilled their duties.
Reconciliation Commission and Arbitration
Article XIX.
Member States undertake to resolve all disputes between themselves with peaceful means and to this end, to make a decision on the establishment of a commission on mediation, reconciliation and arbitration, a separate protocol shall be approved by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. Said protocol cannot be considered as an integral part of this Charter.
Special Commission
Meeting to create such specialized commissions, as it will be deemed necessary, including the following:
1. Economic and Social Commission.
2. Education, science, culture and health care commissions.
3. The Defense Committee.
Article XXIII.
The budget of the organization prepared by the Secretary-General should be approved by the Council of Ministers. The budget should contain a contribution from Member States in accordance with the United Nations scale of contributions, provided that no Member State should be determined by the amount exceeding twenty percent of the annual regular budget of the organization. Member States agree to pay their contributions regularly.
Article XXIV.
1. This Charter is open to signature for all independent sovereign states of Africa and is subject to ratification by signatories by its states in accordance with its constitutional procedures.
2. Original document, make, if possible in African languages, in English and French, and all texts are authentic, surrender to the Government of Ethiopia, which must be certified copies of this Convention all sovereign states of Africa.
3. The certificates of ratification are to be stored by the Government of Ethiopia, which notifies all signed by each such deposit.
On registration of the statute
Article XXVI.
This Charter, after proper ratification, will be registered with the United Nations Secretariat on the Government of Ethiopia in accordance with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations.
Article XXVII.
Any question that may arise with regard to the interpretation of this Charter is made by voting by two thirds of the Assembly of the Heads of State and Government of the Organization.
Article XXVIII.
1. Any independent sovereign African state may at any time notify the Secretary-General about its intention to join. Or join the real charter.
2. The Secretary General, upon receipt of such a notice, reports copies to all Member States. Reception should be resolved by a simple majority of member states. The decision of each member state should be transferred to the Secretary-General, which should, upon receipt of the required number of votes, take the general decision of the states.
Article XXIX.
Mgo working languages \u200b\u200borganization and all its institutions should be, if possible, African languages, English and French, Arabic and Portuguese.
The Secretary-General can be taken on behalf of the Organization, gifts, tested property and other donations for the organization, provided that it is approved by the Council of Ministers.
Article XXXI.
The Council of Ministers decides on privileges and immunities, which must be assigned to the Secretariat staff in the relevant territories of Member States.
Termination of membership
Article XXXI.
Any state that wishes to abandon its membership sends a written notice to the Secretary-General. At the end of one year from the date of such notice, if not discontinued, the charter ceases to be applied to the refusal of the state, which thereby ceases to belong to the organization.
Amendments to the Charter
Article XXXII.
This charter may be amendments and changes, if any Member State makes a written request of the Secretary-General to this account, provided that the proposed amendment is not submitted to the Assembly for consideration until all Member States are properly notified with For a period of one year passed. This amendment will not be effective if you are approved at least two thirds of all Member States.
In the certificate of what, we, the heads of the governments of Africa's states signed this Charter.
Done in the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
Dictionary of main terms
AUTONOMYself-government, the right to population of any national-territorial unit to solve the affairs of internal management.
Apartheid -policy separation of races
Arab Socialism -the political flow in the Arab world, which is a mixture of Panharabism and Socialism in 1050-1960, the ideological basis of the Arab Renaissance of Baas.
Afghany- Pashtun nationalism "top" in Afghanistan.
Vacuof -earth (property) provided in the form of a gift by religious institutions not subject to taxation and alienation.
Vafd -nationalist political party in Egypt.
Velayat-E-Fike - The Board of the Theological Ruger in Iran.
Westernization -borrowing an Anglo-American or dust-european lifestyle in the field of economics, policies, education and culture.
State- Monopolistic capitalisma new, more developed form of monopolistic capitalism, which is characterized by the connection of the forces of capitalist monopolies with the power of the state in order to preserve and strengthen the capitalist system, enriching monopolies, suppressing workers and the national liberation movement, unleashing aggressive wars.
DECOLONIZATIONthe process of granting independence.
Jamahiriyaform of the state device in Libya.
DISCRIMINATION1) restriction or deprivation of the rights of a certain category of citizens on the basis of racial or national affiliation, on the basis of gender, etc. 2) D. in international relations - the establishment for representatives, organizations or citizens of one state of smaller rights than for representatives, organizations or citizens of another state.
DOMINION The state, the former British colony, which is included in the British Commonwealth (before in the British Empire). The head of state in the domain is the English king, but at the same time the internal administrative and political self-government remains.
Dorsternpashtun tribal group in Afghanistan.
Dusturpolitical party in Tunisia.
FORpeople in East Nigeria.
Inkataparty of Zulus in South Africa, leader M. Buutese.
Intifadapalestinian uprising.
Jorubapeople in Western Nigeria.
"Irgun-Bet"radical Jewish organization in Palestine.
INVESTMENTSlong-term investment in industry, agriculture, transport and other economy branches both within the country and abroad for profit.
Industrial Society This society is characterized by a developed and complex system of division of labor at a high degree of its specialization, mass production of goods, automation of production and management, widespread innovation in the production and life of people. Thus, determining the factors of the development of an industrial society - industry. The industrial society involves the emergence of a holistic nation-state organized on the basis of a common language and culture, reducing the share of the population engaged in agriculture, urbanization, literacy growth, expansion of the election rights of the population, the use of scientific advances in all spheres of public life.
INFRASTRUCTUREcomplex of industrial and agricultural production facilities (construction of road roads, canals, ports, bridges, airfields, warehouses, energy management, railway transport, communication, water supply and sewage, general and vocational education, science expenses, healthcare, etc. .), As well as the population.
Islamic factor -politicization of Islam.
Islamic Fundamentalism - the politicized Islamic course, the ultimate goal of which, is the creation in the Muslim world of the state-political system of "righteous caliphs", "painted" in Islamic tone of a radical political movement, the top of which mostly consists of Muslim religious figures advocating a significant strengthening of the role of Islam in The political, social, economic spheres of states for the transfer of higher state power into the hands of the religious elite.
Intifada -palestinian uprising.
Kibbutsyagricultural Jewish communes in Palestine.
COLONIALISMthe political, economic and spiritual enslavement of countries is usually less developed in socio-economic, dominant classes of exploitative states. Most often, this concept applies to the era of monopoly capitalism, when the territorial section of the world has been completed and the colon, the system of imperialism. The origin and formation of the colonial system began in 15B. and took place mainly in direct violent forms (military seizures, looting, etc.). Colonies were direct sources of enrichment of metropolis, the base for the initial accumulation of capital. During the period of the industrial revolution in Europe, the export of raw materials from colonial countries has increased. Later, the export of capital began in the colony, the section of the world between imperialist powers began, a colonial system originated. After the 2nd World War, the collapse of the colonial system began. By the beginning of the 80s, as a result of victories of national liberation movements, colonialism as a system is universally liquidated.
Comprador bourgeoisie Part of the bourgeoisie of economically backward countries (both colonies and independent), carrying out trade mediation with foreign companies in the domestic and foreign markets and closely associated with colonizers.
Condomimism (Kondomomomit)joint possession, domination; Joint implementation on one territory of state two or more states.
CONCESSIONtreaty for commissioning on certain conditions of natural wealth, enterprises, etc. Economic facilities owned by the state or municipalities.
XENOPHOBIAhate to strangers, foreigners.
Clans -related associations, element of the social system in the countries of the East.
Likud -block of right parties in Israel.
Loya-Jirga -extraordinary congress of the tribes leaders in Afghanistan.
Majlis -parliament in Muslim countries (Turkey, Iran).
Maslahat- The principle of interest and feasibility, reconciliation of religious ideological standards and rationality in Iran.
Mentality (mentality) A peculiar warehouse of various mental qualities and properties, as well as their manifestations.
MILITARISMin a broad sense, building the military power of the exploitation state in order to implement the policies of the grip wars and suppressing the resistance of the working people in the country.
NATIONALIZATIONtransition from private property to the ownership of the state of the Earth, industry, transport, communications, banks, etc. H. has a different socio-economic and political content, depending on who, in the interests of which class and in which historical era it is being held. The legal basis of N. is the sovereign right of the state freely dispose of its natural resources and wealth.
Negrituriantheory, emphasizing the superiority of the Black Race.
NEOCOLONIALISMthe system of unequal (economic and political) relations imposed by imperialist states by sovereign developing countries of Asia, Africa and Lat. America; aims to preserve the imperialist exploitation and the dependence of the peoples of these countries. The material basis of H. In developing countries, the monopolistic capital of imperialist powers - foreign companies (or their branches), banks, etc.
Nepotism -official patronage to relatives.
Organization of African Unity(OAU), association of African states. Formed at the conference in Addis Ababa, independent states of Africa in May 1963. For 1999, the composition of OAU was 53 states. Objectives OAU: Strengthening the unity and coordination of African countries, economic development of African countries and others. Ch. OAU authorities - the Assembly of the Heads of State and Government (which meets at least 1 time per year, each state has in the Assembly with one voice, the decision of the Assembly is considered adopted if 2/3 of the OAU members voted for it); Council of Ministers (going at least 2 times a year). Headquarters apartment in Addis Ababa. Instead of the organization of African Unity, the Organization of the African Union was created.
Organization "Islamic Congress" (OIC; The Organization "Islamic Conference") was founded in 1969. Unites most of Muslim states and the organization of the liberation of Palestine. According to the charter, the AC activities are aimed at strengthening Muslim Solidarity and cooperation between Member States. Headquarters in Jeddah (Saudi Arabia).
United Nations (UN)an international organization established in 1945. The conferences took place in San Francisco. The UN Charter, adopted on June 26, 1945, entered into force on October 24 after the instrument of ratification leadership for the deposit of the US government five great powers: USSR, USA, Great Britain, China and France. The founders of the UN are 50 states participating in the conference and signatories. Objectives of the UN on the Charter; Maintaining international peace and security, prevention and elimination of the threat of war, suppressing acts of aggression, conflict resolution, the development of friendly relations between nations, establishing cooperation. UN main bodies; General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Obeka Council, International Court, and Secretariat. UN headquarters in New York, departments in Geneva and Vienna. In Geneva, there is a headquarters of the UN specialized institution on education, science and culture (UNESCO).
Organization of the Central Treaty of Sento Military political grouping in the Middle and Middle East. Created in 1955 as part of Great Britain, Turkey, Iraq (released from the organization in 1958), Iran and Pakistan. After leaving the organization in March 1979, Iran and Pakistan, on the initiative of the Turkish government, there has ceased operations in August 2979.
Odenbatribe in Saudi Arabia.
OPPOSITION 1) Counteraction, resistance, opposition of their views, any other policy, other politics, etc. Views. 2) a party or group protruding against the majority opinion or with the dominant opinion.
Palmiajewish parts of special purpose created in Palestine during World War II.
Panafricanismthe ideological and politicalness of the African nationalists who advocate for political independence, the economic liberation and unity of the peoples of Africa.
Panharabism -the nationalist for the Arab bourgeoisie in favor of the political association of all Arab states.
Pantürkism -the ideology of the unity of all Turkic peoples.
Parcham- Faction in the People's Democratic Party in Afghanistan.
PATERNALISMa special type of patronage relationships involving certain social and economic guarantees and benefits in exchange for personal loyalty. Modern forms of paternalism spread and formed in the countries of the catchy development, as well as in the European countries that have passed after World War II, the stage of the "Economic Miracle". The drive of the revival of paternalism in the modern era is associated with the need to adapt the traditional forms of creation and social relations to the realities of the modernization process. The symbol of new paternalism after the Second World War was the experience of organizing labor relations of Japanese corporations. In the 80s. COOPERATION of PATURNALISM was distributed to the problem of social aspects of state policy.
Political system of society -a holistic, streamlined set of political institutions, political roles, relations, principles of political organization, subordinate to the Code of political, social, legal norms, plants of the political regime of a particular society.
Political Culture of Asian and Africa -weave the features, institutions, stereotypes of thinking, the norms of traditional for Afro-Asian countries with borrowing from theories and practices of the Western world.
"Post-industrial society"designed in modern bourgeois sociology and futurology, the designation of the new stage of social development, allegedly follows the industrial capitalist society. Concept "P. O "represents the further development of popular in the 60s. The theories of the "Industrial Society" of the French Sociologist R. Arona and the "Stages of Economic Growth" of the American Sociologist U. Rosto. The most prominent representatives - D. Bell, G. Kan, 3. Brzezinsky (USA), J. J. Servan-Schraiber and A. TUREN (France). The main provisions of the concept "P. about." Also divided by many other bourgeois sociologists, economists, political scientists and futurologists. In the concept of "P. about." These authors invest unequal content. In general, the concept of "P. O "claims the role of the sociological theory of postulate, the development of mankind. The basis of the membership of the World History on the pre-industrial (agrarian), industrial (capitalist and socialist) and post-industrial (D. Bell et al.) Society is placed the level of production techniques, as well as industry and prof. division of labor; At the same time, the value of societies, relations, property and class struggle is diminished. In the concept "P. about." There is a clear desire to formulate the theoretical alternative to the Marxist teaching on social and economic formations, replace social revolutions with technological coups, to oppose the communism of another social ideal, which predetermined its popularity among bourgeois ideologues.
In the concept "P. about." It is alleged that, depending on the level of technology (so-called, technological determinism) in society consistently dominated by the "primary" scope of economic activity (agriculture), "secondary" (industry), and now it enters into the "tertiary" scope of services, where Science and education acquire a leading role. Each of these three stages are inherent in the specific forms of social organization (church and army - in the agrarian society, the corporation in industrial, universities in the post-industrialist), as well as the dominant role of a certain class (priests and feudal, businessmen, scientists and prof. Specialists). This concept is actually trying to perpetuate the antagonistic public relations, because in "P. O "Social heterogeneity, inequality and alienation of the individual, division on the ruling, technocratic elite and managed masses of the population, private ownership and political conflicts are preserved. So, ultimately "P. about." By no means a "new stage" in public progress, but only a well-minded to the future, upgraded, rationalized and idealized state-monopolistic capitalism. Such society naturally cannot serve as a social ideal attractive for workers. Concept "P. about." Speculates on the relative independence of the modern scientific and technical revolution and expresses the interests of the top of the scientific intelligentsia, seeking to enter into the ruling class of the capitalist society. It is one of the extreme forms of bourgeois-liberal reformism in relation to modern conditions for the general crisis of capitalism, the coexistence of two systems and the scientific and technical revolution. For her, noted by V. I. Lenin, readiness declaratively renounce capitalism, but at the same time refusal to recognize that his historical successor is socialism and communism.
PROTECTORATEform of colonial domination; The state or territory in dependence.
PROTECTIONISMsavings, state policy aimed at supporting the national economy. It is carried out with the help of trade and political barriers that protect the domestic market from the import of foreign goods reduce their competitiveness.
Pashtunresidents of Afghanistan, the main national group.
SEPARATISM desire for separation, separation; Movement for the separation of the state and the creation of a new state education or for providing part of the country of autonomy.
SYNCRETISMthe fusion, absentiance characterizing the initial, undeveloped state of anything, for example, the norms of law, morality and religion in primitive society.
ZIONISMthe most reactive variety of Jewish bourgeois nationalism, which has received a significant distribution of 20 V. Among the Jewish population of capitalist countries. Modern S.- Nationalist ideology, an extensive system of organizations and politics that expresses the interests of a large Jewish bourgeoisie, closely related to the monopolistic bourgeoisia of imperialist states. The main content of the modern S. - militant chauvinism, racism, anti-communism and anti-Solism. As the political flow C. arose in con 19 V. He was designed to distract Jewish workers from the revolutionary struggle to preserve the domination of the bourgeoisie over workers. In pursuance of these goals, ideologues of S. put forward plans for the decision of the "Jewish question" by creating with the help of the great powers of the "Jewish state". The ideological doctrine S. is very eclectic. It actually uses Many Dogmas Judaism, and also includes transformed by ideologists S. Theory of bourgeois nationalism, social chauvinism, etc. Its main provisions are reduced to the following: the Jews of various countries of the world represent an extraterritorial "United World Jewish Nation"; Jews - "special", "exceptional", "the people elected by God"; All nations, among those who live Jews, anyway - anti-Semites; Anti-Semitism - the phenomenon "Eternal"; Assimilation, i.e., the merger of the Jews with their people around them, "anti-fosteen and sin", the Jews do not have "historical rights" on the "Earth of Biblical ancestors". After education in 1948 by the UN statement of Israel (part of the Palestine territory), S. became the official state ideology of Israel. The main objectives of S. are proclaimed unconditional support for this state with Jews around the world, bringing Jews from all over the world in Israel, processing in the Zionist spirit of the Jewish population of various countries. S. puts the task of expanding this state to the boundaries of the T.N. "Great Israel".
Soto People in South Africa.
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Introduction
2.1 Egypt
2.2 Libya
3. African countries after the war
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Modern Africa is the fifth of the land of the globe, on which only a little less than a third of all existing states (over 50) are located, with a population (573 million), which today exceeds the tenth of the Earth's population and which has The highest natural increase in the world. Significant the role of Africa and in world politics.
Fate Africa has always been closely connected with the fate of the whole world. It is enough to recall that, according to the majority of scientists, this continent was the cradle of mankind. In an antiquity, civilizations arose in the African continent, which had a significant impact on the development of human society. There were intensive political and economic ties between the ancient African states and states of Europe.
Colonial powers, winning Africa, isolated it from the outside world, interrupted its century-old economic and cultural ties with other continents, made everything to betray the rich history and achieving its peoples. The long-term heroic struggle of hundreds of thousands of the best sons of Africa and the efforts of progressive people of the whole world to break and eliminate the system of colonial oppression of imperialism for most of the continent. 1960, which brought independence to 17 former colonies and the dependent territories of France, Great Britain, Belgium and Italy, entered the history of mankind as the year of Africa. In the 70s, after the victory of the anti-fascist revolution in Portugal, the long-term selfless armed struggle of the peoples of its former colonies was crowned with the success of the peoples of its former colonies, and by the mid-80s. Only individual enclaves of colonialism remained a path of the continent.
During World War II, the colony has become important suppliers of raw materials, food, human resources for metropolis. They intensified the desire for independence.
On September 24, 1941, the Soviet government made a declaration of the post-war device of the world. "Soviet Union - said in this document, - defended the right of every people to state independence and territorial immunity of their country, the right to establish such a social system and elect such a form of government, which he considers it appropriate and necessary to ensure economic and cultural prosperity all the country. " This declaration was replied to the aspirations and hopes of revolutionary forces that were ripe in the colonies and prepared for the struggle for national independence. The position of the USSR stimulated the nomination of the anticolonial requirements of the peoples, confirmed their reality. She served as the basis for the inclusion of important provisions aimed at eliminating colonialism to the UN Charter.
The purpose of this work is to consider Africa during World War II.
Explore the time of the beginning of the war;
Explore the various countries of Africa during the war;
Consider the position of African countries after the war.
1. The beginning of the war (North Africa)
By the beginning of the war in North Africa, the following ratio of forces was formed: two Italian armies were held in Libya under the command of Marshal. The 5th Army, aimed at Tunisia, had 8 divisions in its composition, reduced in three corps. On the border with Egypt, the troops of the 10th Army under the leadership of General I. Berti were located: three infantry, two Libyan and one division of blacklores. The Italian group consisted of about 210 thousand soldiers and officers, 350 tanks and armored cars, 1500 guns. Aviation parts have 125 bombers, 88 fighters, 34 attack aircraft, 20 scouts and 33 aircraft specifically designed for hostilities in the desert. British troops in the Middle East under the command of General A. Wavelev were distributed as follows: in Egypt - about 65 thousand soldiers and officers, 150 guns, 290 tanks and armored cars. The backbone of these forces was the 7th armored division, two brigades of the 4th Indian Infantry Division and the New Zealand Brigade. From the air they could support about 95 bombers, about 60 fighter fighters and 15 scouts of the Royal Air Force, as well as about 30 fighters of the Egyptian Air Force Lidde at Garth. The Second World War. - SPb.: AST, 1999.
Initially, the Italian War Plan in North Africa envisaged defensive actions, because before the defeat of France, the Italians were forced to take into account the fleet, and the Air Force, and the land forces of the UK continental ally. With this situation, the Libyan group would be forced to fight into two fronts with all the consequences arising from here. In addition, as previous events showed, the Italian troops did not have neither tactical nor technical superiority over allied troops to conduct maneuverable offensive hostilities at least against one of the opponents. Frequently defeated France sharply changed the strategic environment in favor of Italy: now all the forces could be focused against England.
By June 10, the troops of the 10th Italian army in the east of Libya were as follows: the 1st Libyan division was supposed to cover the border site between the oasis of Jarapr and the base point of Sidi-Omar. The remaining plot to the coast was defended by part of the 21st corps, whose task also consisted of Bardia and Tobruk's cover. Border fortifications consisted of location and barbed wire stretched along the entire defendant area of \u200b\u200bthe border and originally intended for monitoring displacements of Bedouins. The 22nd body was located southwest from Tobruk and covered the entire grouping from the south. Soon the border parts were strengthened by the Brigade of the Black-General, a small permanent garrison was placed in Jarake, and part of the 62nd division "Marmarika" was directed to Bardia. Marshal Balbo extended to beat off all the enemy's attempts to seize Bardia and Tobruk, and then, if possible, go to the offensive German African case. Martial steps in North Africa 1940-1942. // ATP. - 2002.
On the opposite side, the border was guarded by the divisions of the Egyptian army. In accordance with the English-Egyptian agreements, the country's defense assigned to the Egyptian army. Under the 1936 Agreement, the British had the right to post military contingents to protect the Suez Canal. Directly for the protection of the boundary were formed five squadrons of the Egyptian border troops. Two squadrons were located in the Siva area, and the remaining Es Salloum. In the future, squadrons in Siva were strengthened by 4 outdated tanks and squadrons of the Listers of the Egyptian Royal Air Force. At the very south, there were divisions of the South-West forces, consisting of six Egyptian tanks, several motorized parts and the Egyptian squadron of landerov. The Egyptian troops also laid the security of the Alexandria - Mersa-Matruh railway, coastal and anti-aircraft batteries in the Alexandria and Cairo area, the fight against saboteurs.
In this situation, it is interesting that Egypt and Italy were not in a state of war, although some Egyptian parts took part in hostilities.
The British command has information that the concentration of Italian troops is underway on the border with Egypt, but the degree of concentration and the number of arrivals of reinforcements remained unknown. In this situation, the Commander of the British forces of the Western Desert General O "Connor decided to elect the tactics of maneuverable defense and raids to the location of the opponent's parts. For this, the forces of cover were formed, which included the 4th armored team and support group. Headquarters of the 7th Armored Division He carried out the overall guide to the actions of the cover forces, in front of which the tasks were delivered to cut the border communications of the enemy with the garrison to Jarabub, as well as the conduct of intelligence, organization ambigu on roads, etc. At the same time, it was prescribed to avoid even small losses in people and technology. Support group It was supposed to act from the district of Sidi Barranran, and the 4th Brigade was south of the Second World War / under the general ed. Ovchinnikova I.M. - M.: Vlados, 2004.
After the death of Balbo, the Marshal Rudolfo Graziani was appointed to the new commander of Italian troops in North Africa. The arrival of the new commander coincided with the change in ITALY strategy. France's exit from the war has created favorable prerequisites for keeping not only defensive, but also offensive fighting against the UK. The transfer of troops from the west of Libya to the eastern border began. The Italian army was preparing for the invasion of Egypt.
2. Africa countries during World War II
2.1 Egypt
North African campaigns 1940--43, fighting between the Anglo-American and Italian-German troops in North Africa during the 2nd World War 1939--45. On June 10, 1940, Italy declared the war of Great Britain and France to seize part of the territory of France, to establish their domination at the Mediterranean and master the English and French colonies in Africa Egypt // countries of the African continent. - Minsk: Science, 1986. However, over 2 months, Italy occupied an expectant position, expecting to begin the offensive in the direction of the Suez Canal simultaneously with the landing of the German fascist troops in the UK. When it turned out that the landing of German troops is postponed indefinitely, the 10th Italian army under the command of General I. Berti (6 divisions) on September 13, 1940 began offensive from the eastern part of Kerenaiki (Libya) to Egypt against the British army "NIL" (General Commander A. P. Wavell; 2 divisions and 2 brigades). The general leadership of the Italian troops in Libya was carried out by Marshal R. Graziani.
Taking September 16, Sidi Barranran, the Italians stopped, and the British moved to Mersa-Matru. On December 9, 1940, British troops who replenished with 2 divisions, including one armored vehicle, were transferred to the offensive, took the whole of Kerenaica and in early February 1941 reached the El Ageil district. Most of the Italian troops capitulated, and the remaining were uncomfortable. In mid-January, Italy applied for help from fascist Germany. In February 1941, he was converted to North Africa. The African Corps (1 Tank and 1 Lightweight Division) under the command of General E. Rommel. The commander of the Italian troops Marshal Graziani was replaced by General I. Gariboldi. In connection with the threat of the offensive of the German fascist troops in the Balkans, the British on February 10 ceased the offensive and began the transfer of troops to Greece. In the period from March 31 to April 15, 1941, Italian-German troops (4 divisions) again occupied Kerenaica and reached the borders of Egypt. November 18, 1941 8th English Army (Commander General A. G. Cunningham; 7 divisions, 5 brigades, over 900 tanks, about 1300 aircraft) began an offensive against Italian-German troops (10 divisions, over 500 tanks, about 500 aircraft) And again mastered the Cyrenaica of Africa. Political and Economic Directory. - M.: Publishing House of Political Literature, 1988.
On January 21, 1942, Rommel's troops caused a sudden response hit, defeated the British and on February 7, EL-Gazala, Bir-Hackeim, were released on February 7. On May 27, 1942, they resumed the offensive, entered Egypt and by the end of June they went to the approaches to El Alamein in the immediate vicinity of the Suez Canal and Alexandria. However, forces for further offensive were not enough, and the possibilities of transferring troops from the reserve are limited. The strategic environment for the English troops by autumn 1942 improved, their grouping in Egypt was strengthened and the domination of the air was conquered.
October 23, 1942 8th English army under the command of General B. L. Montgomery (11 divisions, 4 brigades, about 1,100 tanks, up to 1,200 aircraft) passed on the offensive against the Italian-German troops (4 German and 8 Italian divisions, about 500 tanks , Over 600 aircraft) and in early November broke the defense of the enemy in the El Alamein area. In the course of the persecution, the English troops occupied the city of Tobruk, on November 27 - El Ageil, January 23, 1943 - Tripoli and in the 1st half of February came to the "line of March" west of Tunisia's border with Libya. November 8, 1942 6 American and 1 British divisions under the command of General D. Eisenhuer began landing in Algeria, Orane and Casablanca. On November 11, the Deputy Head of the Vichy Government and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces Admiral J. Darlan, who was in Algeria, gave orders to the French troops on the cessation of resistance to the Allies. By the end of November, the Anglo-American troops occupied Morocco and Algeria, joined Tunisia and approached the GG. Bizerta and Tunisia. In early December 1942, the Italian-German troops in Tunisia were combined into the 5th tank army under the command of General H. Yu. Von Arima.
In mid-February 1943, part 2 of the German tank divisions, who left Libya, under the command of Rommel defeated the American troops, advanced to the north-west 150 km, but then under the pressure of superior forces moved to the initial positions. March 21, 1943 Anglo-American troops united in the 18th group of armies under the command of General H. Alexander, began an offensive with Y. on the "March line" and from the West in the district of McNASi and broke through the defense of the Italian-German troops, which were in the head of April Departed to Tunisia.
On May 13, 1943, Italian-German troops surrounded on the Bon Peninsula (250 thousand people), capitulated. The extension of the Allies of North Africa sharply worsened the strategic position of the countries of the fascist block at the Mediterranean Theater of Military Action.
El-Alamein, inhabited in the north of Egypt, 104 km west of Alexandria. During the 2nd World War, 1939--45 The 8th British Army (Commander General B. Montgomery) October 23 - November 4, 1942 held a west of El-Alamein offensive operation against the Italian-German Tank Army "Africa" \u200b\u200b(Commander Feldmarshal E. Rommel). Rommel's troops were defended by West EL-Alamein at a 60-km fortified turn. Africa's tank army (12 divisions, including 2 motorized and 4 tank, and 1 brigade) numbered about 80 thousand people, 540 tanks, 1219 guns, 350 aircraft. Strengthen this grouping during the operation, the Italian-German command could not, since the Soviet-German front absorbed almost all reserves, the 8th British Army (10 divisions, including 3 tank, and 4 brigades) was brought to 230 thousand . Man, 1440 tanks, 2311 guns and 1500 aircraft war in numbers. - M.: Progress, 1999.. Late on the evening on October 23, the British troops switched to the offensive. The breakthrough was carried out at the 9-km plot. Due to the low artillery density (50 guns per 1 km of front), the enemy fire system was not suppressed, and the British troops managed to wake into enemy defense only for the night. In the battle, 3 armored divisions were introduced, intended for the development of success in depth. The enemy pulled the reserves to the breakthrough site and took a number of counterattacks. Therefore, until October 27, the British troops won only 7 km, after which the offensive was suspended.
On November 2, the 8th British army resumed an offensive with the support of ship artillery and aviation. Rommel tried to counter the depths of the offensive of the allies, but the attacks of Italian-German tank divisions were repulsed with big losses for them, the 8th British army advanced in the direction of the main strike for another 5 km, and in the morning of November 4, mobile groups developed success and, quickly Moved to the west and southwest, created a threat to the coverage of Italian-German grouping. Rommel began hasty departure to Libya. As a result of the victory under El Alamayinon, a fracture was reached during the North African campaigns of 1940--43 in favor of the allies. Italian-German army, losing 55 thousand people, 320 tanks and about 1000 guns, was forced to finally refuse offensive plans and start the general retreat of a great encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Russian Encyclopedia. - 2000.
2.2 Libya
In September 1940, the Italian troops in Libya began an offensive with the aim of capturing Egypt. Italians, having six-time superiority in the power, pushed the British from the border. However, advanced to fifty kilometers, because of the disorganization of supply and loss of control troops, the Italians stopped offensive. The British continued to retreat to the prepared positions at Mersa-Matru. As a result, a 130 km gap was formed between the warring armies. Such a situation has persisted for three months. During this time, the British received significant replenishment.
In December, the English army "NIL" passed on the offensive. Walking out Italian positions from the desert, she forced the Italians to start the retreat. In a short time, Bardia, Tobruk and Benghazi fortresses were captured, and the British troops continued to attack in Libya. This offensive cost the British in 500 people killed and 1200 wounded, while the Italians only lost 130 thousand people, as well as 400 tanks and 1290 guns. Italy faced a serious threat to Libya's loss and was forced to seek help to Germany.
In early 1941, a transfer began to Libya in the German "African Corps". The commander of the building General Rommel decided to take advantage of the fact that the British troops stretched greatly during the offensive. He had a counterpart, without waiting for the arrival of all his forces and, initially losing the enemy for the number of troops 5 times, beat it in parts. The broken British army was thrown at 900 km. And only the overall shortage of forces, aggravated by the need to allocate troops for the blockade of Tobruk, and the lag of the rear was prevented by Rommel with the move to capture Egypt Africa // New and the newest story. - M.: Enlightenment, 1994..
2.3 North Africa 1941-1942. Tobruk and African Corps
In early February 1941, the huge Italian army of General Rodolfo Graziano in Kerenaica was cut off off by British motorized parts and capitulated from Bedafomma. The Italian troops remaining in tripolitania were so shocked that they were not able to defend the remaining bridgeheads of Mussolini in North. Africa. It was in this critical situation that Hitler decided to send Rommel to Africa, who, while still a very young officer during the 1st World War, was broken by the Italians from Kaporpetto in 1917. In 1940, Rommel commanded the 7th tank division in France and played the main The role in the defeat of the Anglo-French troops. He went to North. Africa with a firm conviction that the path to victory lies not through defensive events, but exclusively through a constant movement forward.
Looking around in North. Africa February 12, 1941 with rather modest troops, Rommel immediately threw them into battle in the hope of distracting the British from the complete destruction of the Italian army. The main tank forces of the African corps arrived in Tripoli not earlier than the middle of March. But even by the end of March, the 5th mechanized (subsequently 21st tank) division still did not fully arrive. The second division - the 15th tank - did not expect before May. Despite the lack of forces, April 3, 1941 Rommel threw his non-commissioned division into trial counterattacking in the position of the English troops. It turned out to be much more successful than it could be assumed. In less than two weeks, he broke the balance of strength in his favor. A few days later, the African corps captured the Bardue, and then rushed to Tobruk. General Archibald Wawel hastily retreated to the borders of Egypt, leaving in Tobruka a strong Australian garrison, who had to withstand a heavy eight-month siege. The garrison, who received the nickname "Tobruk Rats", fought surrounded by showing amazing courage until the siege was not lifted. The African Corps was unable to take Tobruk, which could fundamentally change the course of hostilities in North. Africa.
In May-June, the British resumed an offensive, but every time Rommel reflected their attacks, having learned how much pressure on Tobruk. Winston Churchill, a very concerned about the actions of Rommel and the African corps of Winston Churchill in November 1941, launched General Wawel and appointed commander of British troops in the Middle East of General Claude Aucinlet. In December 1941, Auchenlek forces forces of the 8th British army took a well-planned attack on Rommel's position and threw the African corps to El Ageil, freeing Tobruk. British troops were superior to the enemy alive 4 times, and in tanks 2 times. The British had 756 tanks and self-propelled guns (plus a third in reserve), while the Germans had only 174 tanks and 146 - an old sample. In the most peak of the British offensive, Churchill granted proper rommel, performing in the House of Commons: "We have a very experienced and brave opponent in front of them and, I must say, despite this devastating war, - the Great Communion."
After the fierce resistance, the African building was forced to leave the Kerenaica and move themselves to the borders of tripolitania, at the initial position. Rommel managed to avoid the West cooked for him and maintain most of the equipment. In early 1942, German transports in the Mediterranean delivered exhausting troops from 50 to 100 tanks, which it turned out to be enough for the African Corps again rushed forward. By February, he broke through the front line at El Gazala. In May, Rommel launched a major offensive, which eventually wondered to master Tobruk, invad the territory of Egypt and, bypassing Sidi-Barani and Merserach, reach El Alamein, which was only 100 km west of Alexandria. "Fox Desert" made this incredible throw, having only 280 self-propelled guns and 230 Italian tanks of an old sample against almost 1000 tanks from the British. In addition, the British troops had about 150 new American tanks with more powerful weapons. For two weeks of the rapid offensive, German troops dropped the 8th British army back to the original position in the Delta of the Nile. Only here it was possible to stop the promotion of the African case.
Despite such a triumphant Promotion, the African Corps still exhausted its capabilities. During the occurrence, the stocks of fuel were exhausted, and they were difficult to rebuild them. English ships and aircraft based in Malta, mercilessly bombed German transport. The soldiers of the African corps were existed in exhausting battles, but the lack of reinforcement was worse. Throughout this year, the African corps consisted of two poorly equipped divisions consisting of 2 tank and 3 infantry battalions, which are absentfully reinforced by several infantry and artillery compounds. Hitler in the air sent an additional infantry division only after an African building was stopped at El Alamein, but it was too late for the Second World War in the memoirs of W. Churchill, Charles de Gaulle, K. Hella, W. Leg, D. Seizenhauer. / Ed. Trojanovskaya E.Ya. - M.: Policy, 1990..
In August 1942, heading to Moscow to meet Stalin, Churchill did a stop in Cairo to personally assess the situation in North. Africa and the Middle East. He conducted a permutation in the British command at the time of the critical position of the Rommel Army. General Harold Alexander was appointed commander-in-chief of British troops in the Middle East. But finding a new commander for the 8th army was not so simple. Lieutenant General Gott, who was referred to this post, died in an aviation catastrophe. After some, Churchill had focused on the candidacy of Lieutenant General Bernard Low Montgomery. This appointment turned out to be very successful. Montgomery collected all the troops available at his disposal and began to wait for the appropriate moment to apply a fatal blow to the enemy. The 8th British army had to this time superiority in tanks and aircraft 6 times. Lunar at night on October 23, the British collapsed the massive artillery fire in the position of the African corps. Four hours later began the assault, which in the end and decided the outcome of the case. Rommel's troops turned into flight, which continued until the last German soldier folded the weapons six months later in Tunisia. Nevertheless, the African corps was not completely destroyed. Hitler begged his soldiers to stop and die on the battlefield. In the meantime, a huge fleet of allies made his way to the shores of Morocco and Algeria, and on November 8, 1942, allied troops landed in Casablanca, Orane and Algeria. The African corps fell into the trap and all his further actions were already useless. Forces of allied troops. Africa was released. Hitler also made desperate attempts to resist, throwing reinforcements in Tunisia and Bizeta, but it was too late. Rommel still managed to hold another attack on American troops in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Kasserinsky Pass and cause them serious damage. But the Americans quickly recovered and in March-April 1943, with the support of the 8th British army, the African Corps was discarded on the very tip of Cape Bon-Peninsula. Here in May 1943 almost the 250,000 German army gave up. The value of the African Corps was lost, and 20 British divisions were strengthened at the North African Theater - half of the entire Army of UK Voropaev A. Encyclopedia of the Third Reich - M.: Enlightenment, 1997..
3. African countries after the war
After having ceased to be the arena of the confrontation of the East and the West, this region has lost its strategic importance in the system of foreign policy coordinates of leading powers, and the experience of their political and economic cooperation with African countries has been critical revaluation. Steps were taken to overcome the extremely expensive nature of assistance provided to African states on a bilateral and multilateral basis.
In this regard, both in Africa and abroad, there were extremely pessimistic moods in relation to not only remote, but also the closest perspectives of the region, to offer scenarios for the development of the situation that had apocalyptic tonality. The international political lexicone is firmly included the concept of "Afroopsimism", which was supported and reinforced by many serious arguments.
The source of "Afropolsimism" was primarily the plight economic situation of the overwhelming majority of the countries of the region. Today, the share of continent, where more than 11% of the population of the Earth lives (600 million people), accounts for only about 5% of world production. Of the 53 African countries, 33 refer to the group of the least developed countries of the world (LDCs).
Although, although the proportion of Africa in obtaining international economic assistance to developing countries was 38% in early 90s (17% in 1970) and fluctuates at the present stage between 15 and $ 20 billion a year, The fall of GDP per capita on the continent for the period 1980 - 1992. reached 15%.
In the late 50s, 12% of the state budget in Senegal was fulfilled at the expense of external financing, 23% in Niger, 28% in Mauritania, 34% in Mali, and in Cabo Verde (rose) - 70%. On average, in countries south of Sahara, external financing of state budgets was carried out about in the amount of 11% of their GDP, while in the countries of North Africa and the Middle East, this figure was only 1.2%, in Asian countries - 0.7%, Latin American countries-0.4%.
Thus, despite the massive economic assistance, Africa lagged behind not only from developed industrial states, but also from the majority of developing countries that have experienced a period of stormy economic lifting. If in the 40s the main indicators of the economic development of Ghana and South Korea were the same, and the income per capita in Nigeria was higher than in Indonesia, by the end of the 60s, any comparisons were useless.
Despite the efforts of the global community, it fails to solve the problem of hunger. Periodically, the lack of food acquired a dramatic character in Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Angola, Rwanda, Zaire, Sierra Leone. Extraordinary scales have accepted the problem of refugees. In Africa, there are almost 50% of the global number of refugees (more than 7 million people) and 60% of displaced persons (20 million people) modern international relations. / Under. ed. A.V. Torkunova. - M.: "Russian Political Encyclopedia" (ROSPEN), 1999.
Extremely adverse effects for international security interests have numerous internal and interstate conflicts in various parts of Africa. For the postcolonial period on the continent, 35 armed conflicts were recorded, during which about 10 million people died, most of which are civilians. The weakening of the military-political intervention in African affairs on the part of the superpower initially led to a decrease in the number and intensity of conflicts in the region, but soon the oldest and new distributed in which the struggle of various political forces was no longer masked by the confrontation of the East and the West, but was widely fueled by traditional ethnic , confessional and clan contradictions, social costs of reforms.
In the 60s, military actions were conducted on the territory of more than one and a half dozen African states. Especially great destruction of war and armed ethnic conflicts brought in Angola, Ethiopia, Liberia, Mozambique, Somalia, Chad, Mauritania, Senegal, Western Sahara, Sudan, Uganda, Mali, Burundi and Rwanda. Overcoming their consequences will require several decades, and the probability of confrontation relapses remains high.
In this regard, "Afroopsimists" believes that the socio-economic and political characteristics of the African continent do the overwhelming majority of the countries of the region for permanent instability, and the high probability of a new reservoir reservoir blocks and international efforts to overcome this situation. In general, in their opinion, Africa was, there will be a "source of increased danger" in the system of international relations.
However, despite the seriousness of the threats to the regional and global scale marked on the African continent, the world order, which develops at the turn of the Third Millennium, will be determined not only by those factors that are quite obvious today, but also new promising trends.
Positive changes have been possible primarily due to the settlement of major armed conflicts in Africa. The elimination of the apartheid regime in South Africa has affected the situation in the southern part of the continent. The prolonged political struggle in Namibia, Mozambique and Angola ceased. The relationship between Uganda, Kenia and Tanzania was normalized. With the provision of independence, Eritrea ended a long-term civil war in Ethiopia, but now the clashes between Ethiopia and Eritrea occur already at the interstate level.
The solution to the problems, due to which the main foci of tension on the African continent and around it existed, turned out to be partial, insufficient to create an atmosphere of regional security. By the mid-1990s, the situation in many areas, which were previously seen only as potential zones of local confrontation, sharply aggravated.
Especially dramatically, the situation in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Great Lakes has developed. The contradictions flowing deep into the colonial history between Hutu and Tutsi splashed outside Rwanda and Burundi, where these nations live. The conflict was involved in one degree or another many of the states of the subregion.
Somalia retains in Somalia, where against the background of the actual decay of the state, the opposing groups continue to attempt to achieve military political superiority. The intermediary efforts of neighboring states in some cases helped to reduce the level of confrontation, but repeatedly achieved peaceful agreements were not respected by conflict.
It should be noted that the preservation of military-political confrontation is closely associated with the arms race on the African continent, which strengthens the instability in domestic politics and interstate relations. Among the developing countries in Africa, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Ethiopia, Angola and Nigeria possessed the highest military power by the end of the 70s. In the armies of these countries, the main part of the armored forces of the continent was concentrated, most of the military aviation and the fleet. Back in nine countries (Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, Tunisia, Tanzania, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Zaire), military potential reached a subregional level, which allows active fighting outside of its borders.
The picture of the high instability of the military-political situation in many areas of Africa is complemented by almost the widespread non-marketability of the situation of national minorities, separatist trends, manifestations of religious intolerance, interstate disagreements, fed by the plans of subregional hegemony of some African leaders. Therefore, in almost all parts of the continent, there are not only real, but also potential "hot spots", which can be the most serious obstacle to the economic rebirth and overcoming the backwardness of African countries.
However, the position in the "hot spots" of the African continent in recent years has not remained unchanged. Due to the actions of the UN, the efforts of OAU, individual states in some cases managed to achieve positive shifts.
A large-scale peacekeeping operation in Mozambique was successfully completed. No significant complications were the process of national reconciliation in South Africa. The peaceful solutions of the territorial dispute between Chad and Libya were found about the lane of ausu, the question of the status of Walfish Bee. It was possible to prevent the growth of internal conflicts in Lesotho, Swaziland, the Central African Republic, on the Komorah, as well as territorial disputes between Nigeria and Cameroon, Eritrea and Yemen, Namibia and Botswana.
The above examples are convincing evidence that the settlement of conflicts in Africa is albeit difficult, but quite real even in a relatively short time. It is also important that the peacekeeping process, which began in connection with specific conflicts, is harmoniously combined with global trends to overcome confrontation. Evidence of the interest of African countries in strengthening international and regional security is the signing of an agreement on the creation of a nuclear-free zone in Africa. The desire is growing to strengthen the control over the spread of weapons and to prohibit its most deadly species on the continent. In this regard, the assessment of the situation in the "hot spots" of Africa is exclusively through the prism of "Afroopsimism" would be unlawful Lebedev M.M. Africa in the modern world. - SPb.: Peter, 2003.
The characteristic feature of increasing the efforts to establish and maintain peace on the African continent was the wide involvement of the world community, and especially the Member States of the UN Security Council. It is symptomatic that during this period, 40% of UN peacekeeping forces acted in Africa. But today there is increasingly actively and the desire of the African countries themselves to participate in the settlement and peacekeeping processes.
An important phenomenon of international relations in Africa began the beginning of the formation of a special mechanism of OAU, designed to ensure the prevention and resolution of conflicts. According to documents of the Cairo Summit of the OAU, the principles of non-interference in the internal affairs of states, respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, resolving conflicts through negotiation, mediation and mutual consultations. Approximate ($ 1 million) is determined by the volume of the annual deductions of the OAU to the needs of the special peacekeeping corps.
But the contours of the regional security system look quite vaguely. Its contractual structure, the criteria for functioning and interaction with the UN peacekeeping forces are still amorphous. A stumbling block for African peacemaking is a shortage of material resources, and most importantly, the lack of mutual confidence in the relations of many neighboring states and the ambitions of their leaders.
In this regard, the relevance acquires the provision of international assistance to Africa in the creation of Inter-Fryan peacekeeping forces. However, it is inhibited by the presence of certain discrepancies between the United States and France - the two largest Western partners of African countries.
The differences in American and French approaches to the problem clearly manifested themselves in the Dakar of the International Conference. France advocates the preservation of his direct military presence in West Africa (5 military bases) and training with the participation of a large French contingent of a special peacekeeping corps (Mars) from representatives of seven French-speaking countries of the subregion. This plan is different from the American project, providing for the creation of a peacekeeping case of another configuration (ASRK). In the process of forming ASRK, the battalion from the Armed Forces of Senegal and Uganda has already been prepared. In the near future, they are also planned to connect battalions from Ghana, Malawi, Mali, Tunisia and Ethiopia. Thus, the principal difference in French and American ideas about the possibilities of the participation of African states in peacekeeping operations on the continent is the orientation, on the one hand, to subregional, and on the other - on a transcontinental scale.
The ideas of the creation of African forces of rapid deployment in general fit into the global strategy of decentralization of peacemaking. But if they are implemented, it is necessary to ensure the conservation of the UN Security Council the role of the main tool for peacekeeping, clearly defining the procedure for the use of military contingents and controlling their UN actions.
The world and the normalization of the situation serve as prerequisites for improving the economic and social status on the African continent. At the same time, careful optimism regarding overcoming military conflicts is largely related to the improvement of the main indicators of economic growth, which has been characteristic of the most recently for most African states.
Conclusion
The rate of economic rebirth and the prospects for political stabilization in Africa largely depend on the development of integration processes in various regions of the continent. The resumption of the previous agreements that existed earlier and the conclusion of new agreements aimed at ensuring the free movement of goods, people and capital, improving the transport infrastructure and the development of plans for the introduction of a single currency will undoubtedly contribute to the establishment of the internal markets of African countries and the competitiveness of their exports. And successful economic development will be the basis for overcoming and many political disagreements.
The rigidity of the approaches of international financial institutions to the problems of African debts has not only a purely economic aspect, but also another, less known side. Thus, the donors carry out certain control over the course of reforms, and most importantly, limit the costs of debtors unwanted from their point of view. Under conditions, when there can be no lesson on the establishment of any form of foreign care over the unstable state structures of African countries, many local elites exhibit not a state approach to the expenditure of subsidies received from the outside.
The most striking example is the rapid growth of military spending in Africa. On average, African countries, until recently, spent more than $ 15 billion per year for military needs. And although 2/3 of these allocations fall on Egypt, Libya and South Africa, the major military budgets also had Algeria, Morocco, Angola, Ethiopia and Nigeria, who are unstable and in economic and politically. It is noteworthy that 12 countries of the continent spent on military needs more than 5% of GDP (among NATO members of such only 4), and Libya military budgets, Angolas, Morocco and Cape Verde generally exceeded 12% of GDP.
Military expenses absorb the already limited financial resources of Africa countries. The content of one African soldier goes to the amount allocated for treatment, education and social security 364 people relating to the civilian population. It is military spending that was one of the main causes of the growth of foreign debt of Africa. According to various estimates, the share of military loans in the debt structure of developing African countries is from 15 to 20% to one third.
Termination of armed conflicts, the creation of conditions for the economic revival and improving the efficiency of foreign assistance to African countries are at the present stage by key tasks in the system of foreign policy priorities of global development. But there are no positive shifts at all listed areas, many other questions are not removed from the agenda, from the decision of which will depend on the formation of promising trends in wide international cooperation in Africa and around it. It seems that in the near future the world community will turn to a more active search for regional solutions to the demographic, environmental, energy and number of other problems of the African continent. The new sphere of foreign policy interaction may arise as a result of the expansion of the relations of African states with the countries of South and Southeast Asia.
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Decolonization.The colonial empires before the Second World War were unshakable, the situation has changed after the war.
In 1947, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon, and others. His colonies. France persuaded in attempts to preserve the colonies, but suffered a defeat in the colonial wars in Vietnam (1945-1954) and in Algeria (1954-1962). Italian colonies were taken under the UN Security Council, and then gained independence.
In the Middle East after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1936, Egypt acquired independence, in 1931 - Iraq. The struggle for the creation of an Arab state continued on the territory of the former Palestine.
The decolonization process moved to Africa. 1960 named the Year of Africa. Created several dozen national states on the site of French and British colonies in tropical (Prisha'ar) Africa. In 1970, the independence of Angola and Mozambique conquered. The decolonization process ended with the creation of an independent Namibia (1990).
The reasons for the colonial system collapse:
Healing of the global situation in connection with the victory of democracy over fascism and totalitarianism;
The unwillingness of the peoples of the colonies to live in captivity;
USSR and the United States opposed colonialism;
The weakening of the colonial powers made for them the unbearable burden to save the empires.
In the post-war world, the problem of decolonization was associated with the choice of a socialist or capitalist development path, the center of which was India and China. In most countries in Africa, military dictatorships or authoritarian monarchical regimes were in power.
The choice of the development path and the speed of transformations depended on regional cultural - civilizational features, which were three in Asia and Africa:
1. Asia-Pacific region (ATP) With Confucian traditions (China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, Hong Kong, Singapore).
2. Indo-Buddhist-Muslim region (India, Pakistan, Southeast Asia).
3. Arab-Muslim region (Middle East, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, Maghriba countries).
Japan.After the defeat in the war in Japan, radical reforms were carried out. They were held with the assistance and on the initiative of the American occupation authorities:
- agricultural reform - the land was transferred to the peasants, the clan of landowners and the Roshovshchikov was eliminated;
- adoption of a new constitution - the Institute of Emperors persisted, but the Constitution deprived him of the "divine sign", determined his role as "reigns, but not manages";
- approved a multi-party parliamentary system With the dominant liberal-democratic party.
At the beginning of the 50s. Japan remained an agrarian-industrial country. After three decades, it turned into an advanced industrial power. Japan has become a rich and prosperous state, the center of modern science and advanced technologies, the second economy of the world after the United States.
Economic lifting is called japanese "economic miracle",what contributed a number of factors:
Japan borrowed and used overseas scientific and technical experience and invention;
Japan has ahead of many countries in the automation of production and in the introduction of robots, which has not led to the dismissal of a large contingent of workers;
Many Japanese companies adhered to a lifetime set of labor;
Own improvements and demands for product quality provided to Japanese business leading place in the world for the production of video, audio and radio engineering, cars and other goods;
In Japan, the influx of American capital and technologies was carried out;
The main reason for the economic well-being of Japan is hard work, high labor ethics, labor culture, corporate discipline, respect for the elders and others ascending to the Confucian traditions of the norm of the behavior of the Japanese.
China.In 1946, the civil war began in China - Chan Kaisha with the Army of the Gomintan Party performed for capitalist modernization in the Western model, on the one hand, and Mao Zedong at the head of the Communist Party and its Army NAK (China's People's Liberation Army) - for the construction of socialism and communism.
The victory in the Civil War won the Chinese Communist Party, October 1, 1949 in Beijing Mao Zedong proclaimed the formation of the People's Republic of China.
Reforms:
Liquidation of landlord land tenure, but soon - the beginning of collectivization;
Nationalization of industry;
Elimination of private property in the village;
In the field of industry, plans of the forced development of production with a violation of technical norms, technological processes and industry proportions were adopted;
- "communization" of agriculture, which had negative consequences;
1966-1976 - "Cultural Revolution."
New modernization of Dan Xiaopin (State and Party Worker of the CCP, in 1978 - the third Deputy Chairman of the CCP, Head of NAK headquarters):
The dissolution of the commune, the return of the earth to the peasants;
Legalization of trade, the opening of the markets;
Providing independence to enterprises, their exit to the external market;
Development of small and medium private sector in industry and trade;
The emergence of opportunities for foreign investment entry into the global market;
The concept of "construction of socialism with the Chinese specificity" and the construction of a "medium-wealthy society" has been developed.
The consequences of PDA reforms mainly had negative consequences. In the future, China's economic growth contributed the following factors: China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). This led to the opening of the domestic market for foreign goods and contributed to the promotion of Chinese products in foreign countries. China became in the 1990s. The largest object of investing foreign capital. For a number of indicators of the production volume of China by the end of the 90s. I left almost first place in the world.
