In N Karl x internal policy. The internal policy of Charles II. Karl Great conquest

The internal policy of Karl's Great is directed mainly on the centralization of public administration (it was especially brightly manifested in the organization of regional and local governance, in the introduction of the Institute of Royal Messengers, etc.).

The most important reason for all the success of Karl Great was the support he used to know. Karl continued the distribution of benefius, honorary posts, gifts. Reyhard. Declaration. S. 112 The political system created by Carle, the basis of which was the strengthening of vassal ties, contributed to the strengthening of the nobility. The duty of Vassalov to serve as a king was drawn up by treaties and cruelings of loyalty; The oath of loyalty was to be given and simple free, from 789 compiled lists of swollen.

Le Hoff says that the church cathedral in a tour, convened in 811, noted: "In many places, various means of the property of poor people are strongly trimmed, and this property of those who are free, but lives under the authority of the powerful persons." Further, Le Hoff says that church magnates and latifundists become the new owners of this property. Le Hoff as an example leads a polyptic compiled in the ninth century at the order of IMMion, Abbot Saint-Germain de Pre - land ownership and durability of land holders. Twenty-four possessions are described in it, nineteen of which were located in the area of \u200b\u200bParis, between Mantom and Chateau Veli. This economic power has opened the path to public authorities in many respects thanks to the process started by Karl's Great and his heirs. As already mentioned, Karl the Great increased the number of beneficial darisions, obliged to bring an oath and join the vassal relationship. This was done to strengthen the Franksky state, Karl hoped with vassal connections to bind to themselves not only significant people, land magnates, but also less large landowners, so he encouraged his vassals so that they also had vassals, and all their free orders to choose the senory. The actions of Karl had almost reverse action. In the challenge of Charles Great 811, it is said that "the poor complains about the deprivation of their property, the same complain about the bishops, and on the abbots, and on the trustees, on the counts and their centuries." The peasants were ruined due to church tithing, heavy taxes, high court fines

Karl The Great supported the Union of both dad and a local church hierarchy. Obtaining energetic promotion of the spread of Christianity, patronizing the clergy and establishing a tenth for him, being in the best relationship with dad, Karl kept behind him, however, full power in church management: he appointed bishops and abbots, convened spiritual cathedrals, decidive on the seats church cases. Karl himself was diligently engaged in sciences; ordered to make a grammar of the people's language in which the Frankist names of months and winds installed; ordered to collect folk songs. He surrounded himself by scientists (Alquin, Pavel Deacon, Eingard, Raban Mavr, Theodulf) and, using their advice and assistance, sought to educate the clergy and the people. In particular, he took care of the school of schools at churches and monasteries; In his yard, he arranged the rift of the Academy to educate his children, as well as the courtiers and their sons.

Karl was attempted to reform the monasticism in accordance with the Benedictine Charter, at the same time the liturgy reform was carried out and the compilation of a single collection of sermons. In general, the attitude towards him was serving, it says that Dad Leo Lion III after his election to the papal throne sent Karl's keys of St. Peter and a papal banner as a sign of recognition of his power. Sidorov A.I. Take off and fall of Carolingov - M., 1999. S. 112 Karl became an defender of Orthodox in the West, he wanted to protest the decision of the Nicene Cathedral of 787.

Regarding the church, Carl was published many capitulas. One of them says that they are neither the saints of God, nor orphans, nor pilgrims recent resentment and robbery, since the sovereign itself is the emperor, after God and His Saints, declared their defender and patron. In many of the capitular acts, Karl Great resembles the graphs, bishops that their behavior should be pious: let them forgive debts to their debtors, buy off prisoners, help the oppressed, protect the widows and orphans.

Karl the Great spent a new military reform. Now serve in the army was obliged only to relatively wealthy free landowners who had 3-4 put on. All the wealthy people are primarily free peasants, should have been united into groups and for a common account to expose one armed warrior.

Thus, the military power was streamlined by ordering the collection of militia, and the Karl Great borders strengthened the Military Organization of Marks managed by markers. He destroyed the power of folk dukes dangerous for the king.

After Carla Military Reform, four peasants should have set one warrior into the fold. Such practice was not only on itself is destroyed for the peasantry, but for a long time he left him from the farm, and since Karl the Great was awarded active gaining policy, then such a military practice was constant. The crowns of the peasants gave their own ownership of land magnam in exchange for patronage and protection, the practice of transferring land to the drone began during the meringues, the land ownership of the land, which Magnat passed the broken peasant under the condition of fulfillment of certain dance: military service, the fulfillment of the barbecue or longer - It contributed to the strengthening of land tycologists, it is connected with that that, as Le Hoff writes, "from 811, Karl the Great complained that some refuse military service under the pretext that their seven was not called upon her and they should Stay with it. " The situation was aggravated by such a phenomenon as the immunity, which concluded that the magnate on the territories belonging to him received the rights of taxes and filters, enjoyed the supreme judicial authority and was the leader of the military militia convened on its territory. Unable to impede this process, the state legalized its special diplomas, according to which the immunity lands were out of submission to the counts. A similar practice that has become a big distribution in Carolingi began, however, during the times of Meroving. In addition, after the judicial reform of Karl, the Great, the peasants were deprived of the active role in court, so they could not prevent the strengthening of magnates through state judicial authorities. "Freedom of these people ceases to imply full-run". In a golf. Civilization of the medieval West - M., 1992. P. 260 They often united and raised methers, however, it was ineffective, and they could not stop the "offensive" of the magnates. Karl in many of their capitulas prescribed preventing the oppression of the peasants, however, it did not have proper impact. If we talk about the economy related to the processes described above, then during the board of Karl - from the end of the 2nd to the middle of the 9th century the prevailing was the trend of economic lift, which the existence of excess products in large estates, which was implemented on the market, confirming that some revival of those Roman roots of cities, compared with their decline at the time of the late Roman Empire. The number of mint yards increases several times, which prompted Karl to limit the right of cities on the coin chasing. The growth of money supply indicates a large scale of trade.

Combining the lands with the question of the lands, the swamps were drunk, forests were cut down, monasteries and cities were built, as well as magnificent palaces and churches (for example in Aachen, Inglegeem).

Announced in 793. The channel device between Rednic and Altmühul, which would be connected to Rhine and Danube, the Northern and Black Sea, remained unpriced.

In 794, at the site of the thermal resort of Celts and Romans in Aachen, Karl began the construction of a huge palace complex, finished in 798. Turning first to the Winter Residence of Charles, Aachen gradually became a permanent residence, and from 807 - the constant capital of the Empire .

Karl strengthened the day, which began to weigh 1.7 grams. Slava Karl spread far beyond his possessions; Embassies from foreign lands often appeared at its yard, such as the Embassy of Harun Ar-Rashid in 798

Cultural aspirations of Karl were associated with politics - the culture of the Franksky state was to correspond to the name "Empire". Karl himself was very educated for his, in many respects of the barbaric time: "I can't only be satisfied with my own speech, he tried to explore foreign languages. Latin, he studied in such a way that it was usually spoken on him, as if on his native, but he understood in Greek more rather spoke. ". a golf. Decree. S. 280

Cultural reforms were started with the establishment of the Unified Canonical Text of the Bible, and were generally held in the Union with the Church.

Karl The Great purposefully encouraged a secular culture, inviting Aachen Philologists to his capital, architects, musicians and astronomers from all the Empire lands, as well as from Ireland and England. Under the guidance of the Great Anglo Saxon Scientist Alquina, who was in Karl in fact "Minister of Education" of the Empire (in 796, having lost from the courtyard, he became a Turkish abbot), and with the participation of such famous figures like Theodulf, Pavel Deacon, Eingard and many Others (they were all included in the informal "palace academy") actively revived the education system, which received the name of Caroling Renaissance.

Karl himself took an active part in the works of the Academy founded by him: on his initiative, the correct text of the Bible was compiled; Monarch collected the oldest German legends and songs (the meeting, unfortunately, almost lost); He instructed scientists to draw up a grammar of his native Frankish language (this command was not fulfilled).

With it, the study of the classical Latin was reborn, annalism was encouraged, and a whole flow of imitative poetry was rested from under the pen of talented court. Karl himself took the grammar lessons from Alquin and began to make grammar of the German language. He also worked on the correction of the texts of the Gospels and already in old years tried to learn from the difficult art of calligraphy (mentioning the fact of this fact in the Eingard's biography of Charles was the basis for the emergence of a false idea that he allegedly did not know how to write). The collection of traditional short German heroic poems ordered by him, unfortunately, was not preserved. Everywhere, new schools have been opened throughout the monasteries and churches, it was envisaged that the education and children of the poor. Under the leadership of Alquin in the monasteries, the scripts were reborn or established (premises for the correspondence and storage of manuscripts), where a magnificent font was used for the correspondence, referred to as a rapid pace, and the copying was made so fast that the lion's share of all the heritage of antiquity reached us by the efforts of that Epochs. The impulse, given the scholarship of Karl's Great, continued to operate for a whole century after his death.

Federal State Budgetary Educational

Establishment of higher vocational education

Lipetsk State Pedagogical University

Department of Universal Story

Vedeneev Sergey Borisovich

The main directions of external and internal

Politicians of Charles Great

graduation qualifying work

Lipetsk 2012

Introduction

The era of the existence of the Karl Great Empire is an integral part of European history. The events that this work is devoted to the period of time from 768g. at 814, that is, when the Frankish state of the rules of Karl Great. German historian Arno Borsh in the 70s. Xx in. Characterized the life of Karl the Great as follows: "Karl the Great laid the foundation of history is still the interest of specialists engaged in modern Europe; We are talking about mutual understanding of European peoples and national divisions, about state-owned device and public structures, about Christian morality and ancient education, about not running away tradition and messy freedom. " In essence, the history of the state of Karl Great was part of the time of the unfinished process of building a united Europe, vividly resembling themselves by the diversity of forms and novelty. Europe map literally over the past two decades has undergone significant changes. Some countries and unions disappeared, others came to replace. Europe is now seeking to gain a new political appearance, undoubtedly returns to its roots, to an interethnic, multi-level structure of the arranging personality of the ruler and his family, which we usually call the era of the Carling Dynasty or the Karl Great Empire.

Therefore, from the point of view of modern reality, namely, the flow of political and economic processes in modern Europe the theme of this they diploma work seems to me extremely relevant. Currently, in European states, as in the time of Karl the Great, intertwined the most difficult political, economic, religious, territorial interests of many peoples, their economic and political elites. How soon is the opposition to Muslim, especially its militant, irreconcilable teachings of Wahhabism and Christianity. This is confirmed by the events of recent years, in Bosnia and Albania, the disintegration of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, the entire exacerbating crisis "in the euro zone".

When writing this work, the goal for me was whether to comprehensively consider and characterize the main directions of the external and domestic politics of Karl the Great. Therefore, the main tasks facing me see the need to reveal the diversity of its designs and ways to implement them into society.

German historian Leopold background Rank in labor "The History of Romanesque and German peoples" (1824g.) He spoke about the symbiosis of European peoples, about the emergence of their general history, the source of which is the Empire of Charles Great. Later Arno Borsh in the book "The Old Diagram of Lectures on Studying History" 1868 It was noted that in the age of Carroling the West acquired the completed outlines as the Christian Empire, which arose under the start of the Frankish kings, and moved away from Byzantium. Poliko - theological dispute about the reverence of icons (iconobocretion), in which the influence of Charles of the Great played an important role, according to Borst, also prepared the branch of the Eastern Church from Latin Christianity, which was completed in 1054. split a unified Christian church. Borsh also noticed that "Karl's Empire was carried in herself a blessed start, inspired by European peoples the idea of \u200b\u200bcultural community, which since then ... embodies the preferential right ...".

Belgian historian of the stroke XIX-XXVV. Henri was postponed, who also a lot of attention was dedicated to Carla Great, in his book "Magomet and Charleman" examined in detail the period of his rule and gave him an assessment from the point of view of technical innovation, mass development of new lands, improving the structure of agriculture, noting that the Board Within the framework of the Karroling Empire, a sharp economic jacket was prepared, which was expressed, in particular, in the subsequent development of medieval cities. Another worldwide - historical moment of that era, he considered the resettlement of francs to the east - to the other coast of the Rhine until the elba.

The only partially preserved lifeline manuscript about Karl's Great and served in the opinion of Dieter Hermanna, Caroling Historian Eingard, the foundation for writing the biography of the emperor, is kept in the monastery library of Corri and is the processing of late Tanning-Gallean heritage in the field of economics and a public device, church and culture.

A huge historical value undoubtedly represents the manuscript of the contemporary of the companion of Charles Great, his biographer Karl Eingard "The Life of Charles Great." To this day, it has been preserved in more than 80 lists. Already at that time, Eingard felt the need to erect a monument to the unique ruler and its "inimitable cases," to draw off the scale of this historical personality, the national affiliation of which will challenge in the future of each other two people: French and German. He wrote: "Getting Started to the description of life, the nature and feats of the sovereign ... Let's present you, the reader, your work, written by the sake of preservation of memory about the glorious and great husband." "The Life of Charles Great" is a kind of unique work, a paramount literary and historical monument of the era. She sustained a huge number of publications and was transferred to major European languages.

In the XII century There are manuscripts of French and German monks who have come down to our time, in which the belonging of Charles of the Great alternately approved, then the ancestors of the Germans, then to the ancestors of the French. The same topic is devoted to the work of 1935. "On eight answers of German historians. Karl Great and Charlemander. " Anachronic question about the Nationality of Karl the Great, who rightly considered himself a franc, again gets up in the light in 1956. The five-volume bibliography of the authors of Herman Geimple, Theodora Hayes and Benno Rainenenberg "Great Germans" and is solved in an amazing way. They come to the conclusion that Karl the Great "was not German", and it was such a time when the German people simply did not exist. From this, the authors conclude that it is logical to name in the number of "the great Germans" of such figures, which, even without knowing the ultimate goal, turned out to be a history tool. Thus, they turned out to be involved in the history of this people, defining its national character.

Published in 1965 - 1968. The five-volume study of the Wolfgang of Brownfels and Helmut Boyman about Carla Great puts the point in the centuries-old dispute of two European peoples. Based on the ancient Venetian chronicles, the Codex XI century. From the Kava Monastery in the south of Italy, on the chronicle manuscripts of Eingard, they conclude that in the second decade of IX. Franks and Saksa constituted a single people.

Written in 1981, translated into Russian and published in 1986. The work of the Hungarian scientist E. Gergei "The History of Paper" talks about what happened for many centuries in the residence of the Roman Dads, about the fate and the affairs of those people who occupied the Papal See, and about the struggle that they led for the distribution and strengthening Catholic church. Avoiding the shortcomings of the extreme points of view, not insulting the draws of the disagreement, E. Gayeee considers the relationship between the Caroling dynasty with the papacy. B1993g. In Russian, the book "The origin of francs is published. V - IHVEK "Associate Professor of the History of the Middle Age of the city of Lily Stefan Lebek, where the problem of historical roots of medieval France is considered, in the light of the latest archaeological data, with the involvement of famous fields of primary sources. The author comes to the conclusion that the history of the state of the Frankings of the early period "... was in a much lower history of steep fractures than the history of evolutionary processes, various in nature, depending on time and place." In 1996 The "History of Military Art" Gansa Delbruck is published, in which the Karlings Analysis of the Military Building of the Karl Great Empire, the subsequent development of the military affairs of Franks, and other European peoples is published.

In 1996 - 1997. A two-member of Charles Ferdinand Werner "Frank - Forerunners Europe" was published, which includes materials of two historical thematic exhibitions held in those years in Mannheim and Paris, and dedicated to the era of the Board of Carling and the Empire of Charles Great. 1997 For the first time in Russia, the "Harper Encyclopedia of Military History. KN.1. World War History 3500g. to R.Kh. - 1400g. From R. Kh. It shows the evolution of combat operations, military strategy and tactics of the Caroling era. Wars of francs and their influence on the lifestyle of the peoples of the Frankish Empire are considered. In 1999 Was translated into Russian and saw the light work 1748. The French philosopher-enlightener Charles Louis Montesquieu, where the interpretation of legislative acts of the period of the Board of Carroling is given, the form of the Board of Charles Great Uniqueness, its size, climate, geographical conditions, religion is determined. In the same 1999 The work of the German historian Oscar Eger "World History" 1904 is reprinted. In four volumes, the second that is devoted to the history of the Middle Ages. It gives the characteristics of the historical personalities of the Caroling era, which appear in bright, living and memorable literary sketches. This edition is beneficial to the abundance of actual material and perfectly selected illustrations. One of the most complete work on Frank's theme is the book of the German historian D. Hegerman "Karl Great" written in 2000. and published in Russian in 2003. In it, the author sets himself a task, to determine where the legend ends about the emperor of the francs and the true story of a smart, far-sighted policy and a commander, which has turned the power of sword and diplomacy, its weak, blood sacrificent state in the powerful empire. Rena Musso - Goular in the book "Karl Great" published in 2003. Notes that "the story of Karl the Great is the history of the king, inextricably linked with the history of the people subject to him," which stood at the origins of the federal statehood in Western Europe. All his efforts were subordinated to the main goal - the creation of the Empire of Caroling. A distinctive feature of the book is the abundance of text extracts from various historical sources of that time. Book 2004. The release of the English scientist Norman Devis "History of Europe" consists of twelve narrative sections of the prehistoric times of Europe in series by consistently in 1990. In Chapter IV- "Birth of Europe", the early period of medieval France is considered, "when for the first time it is possible to recognize what we define as the European Community." The Empire of Karl the Great is considered from the materialistic position, based on geology and economic resources, through the prism of the art and development of science. "The main thing in this process was the interpenetration of the classical and barbarous worlds and as a result of the birth of a Christian community - in other words, the foundation of the Christian world." Published in 2011. The study of the Belgian historian Henri Pyrene "Empire Charles Great and Arabian Khalifat" is devoted to the influence that provided on the development of the history of Western Europe, the invasion of barbarians within the Roman Empire, and then the conquest of the Arabs - Muslims of the part of this territory and the inclusion of it in the Arab Caliphate. A. Pyrene explores the separation of the East of Europe from its western part, the decline in which the monarchy of the Meroving, the emergence of the Caroling dynasty. The causes and consequences of the Union of Roman dads with a new dynasty, their gap with Byzantium, emphasizes the primary role of the Church and major landowners in the history of Europe VII -VIIIIIV.

In the Soviet times of work on caroling history, which bearing fundamental character was practically not published, because This topic was considered not relevant and even provocative. Certificate of this is published in 1957. And reprinted in 1999. The second volume of "History of Military Art VI - XVIVV." Professor, General - Major E. A. Razin, which describes the development of military art of the peoples of the world, including the Frankings of the Middle Ages. As a methodological basis, the monograph was taken "Marxist - Lenin Military Science", i.e., the works of K. Marx and F. Engels. However, this one can say the only large-scale study of the Military History of the Middle Ages in our country of that time. The book is written in simple and clear language, equipped with a large number of cards. Descriptions of battles and combat orders of Franksky troops are understandable and interesting. 1961 Edited by Academician V. M. Koretsky, the "Readings of monuments of the feudal state and the rights of Europe" is published. Sources of the state of the ancient francs, and then France are usually given in extracts. The purpose of publications, as V. M. Koretsky notes, was "showing those of them that most fully reflect the features of the feudal state system and its legal system." In the Trimmer "History of France" 1972. Edited by A.Z. Manfred is only a few pages devoted to Karl the Great and His Empire. In reference editions, bibliographic articles containing rather mischievous information about the Frankish Empire and Emperor Carlo Great. In 1986 Edited by N. F. Kolenitsky, the book "The History of Middle Ages" is published with rather meager information about the period of the Board of Charles Great. In 1987 Attention readers was presented a collection of works of the first third of the XXV. Member - Correspondent of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR O. A. Drozash - the Christmas "Culture of the Western European Middle Ages", where there is an exhaustive information about the sources and the source of the Western Middle Ages, including the Meroving Dynasty, as well as Carrolings.

I would like to note repeatedly published recently, processed and complemented by new information, the work of the writer - the historian of Professor A.P. Levandowsky "Karl Great. Through the empire to Europe. " This is essentially biography of the whole era - the period of the formation of medieval states of Western Europe - France, Germany, Italy. The author considers various aspects of the activities of the Frankish emperor: administrative, economic, cultural and spiritual. Tracks his attempt to create the perfect state, "Grad God", on Earth. The main text is accompanied by a number of interesting applications. These include: an authorized translation of the "Life of Karl's Great" Eingard, the famous "Capitulian about the estates", a study on land owners of caroling, analysis of separate acts of the empire.

g. With a break for almost a hundred years by publication 1896. The work of an outstanding Russian historian D. I. Ilovai "Ancient story is printed. Middle Ages. New story". Taking as a basis only the facts, the author impartially showed the living life and living people of different centuries - the world of passions and the creative work of time, including the Caroling era. In the same 1997 3-Tomnik "History of Wars" N. N. Golovkov, A. A. Yegorova, V. P. Pselikov in the first volume of which considered the reasons for the conflicts of Karl Great with neighboring territories, the course of hostilities, the forces of opposing parties, the main The patterns of the development of weapons and military art in the Epoch of the Middle Ages. The book is illustrated by schemes, drawings, cards.

In 1999 A few more work on Caroling theme is published. This is the work of the priest - the philosopher A. Me "The History of Religion. The paths of Christianity ", in which one of the paragraphs tells about religious life in the Empire of Charles Great. Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages of the Voronezh State University edited by N.I. Nyataykina, N. P. Maantician "Early Western European Middle Ages", which presents a selection of essential sources on the history of early Middle Ages, including in political, religious and cultural, and socially Economic topics. The "History of the Middle Ages" Edition, which is the classical monumental history of the history of the Middle Ages, compiled at the end of the XIX. (1863), the famous Russian historic M. M. Stasyulevich, 1376 pages of its first volume are given to the historical primary sources V - IHW. and works of the best writers and researchers of this period of the first half of the XIXV.

In 2000 The book of "Historians of the Caroling Epoch" edited by M. A. Timofeeva is published. The book includes the most vivid and informative monuments of historical thought of VIII - IHW.: "LIFE Karl Great" Einhard, "Xatent Annals", "Life of Emperor Louis" Anonymous, "History" of Nithard, "Vedastinsky Annals". Their content covers the political, cultural and religious life of the Caroling state throughout its history. All of them (with the exception of Eingard) are transferred to Russian for the first time. 2000 The monograph V. P. Budanova "Barbarian world of the era of the great resettlement of peoples", which is a comprehensive study of the barbaric world of the Row of Antiquity and Middle Ages.

It revealed the main historical characteristics of francs, their ethnoistory structure and dynamics were investigated, ethnic space, the composition of tribal associations, features of ethnosocial mobility. In the same 2000 The book of professional military historian A. V. Shilova "100 Great Commander", where, for the criterion for estimating the greatness of Karl the Great as a commander, he takes, first of all, wins in battles and how much these victories determined the course of one or another war.

g. In the series "100 Great" publishing houses "Veche" saw the light of R. K. Balandin "100 Great Geniyev", where the identity of Karl's Great and his era is considered in terms of achievements in the field of religion, philosophy, art, literature and science, i.e. in those areas of the Spirit, where the creative abilities of a person are most commonly manifest.

Historical sources and studies dedicated to Karl Great and his empire appeared for me when writing this work. As they study, in front of me from the political chaos, reigning in Western Europe of that time, the figure of Karl the Great, the Lord is a step by step of creating and forming his kingdom.

Chapter 1. Education of the Empire of Charles Great

1 predecessors

To evaluate and understand the multi-faceted personality of Emperor Charles the Great and the external and internal policies in my opinion, it is necessary to refer to the early history of francs. The beginning of this story, their way to the Empire of Charles will undoubtedly allow to more fully and reliably understand the historical significance of the activity and identity of the emperor.

In the sources of "Frank" mentioned for the first time in the middle of the III century, each time in connection with the militancy and the desire to settle them in the Roman territory. "... Saksov's tribes and francs wandered ... All these nations, both large and small, did not have other livelihoods, except for sword, spears or secrets. Constantly in the war among themselves, these barbaric peoples captured the extraction and never sat down, challenged the same property of the Roman provincials, they ruined and devastated, as who could, that country that was supposed to contain them. " At the turn of the V - VI centuries, the process of the internal association of francs reaches such a level that at first not a very durable tribal union begins to turn into a nation. The folding of a single territory has accelerated this process, intensifying the consciousness of the overall ethnicity. "At the end of Vv. Migrations completed those who began them, the West German group of tribes - francs. A unstable lifestyle, accompanied by more or less frequent changes in the place of settlement, these tribes ended, as the overall consolidation process ended in general. " Usually the emergence of the Franksky state is associated with the Board of Chlodv traffic (481 - 511). "To destroy many other kings, even the closest relatives, from fear so that they do not take the kingdom from him, Claude (Chlodwig) subjugate their power all Galia." "Chlodwig, by the end of the board, has already wore the title of king. Cruel and unintelligible in the means "barbarian", he was distinguished by rapid energy, passion for conquest and desire to unite all neighboring territories and tribes under his authority. "

Although the francs still remained with pagans, their ruler has long understood how Christianity has a moral force. Chlodwig accepted Christianity with his friend in 496 or 498 and promoted him to spread among his subjects. "... The king acknowledged the Almighty God in the Trinity, was baptized in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, was anointed the sacred world and was autonated with the Cross of Christ. And more than three thousand people were baptged from his troops. "

By the beginning of the VII century. The general structure of the state, barely scheduled for chlodwig, was finally formed. At this time, a new, powerful genus of Majordov was put forward; Rod, who managed to consolidate this important title and to subjugate other magnates with it. That was the genus, who received the name of the pipinides, by the name of his founder.

In 681 His descendant is also PIPIN, on the nickname gercess, having won a brilliant victory over his rivals, became a single Major house of the Franksky state, in fact, by his sole ruler, who finally moved to the back plan "lazy", powerless, kings of mercoings. "... This genus (Meroving) is ugas ... But he has not had any vitality for a long time and has paid attention to one test title of the king, because the power and state power was in the hands of the Higher Dvor Sanovnikov, called Mayordome, who actually managed the state." "And the king remained content with his title and show the visibility of power ... about the management of the kingdom and about all internal and external affairs cared for Majord."

Pypina Geristalsky was Praded Karl the Great. His illegitimate son of Karl on the nickname "Matell" (hammer) became grandfather of Charles Great, and his son - Pipin's short became the father of Karl. But it was from Karl Marthel that the true power of pyprides begins, which led them to the royal, and then the imperial throne.

The three main figures, determined the course of the history of the francs in V- VIIIIVV., And prepared the reign of Karl the Great - Chlodwig, Karl Martel and Pipin short.

Chlodwig laid the first stone into the foundation of the state and the church, Karl Martel chained the social basis of the new society, Pipin short strengthened and developed further achieving his ancestors. We can say paved the way to my son, the future emperor Carlo to his dream "Grada of God."

September 24, 768 King Pipin died. "... the kingdom, according to the Frankish custom of inheritance, was divided between his two sons: Carl (senior) and Carloman," December 4, 771. Karloman died unexpectedly. "Karl across the death of a brother with universal consent was proclaimed by the united king of francs." He takes his brother's lands under his office and becomes the sole king of francs, depriving the inheritance and the crown of the widow and the two little sons of Carlomana. This event seems to open the road conquests, according to which Karl will go all his further life.

2 Education of the Empire

g. Starts the Epoch of the Great Wars of Charles. The era of the creation of the empire francs. From now on, almost all the time of the reign of Karla will be filled with martial campaigns.

The King of Langobard Desidery, having taught from Charles after the death of Carloman his wife and children, demanded that the Pope anointed to the kingdom of the sons of Carlomana, as the legitimate heirs of his father. "... After the death of Karloman (771), his widow with his sons and the most significant of the courtly neglected without the visible reasons are pleased with the devices and fled to Italy to seek the patronage of Desidery, the Langobard king." However, Dad Andrian I categorically refused to do this, and fearing further oppressions by Desidery sent the embassy to Carlo Being him to come to the rescue of the Saint Roman Church. "Karl, inferior to the urgent requests of the Roman bishop of Andrian, took war against Langobards." In June 773 Karl began to prepare troops to campaign to help dad. War with disordering becomes inevitable. The Frankish army goes to the Alps. Despite the resistance of Langobards, overcomes the mountains and precipitates the Langobard capital of the pavia together with the convergence there. Leaving the part of the army in the siege, Karl with the main forces goes to Verona. Taking the city, he captured the Carleana family there (further their fate is unknown), but missed the son of adelgiz's son who fled to Constantinople.

Rome waited for Karl, as the Savior. On April 2, the troops solemnly entered the city on the passionate Saturday. Charles walking toward the temple of St. Peter, and demonstrating his deep faith, the stairs leading to the temple leading his deep faith. Together with Dad Andrian I entered it. "In Rome from all saints and blessed places, Karl most read the basilica of the Holy Apostle Peter, in the treasury of which they had donated a lot of gold, silver and precious stones." In the same arrival, Carl was framed by a new grades, a much increased territory promised by the previously "Darius of Pipina". "... lands taken away from the Kings of Langobard returned to Adrian to the Roman (Rektori) of the Roman Church." Then the army returned to the deposited Pavia. The desidery in the scene with his family surrendered to Karla, the treasures of the palace were distributed to the soldiers, and the disorders and his wife were forced to take a victim and sharpened in the monastery. To his title "King of Frankings" Karl added "and Langobards, Roman Patricia". "Karl, having started a war, did not first stop, as she was forced to surrender a dysenary, tired by a long siege, and his son, adalgiz, who had all had his own hopes, made not only the state, but also ITALY (774); Everyone taken from the residents of Rome Karl returned to them ... ".

The Duke of Friuli's addressed by Adelgiz and rightly arranged a plot, thinking to master Rome and return the dominion of Langobard. However, Karl at 776 defeated the conspirators, subjugated to the power of rebellious cities. Adelgiz fled again, Duke Froulia was killed. "... the governor of the Friulian Duchy, plotting a new uprising dodge (776) ...".

At the end of 780 The king again arrives in the pavia "But a few times later he came to see the idea of \u200b\u200bRome, the only ruler of the world, worship the prince of the apostles and the mentor of the peoples and present themselves and her son. Relying on such assistants who are given power in the sky and on Earth, he thought to keep in obedience to the conquered and overcome the difficulties of war, if they are present; He thought at the same time that there would be a lot of help for him if he and his sons would accept the signs of royal dignity from the governor of the apostles and his pastoral blessing ... After all that was expected from Rome was achieved, Karl returned With the world to France, along with his sons and army: He sent Louis to Aquitain to manage the country, giving him to Arnold's guardians, and pressed the other ministers needed for children's education. " Another new king is a four-year-old son Pypinna Carl gives the management of the country of Lambardov Italy. "... over all Italy, subordinated to his power, put the king of his Pipina's son." But it was not so easy to conquer Italy. Arazhaz, Duke Beneventsky, son-in-law deployed desidery, stated his rights to the kingdom. About the whole informed dad, Karl at the beginning of 787. It was already in Rome, where he decided to subjugate the possessions of the arachism. The army entered the duke. Araziz wants to avoid ruin, formally swore on loyalty to the king of francs, but in secret hoping later at a convenient moment to get out of obedience. "But the duke of the people of this, Araziz prevented the war: sent to the king of his sons of Rumold and Grimold with large gifts and asking them to take them both hostages, he promised with all the people to fulfill any commandments ...". The unexpected death of his son Romuld, and then the arachism himself put an end to these plans. But now Adelgiz, with the support of Byzantium, began an offensive on papal possessions. The victoriously completed War of Charles with Byzanthya laid an end and these claims. "The end of the war of Langobard's war was the one that Italy conquered, the king of the Diesel and his son Adelgiz was expelled from Italy, and the land taken from the Kings of Langobard returned to Adriana, the ruler of the Roman Church." It was Karl triumph. They were also conquered and Istria. However, from all graduate territories 774g. Dad practically did not receive anything other than the tiny area of \u200b\u200bSabin, a minor part in the Tuscia (Tuscany). With all this, Karl fully supported the Roman throne, stood on guard of faith and provided a permanent sign of his chapter, which approved all the plans and actions of his new ruler.

The defeat of the desidery forced his ally and the son-in-law of Tassion to hope only for their own forces that were not so great to enter into an open confrontation with Karl. "At the incitement of his wife, the daughter of the king of the desidery, who wanted to take revenge on the expulsion of his father with the help of her husband, making an alliance with the Huns ... Remiss the disobedience ... The outrageous king is not wanting to transfer such audacity, collecting the army, sent it to Bavaria, ... Karl decided ... Find out His ambassadors about the intentions of the Duke. But he does not consider further resistance useful for his people, humbly expressed humility ... ". Therefore, Tassilon renews the oath given by Pipina's once king, but he enters into collusion with the enemies of Charles in southern Italy and secretly negotiates joint actions with wild nomads - Avaras against francs. Carl learns about it. In 787, he demands from the Bavarian Duke of immediate personal appearance. Tassilon evades. Then the king surrounds Bavaria from all sides by the troops. Tassilon understanding the hopelessness of the situation, is to Carlo and once again gives an oath of loyalty, but it can no longer save the duke. At 788, he was called to the General Seyme, where the francs unanimously sentenced the rebel to the death penalty, Karl softened the sentence, replacing death by Tassilon's Tasting and his family. "Tassilon, called to the king, was retained by them, the province of the duke was presented to control the graphs."

Now the king is entirely busy with the conquest of Saxons and seeks to victoriously ending the war with them - the most prolonged and cruel of all Charles wars. "After the end of the work of Italian renewed again, as if interrupted, the Saxon War (772 - 804)."

Saks's tribes inhabited extensive territory between the Rhine in its lower current and the elb. Sakes did not know state power, although they have separate social groups. The top of society was Edelioni, or noble - childbirth to know; Then there was the main mass of the free population - Fliminges: the dependent manufacturers or slaves were also stood below. In ethnically, the Saksa was also heterogeneous. In the West, to the mouth of Weser, Westphalia lived - the closest neighbors of francs; In the center of the country, the tribes who had the common name of Angraries, to the east of them, to the elba, stretched the lands of the isphalov, the very northern part of Saxony, occupied Nordalbing. "And so, the war began with them, which lasted 33 years with a strongest fierce from the other side, but still the francs rather than the francs." From 772g. until 804g. With short-term transfers, exhaustive and stubborn war stretched. "She was the most prolonged and cruel and cost the Frank's people of the greatest losses ... For Saxons ... they did not consider the dishonest violate and desecrate both divine and human laws. Do not count how many times they defeated, ... conquered the king, ... they promised to no longer worship the demons and adopt the Christian faith. But violated their word; ... ".

Frankish detachments ruined settlements and the Kapieche of Saxons, took numerous hostages and left the strong garrisons into the dysfast fortresses. But when the main troops of the francs left Saxony, the Saxons again and again came out of obedience. All the success of the conquerors boiled down. It was necessary to start everything first. In the first campaign of Charles in 772. In Saxony, Frank was destroyed by the fortress Eresburg, Lfolihli the pagan shrine of irminsule and took hostages. "772. King Charles was with troops in Saxony and destroyed their shrine, which was called irmins. " Hike 775g. It was different from the previous one with the fact that before leaving with the enemy territory, the king left the strong garrisons in Eresburg and Sigiburg. "775. There was King Carl with troops in Saxony, devastated her, bringing her great destruction, and won the fortress, called Eresburg, and Sigibiz, and put the garrison there. "

However, the Saxians continue to attack the border areas of Franks. "There were other reasons that promoted daily violations of the world. Our borders (francs) and their (Saxians), on even places, were almost adjacent, with the exception of few points, where Frankish fields were clearly separated from Saxon or extensive forests, or intermediate ridges of the mountains; At the adjacent borders, alternately murders, robbery and fires were replaced. "

The failure of the Saxons forced Karl to change the tactics. He seeks to create a fortified frontier - a border "brand" that protects against enemy raids in the future. "... Almost continuously was struggled with Saksami, Karl, located at convenient locations along the border with them garrisons ...". At 776 He again strengthens Eresburg and Sigibiz, adding newly built Karlsberg to them. The king leaves the border zone of the priests who should be addressed to the faith of the Gentiles - Saxons. "776. King Karl ... won most of Saxony; And Saksa appealed to the faith of Christ, and their countless many were baptized. "

However, the leader of Westphalian nonductind unites around himself for further resistance to the conquerors of Saxons - Westphalov. Charles's response was the continuation of the war to the complete victory over the unfortunate. Hike 780g. Carl's troops advanced to Elba - the borders between the saksami and the Slavs. At the same time, the king believed numerous priests, wanting to Christianize the whole saxony. His main assistant in this was Anglosex, Dr. Theology of Willlegard. "780. Mr. King Carl again went with the army in Saxony and reached the Great River Elba, and all the saksus obeyed him, and he took various hostages, both free and litas, and divided this country between the bishops, priests and abbots in order to They baptized here and preached; And also assuas the huge many pagans of Venenov and Frizi. " In 782g. Not yet conquered by Saxony Karl divided the administrative districts, at the head of which he set the counts, including from the local nobility. Thus, by Christianization and summing up under the Frank Administrative system, Karl included Saxony in his possessions. "782. And the king of Karl was convened a great assembly of his troops in Saxony in Lippspiring and set the graphs over it from the number of noble sakes. "

Secret arrived in 782g. From the shelter in Denmark, Vidukind again collected like-minded people. The uprising broke out. Saksa, who accepted a new faith, were beating, temples to destroy. Sannis Karl, sent to the doubt of the uprising, approached the Visser. At the Mountain Zonytal, the rebels gave them a battle, turned into a closer. Such a defeat, Carlo experienced not yet accounted for. "And when I learned that they (Saksi) again disappeared from faith and gathered headed by Vidalkind for the insurgency, he returned to Saxony ...". His revenge was terrible. B783g. He immediately gathered the army, immediately appeared at the lower course of the Weser, caused the Saxon elders to him, who should have issued the culprits of the "rebellion." Vidukind managed to run back to Denmark. The trembling elders called 4500 of their countrymen, which by order of Karl were premedized and beheaded. "... And the war began with the rebels, ... and the francs fought with the saksami and the grace of Christ won, and there were many thousands of Saksov, even more than before." "This bloody share was purely political. She showed the population that he was waiting for further disobedience. "

"The next three years (783 - 785) Karl almost completely gave Saxony. He beat Saksov in open battles and punishable raids, took hundreds of hostages, whom he touched from the country, destroyed the village and the farm of unprofitable. " Winter 784 -785gg. He spent in the Werre, and in the spring I moved to Eresburg. From Eresburg Karl several times challenged the volatile detachments through all the saxony cleansing roads, tearing enemy fortifications, expecting resisting. They were started negotiations with Vidalkind successfully ended with the arrival of Vidakind to King in Attiny and the adoption of her baptism, and Karl himself was. "Submitted to him, the Saxians again adopted Christianity, which was previously rejected. After the world was installed and the meters stopped, the king returned home. Vidkind, the prosecutor of all angry and inspirer of the goat, came with his adherents to the Palace of Attiny and was baptized there, and Mr. Carl was his susceptible and honored with great gifts. "

In 793 The uprising began again, the Saksi tried to lead joint actions with all the enemies of Frankov - Friezia, Avara, Slavs. "... Saksa, turning away from Christianity, deceiving God and Mr. King, who rendered them a lot of mercies, united with their surrounding pagan peoples. By sending his ambassadors to Avaras, they tried to rebel - primarily against God, and then against the king and Christians; All churches that were within their limits, they were empty, destroyed and burned, and the campaign of the bishops and priests who were delivered over them, some grabbed, others killed and returned completely to the worship of idols. "

The rebels destroyed the temples, killed priests. Frankish garrisons were interrupted. In the autumn of the same year, Karl with the army arrived in Saxony. Within 794 - 799g. He led a merciless war, accompanied by massive seizures of hostages and prisoners, with the subsequent relocation of them on the rights of serfs in the domestic regions of the state. "Not allowing that any of their tries remained unpunished. Karl, led by a personally or sending an army under the superiors of his graphs, Argent for treason and made a worthy punishment, until finally, crushing and subordinate to his power of all who resisted, did not move ten thousand people, ... along with their wives and children in different areas Galya Germany (804). " To a third of the country's inhabitants was resettled. In the fight against Saksami, Karl actively used the help of the long-term enemies of Saksov - Slavs - encouraged. "Our Slavs, who are called encrypses, led by the Mr. King messengers climbed at those Saxons who live on the northern shore of Elba, devastated the possessions of them and burned ... and despite the fact that those were pagans, the faith of Christians and Mr. King and they won the saksami ... ".

The last company in the Saxon War was the military company 796,799g., Which Karl carried out with his sons. "796. That year, King Carl was in Saxony with his two sons, namely Carl and Louis, he bypassed the Saxon lands ... " "... King Carl captured a lot of sakes with their wives and children, sewing them in various areas of their state, and the land divided them between their faithful, namely between the bishops, priests, graphs and other breasts, and built there in the Celebun the Church of Amazing The quantities, and ordered it to light it, and then returned with the world to the Aachen Palace, and there was. " The king himself in this campaign did not show great activity. He sent Karl Young to complete the battle to Nordalbing and then returned to France with the winner.

On the second place for duration and difficulty, you can put a car of Charles with Avara. Frank with them collided immediately after the subordination of Bavaria. Avars were closely related to the enemies of francs, langobard, saksami, bavars. The war went with varying success, and the French king had to mobilize all his strength and put forward the best rows of the best commander to successfully confront to nomads. "The king himself headed, however, just one expedition, ... the leaders entrusted to his son Pipina, the rulers of the areas, as well as the graphs and special authorities."

In 795 Having doubled his army at the expense of the Union with the Southern Slavs, Franks mostly defeated the enemy, capturing rich prey. "You can not specify another war announced by Franks, during which they could have so much to acquire and enriches." Finished the started Karl instructed his young son Pipina, the nominal king of Italy, for whom, of course, the most experienced military leaders fought. "Thanks to the active orders of these persons in the eighth year, the war was laid." Avars, who understood the hopelessness of the resistance, killing his ruler of Kagagan and his main advisers, decided to conquer Pipine, but the young king did not accept them, and began to destroy and ruin everything on his path, turning Avar to escape. "How much did the battles have been given how many blood sheds can be judged by the fact that in Pannonia there is not one person alive, but the place where the royal dwelling of the kagan was devastated to the fact that there were no traces of human life there. All the know of the Gunnov died in this war, and their whole glory disappeared. "

Karl altered exactly: his son was proclaimed a great strategist and the Savior of the Fatherland. The whole legion of the bishops and priests was directed to the trail of the army, for the Christianization of the defeated.

The capture of Italy, Bavaria, Saxony, finally the accident brought the francs to the new neighbors to the Slavs. Slavs, like their neighbors of Saksa, lived community - tribal ranks at the stage of his decomposition. They had a tribal to know, the princes appeared, who stood at the head of tribal unions. The relationship of Karl with Slavic tribes was different. In the war with Saksami, he often relied on the support of Slavs - Abodritis, so francs called them "their Slavs". Karl was so pleased that he approved the Slavic Prince Drazhko the Grand Prince and gave Nordalbing Abodritam.

Otherwise, the relations of Karl with another Slavic tribal union - Wilians, famous for their ferocity and intolerance. Wilians were constantly bent with abodrites. "... The war began with the Slavs, who our Wilians are imposed on our language, and in their own language - Welataba." In 789 Karl made a grand hiking in the country of Wilians. "The reason for the war was that the Wilians were inconspicuously disturbed by the raids of the abodrites, the long-time allies of the francs and could not be kept by one orders." Franks, Saksa, Friezes, Luzhitsky Serbs participated in the campaign. The strongest shot of the Lutchians was applied. Despite the stubborn resistance, the Wilians were broken, the capital surrendered. Their prince dragovit conquered and gave hostages. Then Karl appointed drags of the great prince of Wilians. "One of the campaign, in which Karl's leading, he told them so much that in the future they did not consider it possible to shy away from obedience."

Relations with pointed Serbs were not so dramatic. Carl, then carried out military invasions on their territory, then took them to the allies against Wilians.

It suggests that the conclusion is 70-90. VIIIV Carl did not have any serious attempt to establish himself on Slavic lands.

Leading endless wars in the East, Karl made attempts to expand its possessions in the West. "Copened Karl and Britons living in the West ... and who did not want to obey him: the army sent by the king, forced Britons to give hostages and fulfill everything that was ordered." His troops were repeatedly invaded to Brittany and laid the Celtic tribes of Brittov Tan. In the 70s There was a strengthened zone of Mark with cities of a pheniac, tour, Angerom.

In 799 Karl organized a greater expedition to Brittany, but so to the end and could not conquer it. She kept her religious customs and features.

At 778 At the head of the large military forces, Karl invaded Spain, but he fell into an ambush to the conquerors in the Ronselval Gorge, the freedom-loving tribe of Baskov - Waksons and was divided. "When the army moved by a stretched bundle, as Mountains were forced to be forced, the Basks, giving an ambush on the vertices of the rocks, ... They attacked the detachment on top of the detachment ... Issted everyone to one, after which, by overpricing, under the cover of the coming night, they quickly dissipated in different directions." Then Karl took up the strengthening of Aquitaine and Vasquence nearest to Pyrenees. From 779 Delivered there vassals, and in 781. I highlighted the Aquitain in a separate kingdom and gave it to the management of the younger son of Louis, who, at the destruction of his father, was carried out a number of campaigns for Pyrenees. The Spanish brand was founded - the fortified region with the cities of Gerono, Urchel, Vika. In 801g Barcelona was conquered, which became the center of the brand, in 806. Pamplona, \u200b\u200band by the end of the board of Karla his possession stretched to the Ebro River.

The result of numerous wars was a territorial increase in the Frankish state almost twice for the period of the Board of Charles. "By these wars, the kingdom of francs received from the father of his Pipina, already great and strong, Karl expanded and increased almost twice." At the same time, its influence spread far beyond the state. "Karl increased the glory of his reign by the acquisition of the friendship of some kings and peoples." At the Muslim east, Khalif Harun Ar - Rashid was looking for the Union with him. "Aaron (Harun Al Rashid, Khalif Bagdatsky) King of Persians who wanted to all East ... was so friendly located to Karl, which preferred His love to take all the kings and princes on the globe and considered him one worthy of respect and gifts."

Charle's name was competitively pronounced in Austria and Scotland. "He entered into such close relations with the Gadefonx, the king of Gasilia and Asturias (Austrian king) that the latter, sending a letter or ambassadors to Karl, ordered to call himself in these cases not otherwise as devoted to him. Even the kings of scotties (i.e. Scottish), he skilled generosity to subjugate his will so that they were not most common as a master, but he was talking about themselves as a subject and slaves. " Christians of Alexandria and Carthagen used the generosity of King Frank.

In 800g. Dad Leo Lion III proclaimed Karl emperor, "King Karl ... obeying God, as well as at the request of the priests and the whole Christian people at the same Christmas (800g.) The Lord of our Jesus Christ took the title of emperor along with the dedication from Mr. Lion's Pope. This happened the event of a global scale. There was a new French empire and her emperor Karl Great.

The incident caused a sharply negative reaction from the imperial power of Byzantium. "... Accepted by Karl title of the emperor opened a strong suspicion in them, as if Karl thus discovers the ideas from their empire." Although "Greeks and Romans always looked incredulously on the power of francs ... He (Karl) entered into a close alliance with them, so that there was no reason for the rupture between both parties." Byzantia 10th years later, the imperial title of Charles Great was recognized.

"Such was, as you can see, the activities of Charles, aimed at expanding, protecting and decorating the state."

2 Public Device System

Before the conquest of Garea, the francs did not have another organization of public administration. Higher power belonged to military leaders, public and court cases were solved at the people's assembly with the participation of all warriors - men. This primitive device turned out to be unsuitable for the organization of domination over the conquered territories and their population. During the reign of Karl the Great Frankish state significantly strengthened and expanded, turning into the empire. "... Carl united in one empire peoples who lived from the Ebro River to Elba and from Apennine to the German (Northern) Sea, that is, most of the land included once in the Western Roman Empire."

It was necessary to create a system of managing these extensive territories and with the help of conviction and practical measures to encourage Saxons, Gasconians, Italians and Francs to take the power of the king, bring the fundamental principles of the Royal Board in the Kingdom of the Peoples, as well as the obligations that were imposed on On the Corol Caesters.

Karl the Great continued and developed by his father Pipin tradition, "it is desirable to us that the rulings approved by the good memory by the father of our meetings and the Synodians actually acted," followed by the way they were scheduled. "... He managed to make the most of the political results achieved by its predecessors, and bring to the end of the case." However, the traditions of the transfer of royal power are changing, gaining their new meaning. Anointing means that the king is the chosen one of the Lord, that is, the procedure for choosing the king by magnates and the clergy ceases to exist. Karl the Great and his genus, who was awarded divine election from now was to manage the Empire of Franks by the will of the Lord. "Incessantly reading" Grad God "BLI. Augustine, ... Karl dreamed of a state-owned device, where there would be two power - secular and spiritual, but with the indispensable domination of the power of secular. "

The fulfillment by the king of their duties ceases to be his personal matter, it now concerned the entire Christian people of the francs in general. "This people were also the Christian people, namely the Christian community, the church, where there is a place to all, clerics and laity, rich and poor. In the same sermons are praises (laudes) and the king, and his offspring, and the entire people of Franks ".

If the king is elected by God, then God made it for the sake of the good and salvation of the people, the native of the people elected. "... it costs between God and the people." "Happy people, inspired and driven by the True leader and a preacher, whose Damnie takes a victorious sword, and the Pipe Glow of the Catholic Faith will sound the fault." Aristocracy, the most powerful political strength of the Frankish world, turned out to be at least for a time - detonated from the influence on the election of the king.

On the king, as on the anointed nature of God, certain obligations were imposed in relation to the Christian people, namely to support the world and universal consent between those people who are brothers in faith. "And may the world, consent and unity among the whole Christian people, and may be in the world of bishops, abstract, graphs, judges, the great and small world of this, because the observance of the world is the first joy, by which we can deliver the Lord."

The king was obliged to defend each person belonging to his people and for this, he should publish the right laws, and its administration should notify each subject. "The light and Christian sovereign Emperor Karl ... provided it with all the opportunity to live in fair law below. If there is something else in the law, in addition to the right and equitable, he orders it to diligently investigate and inform him; He himself later, according to God's will, wishes it to fix it. "

Karl himself believed that, "we should, to fulfill the will of God, to protect and protect the pious, righteous, respectable Christians from any attacks and raids from the outside of the Army of Gentiles and the wrong, sowing death and destruction, and to strengthen and protect the general faith , conscientiousness and piety. "

The king is obliged to provide assistance to those who are marked by God: poor, orphans, widows, pilgrims, suffering. "And it seems fair and honorable to us, to guests, wanderers and poor have refuge in various places, rules and canons; Because the Lord on the Great Day of Reach will say: "I was a wanderer, and you accepted me." "No one dares to bring to the state of slave ... people who are forced to ask the world and defense from the king, for they are in need and poverty ...".

Clearyts and their well-being become the subject of special concerns of the king. "He holy and loyally read the Christian religion, .. Jurisically and often visited the church ... provided it with such an abundance of sacred vessels from gold and silver and clergy clubs, ... even gatekeepers of the lowest church title, there was no need to serve in their own dress."

So Karl becomes the ruler (rector) of the people and the defender (Defenseor) of the Church. "So, the bright and Christian sovereign Emperor Karl ... presented to everyone to live according to the right law. And no one dares, ... and do not oppress the churches of God, nor the poor, nor widows, nor orphans, and no Christians in general; But yes, everyone together, according to the prescription of God, fairly and renewed, and everyone and everyone dies unanimously in solving or expressing their own; ... yes, the canonons are fully canonical lifestyle, ... yes, they will be supervised for their lives, under careful supervision, yes Pieces and laitys are correct, without a deception deception, with their laws, and everyone lives in perfect mutual favor and the world. "

The royal estate and the courtyard becomes an example for everyone. Aachen was supposed to be the earthly image of Heavenly Jerusalem, a plan for creating a single Christian Empire "Grad of God" on Earth was developed. On BLI. Augustine "Grad of God" - "... This is the kingdom invisible, spiritual. Coexisting and intertwining with the earth kingdoms, it leads to eternal life ... and the rules of the earth, being true Christians, should via the fulfillment of the divine destinies ... With their actions, they are called to promote, the addition of the ideal building, the main signs of which are the world, unity and truth, The church stored by the Church. " Karl was established in the thought that it was he who was called by God, to embody it into life, because he never doubted that he received power from God, the imperial title of "God's mercy". "Karl, the grace of God's king of francs and Langobards, Patricia of Romans, Baugulfu Abbot and all the brethren - entrusted to your care to the faithful prayer books to our - in the name of God almighty, walking friendly hello."

All of their legislative activities Karl subjugated to the desire to put together in any way "Holy Trouble", unity and peace. "And let everyone live among themselves in mercy, peace and harmony."

"In accordance with the public system of the Frankish Empire, all the power was in the hands of the king, nobility and clergy."

At the king there was a permanent council, which included mainly clerics worked in the royal office, and a number of magnates. The Council was engaged in various issues: the management of royal property, the formation, the issuance of edicts, the collection of information, the preparation of instructions intended for internal use and external. Karl "The inspired by the ideal of the world, order and equilibrium, conducted a policy that in modern historiography received the name" Dirizhism ". From him proceeds to all occasions. His dignitaries and ministerials were provided with separate control threads, but all the threads converged in the hands of the emperor. The Country Management Center remained the courtyard "

Chancellor was appointed by a monarch from the clergy environment, as well as the head of the office and the army of notaries that make up the imperial letters, diplomas, immunity letters. Mayorom's position was abolished. The new face was the ArchikAPellan - Bishop or Abbot, who made common church affairs. Posts - Senehal, Cubicularia, Marshals remained the same. "Advisors, as spiritual and secular, were chosen to those who, first of all, would be afraid of God, then they would be distinguished by such faithfulness that, with the exception of eternal life, they did not prefer to king and the kingdom, no enemies nor relatives, nor gifters, nor flaxes, nor angry, (would) be wisely sophisticatically, not the deer or wisdom of that century who hostile to God, but would have the wisdom of any knowledge, with the help of which they could with the present and Righteous wisdom not only to completely refute, but also decisively breaking those relying on the aforementioned human tricks. "

In the palace you can always meet intellectuals creating spiritual and artistic values, as well as scientists of theologists. "... The pious Karl Emperor willingly takes to his wiser husbands ...".

"Diligently engaged in various sciences, he highly appreciated scientists, showing them great respect." For many, the courtyard was temporary location: the bishops were replaced by the archkahelnna; Seneshyal, at the usual time he made a house and kitchen, could be put at the head of the army. Of course, at the courtyard there was a permanent, quite a numerous circle of immigrants from noble families, administrators and scientists who spoke around the king. However, they were only part of the Karl environment: a significant number of various people were grouped around him, from Chelyadi to hostages - children of noble families of conquered territories. "He loved the strangers ... So their numerous in justice seemed burdensome ... However, he himself, thanks to the greatness of the soul, the least of all this kind of cargo was, since even significant inconvenience paid up the acquisition of glory about his generosity and good name."

There was also the nearest environment (Familia), the community is very inhomogeneous, whose members were associated with the king of the bonds of both far and neighbor. These people were not equal to neither position nor the duration of stay in the palace. Everyone could get a task, to fulfill which it was necessary to leave the palace, someone on the contrary was appointed by a palace advisor.

In the first half of his reign, the Karl Great was forced to engage in stateless wars, while in permanent traffic, moving from one Austzian resident to another. Then the whole courtyard was started on the journey.

Palatium (Palatium) was called several residences at once: Goeristal, Cologne, Tionville; The king chose one of them, consistent with the political necessity, the presence of free tools and time. While traveling to Rome and during military companies, in which Karl's palace residences themselves participated together with him to border areas.

Twice a year, namely, in the spring and autumn, a variety of noble guests arrived at the palace from remote provinces, accompanied by loyal people. "And may everything be at the meeting, for the first time with the approach of summer, and the second time in the autumn."

At the same time, foreign ambassadors were also. At this General Assembly, the issues of conducting and continuing the war were solved, the sentences were convicted, the kingdom's business was discussed, the children of the kingdom were discussed, gifts were taken from ambassadors, tribute to Danikov. "And even if the graphs faithful to us, showing zeal, will begin to prepare, demanding to ensure that the counts are with their people, wagons and gifts come to us at the meeting."

If the residence turned out to be small for arriving from far, the tent broke into the field, arranging them in a strictly defined order: depending on the related relations of participants, as well as areas from which they arrived. Such an assembly most of all resembled a military camp, and the meetings often passed on the eve of military campaigns; In these cases, they took on the function of organizers of military fees.

It was during the general assembly that the king of rules by the state along with all the people of francs presented by the largest magnami.

"In those days, the custom convene a meeting was twice a year ... The first decisions were solved by the whole kingdom for the next year ... Only the most famous people went to the second meeting ... The emperor brought to the attention of the participants of one or another meeting ... its decisions regarding the publication of laws or orders, .. Reaching from other people, magnates, clerics and laity were entitled to sit together or separately ... The king asked everyone if he did not happen in that part of the kingdom from where he arrived, something noteworthy or worthy of entering an annals. For each of the magnates was not only allowed, but even initially prescribed before going to the Sejm, in detail to inform about all the cases of the kingdom, both internal and external ... If in any corner of the kingdom, the people came into excitement, the king was interested in the reasons for this Unrest, and asked whether the excitement of this was expressed only in the ropote or some unrest were made, and whether the General Assembly would take care of the grampornia of the unrest, and asked many more similar issues ... ".

The king asked questions and listened to the answers, agreed or made his proposals. As a result of these dialogues, the decision of the sovereign was born, and it was the last and final. "None of the outsiders was allowed until each individual was reported to his sovereign, for his sacred adequacy, and whatever decision he was chosen to herself for the wisdom given to him ...".

Thus, the General Assembly was a kind of expanded central government; As the heir of the previous Meroving Assemblies, it, however, was much more efficient, since in its activities relied on theocratic principles. It ensured the universal approval of royal decisions, for each free man of the kingdom was theoretically had the right to participate.

The royal courtyard, which was the central government, did not get into himself. He ruled his rules for the administration, pointed out the sons of rebellious nobility, what path they should choose, gave advice to local authorities and at the same time supervised them. "But from other officials (ministtrialibus), I received the orders to stay in the palace. The one who showed himself such that first studying, and then consulting, could replace them with honor (any palace official) in a particular matter or now Or in the future, linked attentively in all dealing things, keeping secrets, studying not disassembled (deeds) and fulfilling the prescriptions and regulations ... ". The right to be accepted at the court had every free person.

Created by Karl, the Great Empire demanded to completely reorganize the administrative apparatus of the control of its predecessors. First of all, Karl, seeks to create a strong centralized state, managed by an extensive apparatus of officials. The center of the control apparatus was in its residence in the city of Aachen (on the territory of modern Germany). The largest officials of the Karl Great Empire, the Supreme Judge (with the prerogative of the emperor's prerogative in his absence), "Caring for the same palace graph among others almost innumerable (cases) were directed, mainly to be fair and It is reasonable to allow all judicial disputes, which, originated in other places, were brought to the palace in search of a fair decision, "Arkhartsler (Head of the Imperial Office), Camera (Imperial Treasurer)" Apocryziary, i.e. Kapellan or Channel Palace and Camera constantly stayed (in the palace), and therefore, with the greatest care, such or chosen was chosen as followed, which they could dwell there. ", Connyabl (keen, head of the cavalry), etc. Naturally, these officials could not manage the entire empire, without leaving the Royal Palace. Therefore, throughout the empire, from Pyrenees to the Balkans and from Baltic to Italy, local officials were sitting on the ground, which made a certain feudal hierarchy, like the one that was decorated in the center. At the head of a large administrative district, there was a graph, he had vicar assistants (vice graphs); The lowest official was in the imperial table of ranks, the Sotnik - Head of the Small District, hundreds. Bishops played a big role in the field, which were personally identical by the emperor.

At Carla, the device for controlling the actions of officials in the field was formed. From the center of the Empire, the auditors were sent, or royal envoys, "... which are four times a year (two, usually one graph and one bishop) were part of the areas subordinate to their supervision; They had to listen to complaints offended, correct the abuse and convey about the Emperor. " "Mr. Emperor Karl sent out (envoys) throughout the kingdom and through them prescribed to everyone to live by law and in justice." The auditors were checked as the center decrees are being executed, and also reported local officials about the changes occurring in the Empire Management System. "We, sovereign envoys, arrived to you with this letter, in order to command you on behalf of the emperor and ask you from our name zealously and how to perform all the responsibilities, your high sanity attached, as in the part that concerns the service of the sovereign, as in that part And in the one that refers to the service for the sake of good and salvation of the whole Christian people. For the sovereign ours commanded us, and with us and all the rest of the messengers, to arrive at him in mid-April with an additional report that it was done in the state from what he learned to command in recent years and what he reported through his envoy and also about what was not done. And this is done so that he could be zealous and hard to award how he will be pleased, and those who did not serve him, crouch and shame "

"... The post of special" envoys "was established: Missi Dominisi, who observed proceedings and military affairs, and Missi Fiscalini observing the management in general." These envies spent everywhere by the will of the Sovereign, the idea of \u200b\u200bstate unity. "The light and Christian sovereign Emperor Karl chose from his noble approximate the most sensitive and wise, archbishops and other bishops and God-fearing laity and sent them throughout the kingdom and through them through everything (gave) the opportunity to live according to a fair law."

"The essential means of unity was a privileged position that fell to the share of Frankish nationality: from her (although it was not exclusive) elected the highest dignitaries, graphs, officials - Messengers ... Considerable participation in the Office took partners, when replacing various spiritual positions, no preference to certain nationality. Not given. "

Karl made changes to the judicial functions of the graphs. The Count had to lead the court together with the court headsets - "Sabbines", which actually became the judges. Count chaired and approved their decisions. "To dismiss any case, they were chosen ... the graph, whose knowledge should be ... Proceedings, the best people ...".

There was also a royal court on which Karl himself was chaired. "... all the powerful persons leading a court matter with each other and not wished to end his world, was ordered to appear to our face and that their business did not understand in any other place and in order to do not be delayed the administration of justice for the poor and less powerful. " [3. C. 177]

The Catholic Church and the Uniform Education, which she gave, was one of the most important binders began in the Empire and amounted to one of the most important government funds of Charles. "A pious sovereign ... according to your will and your beliefs ... working a lot over many in order to raise many for the benefit of the Holy Church of God and to decorate your imperial power. I always convinced the sovereign King, young men .., to study the beginning of such wisdom with all their might and daily work to assimilate them ... I do not cease to sow (knowledge) in France. And if God is pleased, I would have walked to settle (these) crops ... (on the territory of the whole empire). " "And let schools for learning boys reading. Psalms, notes, guides for singing and account, grammar and liturgical books in monasteries and bishops should be corrected (for a single model). "

The territory of Karl's empire was great. Carefully treated the emperor to the problems of the peoples inhabited his power. He paid special attention to the collection and putting into order of numerous "barbaric truths". Along with the "God's Court" and a lawsuit, a procedure for establishing truth through an oath has been introduced. "If a free person, can not pay a debt ... Let him break down, and with him there are still twelve witnesses. If the plaintiff does not want to take an oath of twelve witnesses, let him bring the defendant to the duel, and let them fight with a shield and stick, and also having a cross with them. " Old Roman laws were left in force, but each large region received its code. Jews were suused by their laws. Carl demanded that every resident of the state, whatever nationality he was, knew his laws. "If there was such a relatively, worldly laws did not give instructions in their decrees or in tribal customs was resolved more cruel than the Christian virtue and commandments of God were agreed, it was transferred to the discretion of the king, so that he would be with those who knew Both the fact and the other law would be more afraid of God than the decisions of human laws, so it would have decided that where and the other could be observed, and the other would be respected, if the secular law should be deservedly not applied, then ) To keep God Justice. "

So the main law of Karl called the law given by God. He is universal and was a peculiar result of the activity of Karl on the regulation of legislation. "Let everyone live in justice, because the Lord commanded that."

The lands conquered by francs in the old days, as well as those attached as a result of the last military campaigns, combined and placed on a single model. "According to the adoption of the Imperial title Karl, seeing large flaws in the legislation of his people, ... conceived to fill the missing, reconcile contradictory and correct the unfair and obsolete." However, the unification of the administrative apparatus could be spent with a large stretch: in each area of \u200b\u200bthe administration, they had to adapt to deeply rooted local customs and traditions, take into account their distinctive features. Therefore, in my opinion, you can select three models for organizing management in the field.

Small kingdoms (REGNA).

They were extensive lands under the control of the sons of the king. The previous institutions and local governments have retained here, but they all were subordinate to the King of Frankings - Charles Great, which is invariably since May 801g. "... called himself in the official documents" His August Lightness of Karl, crowned by God, a great and peace-loving emperor, the ruling Roman Empire, and the grace of God of the King of Franks and Langobard. " There were only two of such kingdoms, and they were created, in fact, at the same time: in 781. The Kingdom of Italy, transmitted to Pipina, and the Kingdom of Aquitaine, intended for Louis. Small kingdoms have a special status as separate territories, nevertheless, in all decrees, the dependence of the kings of Italy and Aquitania from King Frankov and Langobard was necessarily emphasized. In 806 Karl The Great conceived to produce the preliminary section of the territory of the Franksky state between his three sons, but left his personal power in the empire of the Supreme. In the preface to "Section 806" Karl expresses the desire to have his sons "... at the lifetime by our co-costers, and after our death, leave the heirs of the protected empire or the kingdom of ours ...". The peculiarity of managing these kingdoms was to create a special system of relationship between the new royal power in them and the authorities of King Charles. The kingdom king, for example, Louis (Aquitainee) issued laws, spoke to justice, led the army into hiking; The same functions performed in the region and Karl the Great - on the grounds that the title of King Frank is owned. So for the first time, the concept of "Small Kingdom" appeared.

In Italy, as in Aquitaine, and in the possessions of the Langobard Dukes, the main person who carried out local government was the Count (Comes). Langobard Gastald (Gastald). In general, the administrative device of small kingdoms was not too different from the system adopted throughout the rest territory belonging to francs. However, because of their remoteness from the central authority of the sovereign and certain inconsistencies, which occurred due to the lack of a clarity in the delimitation of the functions of two levels of royal power, Karl regularly sent him to the small kingdoms of his envoys (MISSI) who performed the role of temporary observers and controllers. About 789g. He published two capitulas, specially addressed to messengers in Aquitaine and Italy. "And our sons must be obedient to us, as well as our people, the beloved God, is obliged to obey us the same way as the sons are obeyed by the Father, as well as their king and the emperor."

Later, Karl divided the entire territory of the Kingdom of Franks to the County (Missatica), each of which was also subject to control of his envoys.

Marka.

The brands were an intermediate structure between the power of the king and the authority of the graph. Located on the periphery of the Frankish lands, they performed the functions of border sentinals, observational outposts, especially when the neighbors were quite formidable opponents. Spanish, British, Danish, Sorbskaya, Avar, Friulskaya, the brands sometimes consisted of several counties managed by graphs, among which one had the title of governor of borders - marcgraph. The one who trusted the governance was called a prefect, a graph or marquis, and sometimes even the duke, as in Frioul. Prefect - the main ruler of the brand; Its administrative structure was subordinated - first of all the tasks associated with the conduct of the war. The ruler had a big completeness of personal power, which, in fact, turned him into the vice-king of the region managed by him. The main difference of the brand from small kingdoms is that the royal sons are never managed. It should also be noted that this post was temporary.

County (Comes).

Separate Counties of the Kingdom (Padus) called counties were managed by graphs (their position was beneficial), which were the only link between the king and free people living in the kingdom. The count, brought up with the court and elected for his leadership the king himself, was sent to the district, the center of which was most often the city where the Department of Bishop (Civitas) is located. The county usually wore the name of this city, and the Count shared power with the bishop in it. "We send you a prescription and advice to obey the instructions of your bishop in everything, which has a robust to his service. You should also consume all the forces of your and zeal, in order to the laws of the emperor, Koi were brought to you, hesitally and in the letter, were observed exactly and you are responsible for this. "

The Count was appointed in the district for a certain period, but at any time could be translated into another district or, having commissioned the command of military union, to go to the campaign far beyond the territory subject to him.

Suites from the aristocracy, standing up for the position, became conductors of the unitary policy of Carroling. There were judicial authorities in their jurisdiction, so sometimes they were called judges (Judex); The duty of graphs included to collect the army, to publicly take an oath to the faithfulness of the king, to supervise the content of fortifications, roads, coopers, collect taxes. As a reward for works, the Count took part of the taxes and judicial fines. "The graph should not collect penalties by anything for anything for the watchman, nor for sending service, nor for a post, never for that if the messenger did not preliminarily recovered the penalties in our favor and did not give the column, according to our command, his third Parts. The very same penalty is not charged with the lands or serfs, but gold, silver, tissues, weapons, cattle, or such objects that may be useful. Also, the Count has enjoyed incomes from the income lands, he had the right to do this post so far; He also received income from various revenues from monasteries and castles; All Count revenues were called remuneration (honores). In his county, he was the main authorized king. He had assistant viscons, vicars and centuries. Neither the origin of these posts nor their powers to historians are not completely clear; probably they are closely related to local management traditions; At least it was at the beginning of the reign of Karl the Great. Most likely, in the duty of the Count came to select assistants from the local nobility; It was through them that he carried out the management of the territories subject to it.

Not still by Emperor Karl vigilantly controlled the activities of the graphs; At least twice a year - during the meetings - he met them personally; and the graphs, which he personally knew diligently performed the mission entrusted to them. "... He came to them and they completely reportedly reported, as they consider it necessary to solve individual (questions), and frankly told, which between them there was a difference between them, disputes or friendly barcasses." The king, drove a lot in the country itself and could see how the counts cope with their responsibilities. But as soon as the king began to lead a lifestyle, the counts stopped, at least in good faith, to fulfill their responsibilities to the king, referring to the employment of their provinces for an hour at an hour did not attend general meetings. Therefore, the number of special inspectors - "sovereign envoys", with time, Carlo has to even increase.

So the institution of managers - graphs existed to the end of the VIII century.

Clearies, bishops, abbry are also included in the system of secular power. "Bishops, abbatys and graphs are obliged to stay among themselves and with the law in harmony, so that they could do justice to justice, mercifully and without disturbing the world; And they should live according to the prescriptions of the Lord, so that in our state always triumphantly justice, and they would justice that justice would be at just possible, they would live with each other by justice. "

Their role is very significant, it is explained by the important function that was given by the Church by the king, who was asked as her chapter. Cleary arts did not have certain posts in the secular administration, but it is impossible not to note their power, as well as the power of some laity who did not hold posts in administrative hierarchies of brands and counties, but directly related to the king. Within its territories, they used quite definite rights granted for their merits and, thus, contributed to the creation of Caroling Miroga. "Let everyone who occupies a high position supervises those who subordinate to him, and in case of needs, it has been forced, so that the subordinates were managed, and so regularly performed their duties, as well as the imperial orders and commands."

"Charles Great conducted an administrative reform that established the monarchy, which was governed by the king, the palace court and the office led by Chancellor. The stories of the monarch controlled the activities of local graphs. "

These are the foundations of the functioning of the Karl Great Management System.

"The Great Merit of Charles is that he managed to put in order and apply in practice the proper management of the country, which contributed to its peace. And if the first tool of the union of the empire is considered to be the identity of the emperor Charles, and the second is its reserve, the third means of combining the heterogeneous components of the empire were undoubtedly the officials supplied by them. The whole state was divided into district (GAU), the royal officials were supplied everywhere, columns for collecting troops, management and justice. "

karl Great

Chapter 2. Military Organization, Vassalytics and Immunity

Caroling army for the first 20th anniversary of the board of Karl the Great was the main tool of the warning of war and the conquest policy. Initially, the king had supported by a small group of soldiers from his environment associated with him by kinship and loyal friendship. Gradually, as the conquered territories increased by the main force, subject to the king, the army, recruited from the free inhabitants of the Kingdom. Another free man who reached 12 years old could be designed for military service and until older; The definition of the upper strip of serving age was part of the counts. "When the sovereign of the emperor gives an order about the campaign, no one will dare to disobey him, and not a single graph will be so bold to let any of the mobiliated military service any of the troops, covering or being bribed with gifts" . So the army was created, the number of which at any time could be significantly increased by the appeal. Usually each spring took place a military collection of troops near the place of military operations. Then followed "... two to three months (and sometimes more) continuous fights with the enemy: either the conquest of new territories, or the disintegration of previously conquered, or the doubt of rebellions of unprofitable. After that, it is often another hike caused by any unplanned event. Then the dissolution of the army until next year and the rest of the king in one of the royal villas. "

All regulations on the carry of military service Karl collected in the capitulia (crop of laws), which began to indicate that only loose francs are called in the army.

"Anyone who, being free, .. let it goes into the army comes into the army, - either for his senory, if the seven is entering or for its graph." The presence of a developed major land tenure made it possible to have a significant number of heavy riders, the main core of the troops was the vassal squad of royal beneficiaries. Military historian Delbryuk calculated the cost of armament of one warrior. He writes: "In one old frank national law, a detailed rate of weapons and livestock is indicated; If you compare these numbers and express the cost of equipment in cattle units, then the following will be: a helmet - 6 cows, lats - 12 cows, powdered - 6 cows, spear and shield - 2 cows, battle horse - 12 cows.

Thus, the equipment of one fighter was equal to the cost of 45 cows or - since 3 cows were equivalent to 1 kobylitz - 15 mares, the cost of major cattle of the whole village. " The rider chained into the iron armor was difficult for the enemy. In this regard, the combat significance of a heavy cavity, which now has now has a significant part of the troops. At the same time, measures were taken to preserve and improving infantry.

Franc's continuous wars demanded colossal and timely selected human reserves. To keep the conquest, they needed severe garrisons. "Much attention was paid to securing conquest. Castles, guard posts, fleet in the mouths of rivers, skar and quick collection of troops - all this reliably ensured the safety of the territory of the extensive state. "

Karl, continuing the tradition of father and grandfather, practiced a mixed system set. On the one hand, he widely used and expanded the military reform of Karl Martel, creating a steady core of the army - "servile people", beneficiaries. "First of all, each having benefius is obliged to join the army." For regular service, these soldiers, as before, were given to bendiffs - land awards from state funds. At the same time, the king did not neglect the ancient system of the call, which remained from the time of the Meroving. However, the Universal Call of King was not every time; It was impossible for each war to deprive the country of labor. It was almost impossible to evaporate from service in the army. "About our people, as well as people of bishops and abbates, keeping benefi or owning our own lands ... If some of them find at home at a time when he should be in troops, and he will become justified, claiming that he paid a penalty or He received liberation from his senory from his senory, such a person sentenced to fine. " To get exemption from the call, it was necessary not only to have good reasons, but also to get the resolution of the superior person. With evasion, there was a stubborn struggle with the imposition of large fines (60 solids, or the cost of 60 cows). "Any free, which will be called up to carry military service and neglect the appearance, will pay full penalty, i.e. 60 solids, ..".

Low powerful peasants were freed from military service. At your disposal 811g. Karl believes, "... low-power are forced to go to the army, and those who can give something let go of the ravis."

On all obligations, to make a campaign, but a recovery was made to the appointed date.

Each year, the king sent orders to bishops, graphs and major landowners of certain areas, attributing to appear at the appointed time, to the place of collection, having with them all their people, horse and hiking, armed and uniform. "And let the bishops, graphs and abbries will take care of their people, so that they arrived at the meeting on the specified day, well equipped, in lats and helmets ...".

Each warrior was obliged to join the detachment headed either by the Count or Abbot, or the Bishop, or some severity with the authorities. Equipment, horse and provisions for several months warrior was supposed to acquire at his own expense. "And you have to arrive ... Together with your people, well armed and in complete uniforms, ready to go hiking in the direction, I will point out; And there must be people to take with you weapons, equipment and everything that is despicable to manage the war, including edible supplies and clothing. Each rider must have a shield, a spear, sword, onions and quiver with arrows. On the carts, all sorts of tools, secreirs, axes, boards, koluna, pickles, iron shovels and other tools needed in the campaign are visible. Also on the carts will be lucky, which should be enough for three months, starting from the day the speech of the campaign, and more weapons and clothing, which should be enough for six months. "

Military actions usually conducted in the summer, so Return home Caroling Warrior was right with the onset of winter, someone who left the army before, threatened the death penalty.

The army consisted of free people. The poorest of them were armed with what could, that in the opinion of the king deserved censure. "Let no one acts on a campaign with a double, but with a bow." In order for the warriors to be well armed by Karl issued several legislative acts. "The one who owns three mansa, let them unite with those who have one mans, and that alone will help him help, so he could go to the army for them for two. And the one who has two mansa, let them unite with those who also have two mensa, and let one of them eat with the second eager and go to military service. To the one by one mans, let them join three more, also having one of the mans each, and let them help to equip one of them and go to the army. " Do not forget the king and about those who have very little land. "Those who have the land half of Mansa, let them unite by the guide and one will collect in the army. And those poor people whose property costs no more than five solids, let them also make it, that is, let them send one of the six. Every poor person who will go on a campaign against the enemy should be given five solids. " Large landowners were supposed to have a horse, lats, spear, sword and carry a heavyweight service. Less wealthy francs, of which the infantry was formed, were to serve with a spear, a shield, a bow with two growths and 12 arrows. The poorests performed only with onions and arrows and served as archers. "And the graph itself is observed whether they are equipped with a spear, shield, onions with two growths and twelve arrows. Listed must have everything. Bishops, graphs, abbries should have such people who would well have been equipped with all this and they would have arrived at the appointed day to the meeting and there would be shown their gear. Yes have a shell and a leather helmet. " Wide distribution received throwing weapons - Francis, i.e. A sequir with one or two blades, to the handle of which the rope was tied. Franc deftly threw Francis to the enemy in close distances.

For one military campaign, 5 - 6 thousand soldiers were collected. This number did not enter the servants, voyage, migrants of mules and other personnel of the weapons.

To ensure borders and retention in the obedience of conquered tribes, castles and guard towers were built. The mouth of the rivers was created a fleet to protect from the sea from the attacks of the Scandinavian tribes - Normanov. "In the period of the Norman war, he was engaged in the construction of the fleet, building ships on the rivers, ... who fall into the ocean ... There were parking lots for ships and exhibited guard ships, in order to warn the invasion of the enemy. The same was done in the south, along the banks of the Narbon Province and Septimania, as well as throughout the coast of Italy, right up to Rome ... ".

In the border strip and in large cities, Skaras were located - permanent detachments formed from professionals soldiers. The biggest scaras had Karl. They could perform independent military campaigns. In a big war, these skar were the core of the troops, consisting of militia of free peasants, medium and large farmers.

With Carla, long shields, large bows, chest lats, helmets and chain rails were introduced. The number of equestrian warriors was significantly increased and almost equal to the number of infantrymen. All residents of the country were obliged to supply a certain amount of bread in grain, edible supplies, forage, horses, worships and approach. In addition, each county had to have special food reserves for passing troops. "And each graph must maintain two parts of the hay in its county for the needs of the troops and have good bridges, good rafts."

At the head of the army stood warlords elected among the graphs known for their colodular talents - the Dukes .. The duties imposed on the duke were associated primarily with military actions, so the Ducal title could well be considered temporary. After the occurrence of the world, the duke lost its importance, again accepted the county title and returned to his county. Karl himself, and later, and his sons personally often commanded armies in military campaigns.

The king in the troops is divided into the troops, all the military life was confident that conquering new lands for the people of Franks, it works not only to obtain material benefits, but also for the sake of the great goal of the spread of Christianity.

The main service in the empire was military service. To protect the boundaries of its empire from constant attacks from outside, one of the main goals of Karl the Great was the creation of a chain of protected borders or brands. The system of these brands should be a guarantee of state security.

Marks are the fortified military-administrative districts that serve as forps to attack the neighboring countries and organization of defense. Managed margins appointed by the king, endowed with broad judicial and administrative and military powers. At their disposal was constant military force.

The main purpose of Karl Martel's military reform was the creation of a more efficient than the peasant militia of troops from the cavalry and infantry. Taking this as the basis of Karl the Great primarily to strive to increase the professional equestrian army as a more mobile and efficient division. Only people secured, with funds that have a combat horse and have the necessary weapons could be equal warriors. Karl Great, as his grandfather and father, distributed them to the lands in the benefits (award), that is, the Earth was given for the service and only at the time of the recipient service and holder. "And all those who keep benefi, first head to go to the army." The beneficial benefits became a vassal (dependent under the terms of ownership), brought an oath in loyalty and execution of the commissioned service (the crossing of commandations - the oath is carried out on holy relics, accompanied by certain gestures, in particular, in the sign of the obligations undertaken, the seen Sometimes, in addition to the oath, a written agreement is drawn up, referred to as the agreement; the welcoming Benefius became a senior (senior, lord) and kept the right of supreme ownership of a complained land, could take it in case of violation by the vassal of his debt.

Karl Great encouraged the establishment of vassal ties, both with him in person and in society as a whole, striving t. Oh. Disseminate your power not only at the nearest environment, but also in the most remote corners of the Empire. To this end, he did the royal vassals of missile private individuals devotees and distinguished in battles. As a result, he created a numerous group of people personally devoted to him related to him by vassal bonds. Some of them received benefits from him in lifelong possession. Among the royal beneficiaries there were a lot of people of more thank birth. "The warrior from the Spanish brand Ioan" brought a vassal oath with the investment of hands "after the Muslims broke around Barcelona's neighborhood ...". Personal vassals of the sovereign, in essence become ruled by power in parallel with the administration of graphs and bishops. "Now," the guillommind notes in his study, "the relationship with Vassals became so important that the Vassal service began to attract not only people of low and medium-sized origin and the public situation, but also the strengths of this." Vassala Karl received gifts from him and sent her gifts themselves. The emperor's vassals were accompanied and protected by his envoys, military hosts who make inspection trips, provided hospitality officials arriving from Aachen. In the districts, their authority was based on personal vassal connection with the emperor. These people were the main support of Karl the Great on the ground t. K. The government was a counterweight of the Counts of the counts that are inclined to disobedience. "... Karl with the intention did not provide any chance of more than one county to manage, excluding those who occupied the borders, neighboring barbarians; In the same way, he did not give any bishop of the royal abbey or church, unless he did not require special circumstances. The questions of their advisers and approximate about the reason, he answered: "By doing so, I can with one or another estate, or a manor, or a small abbey, or the church to secure the loyalty of the same good or even better vassal, rather than another graph or bishop".

Karl the Great supported and establishing a vassal relationship between free people. "Any free person after the death of his señora has the right to become a vassal of whom he wishes himself ... and that person who is not yet vassal, also has the right to choose the senory himself." In Karl's capitulory, the reasons for the departure of Vassala "No one has the right to leave his Signora after he received property from him worth one solid, except in cases where the Senor wishes him to kill, beat his stick, dishonate his wife or his daughter or pick up his wife or his daughter He has a victob. " The conditions under which Vassal loses its benefits are prescribed. "If one of our faithful subjects wants to enter into a duel with his opponent and calls for help to help one of his vassals, and this vassal is not in a hurry to come to his aid, such a Vassal can take the benefits and convey to another."

Free, but the poor received gear from Senior in exchange for lifelong assistance. "We are thinking that since this year, in many places, a great hunger, bishops, abbatys, seenors, graphs, and all our faithful subjects, holding the beneficiation of royal, church or other, are obliged to use revenues from these beneficiaries on the proceedings of those Who is under their power. "

The beneficial system accelerated the process of forming feudal ownership to land and feudal subordination of peasants. The military profession turned into a monopoly of the feudalists - knights.

The emergence of vassal connections was directly related to the military needs of society. Vassal, holding benefius, was supposed to be the first to go into battle. Not every warrior was vassal, but each vassal had to become warrior in the first call. "First of all, they must go against the enemy those who have benefits." Over time, the benefits became hereditary possessions, and then the property of vassals. In addition, the royal vassals that have had a lot of land, part of it were handed over to their vassalam in the benefitment and became senites, only formally dependent on the king.

At the end of the VIII - the beginning of the IXVV. Vassal relations are widely spread in a military organization and political device of francs. The army largely consisted of horse warriors endowed with beneficia; The royal vassals were appointed to government positions. It even strengthened the state system.

The military profession began to turn into a monopoly of the feudalists, but the peasants nevertheless did not get rid of the military. They were forced to participate in campaigns as infantry and auxiliary strength, pay military tax. "We wish that our messengers this year strictly charged military penalty without multiplinary, fault or fear, according to our rally, that is, with a person who owns 6 devices in gold, silver, armor, iron guns, tissues, horses, bulls , cows or other skot (wives and children should not lose their clothes), should be charged with legitimate penalty, it is 3 accord. And who, who has the above-described movement of movable property, will be only 3 liters, with 30 solids, in order to be able to armared for the service for the service and benefit to us. And our messengers let them observe no one for evil intent to evade our justice, indulging in the arm of anyone. "

As a result of the transformations of Karl the Great, it was finished with an old nationwide militia. The army began to acquire feudal - knightly appearance.

The royal authority did not prevent the growth of the private power of the feudal police, and even contributed to this. The king gave the church and secular feudalities immunity letters, who freed their possessions from any interference with civil servants. At the same time, judicially, the administrative power over the population and all means that previously walked into the state treasury passed into the hands of immunists. "... At the request of the bishop ... They complained to him for the sake of the Eternal Mzda for himself such a privilege that no state official at any time would dare to enter the estate of the Church, both in our time granted to her or anyone else, so having to be acquired by His Eminence into the power of this holy monastery, nor for claiming from different persons of the court fines; But the bishop himself and his deputies should in the name of God and on the right of irregular immunity to have these powers ... We decide that ... no state judicial authority at what time did not bother to enter the estate of the Church, .. not for the hearing of court cases, nor for the claims of fines, nor for use in constituent, charging feed and take guarantors; And that's all that the treasury could expect from free or non-free and other people living on lands or within the church territory, will go ... to the disposal of church officials, .. ".

Immunity strengthened land ownership. "... We complained to a nice husband ... Manor ... with all incomes and lands ... Therefore, we define our real power and order to keep it in an impermanent ... Meetable estate, in all its integrity with lands, houses, buildings, collens, slaves, vineyards, forests, roles , meadows, pastures, waters ... had a granted forever, as a full immunist, with the prohibition of employees (ours) of any entrance to the recovery for whatever fellow fines. And let them own ... and does with him, according to our permissions, anything ".

In the immunich territory, the marker was the only Mr., he owned power not only over dependent, but also over the free population living within his possessions.

Karl The Great tried to use immunity as an instrument of strengthening state power. "We believe that in the greatest extent multiplies the power of our state in the event that we provide useful privileges of churches or to someone else and prescribe that these privileges in God's patronage continue to be strong and continue."

Immunists were responsible for the protection of the order and collecting the militia to the territory belonging to them.

However, the expansion of immunity privileges benefited only by large feudalities and was one of the prerequisites that subsequently the political fragmentation.

So Karl the Great created a highly efficient military system, although in many respects the Macedonian military organization, Romans, Byzantines, is largely inferior. "Thanks to Karl, exceptional energy and discipline occupied the Great in the franc military system. "By the end of his reign, he organized a system of calling for military service through his subjects, Vassalov, who provided the army of the living force, T about. Without overloading the state economy with additional expenses, not exhausting local resources, but supporting the law and order. "

Karl Great founded such a system in which the army did not need anything from several weeks to several months. Replenishment of stocks was carried out organized, the calls to the venues accompanied the convoy. This allowed Karl the Great Campaigns in a thousand miles from France, even during the winter months, did not know the Western Europe, since the time of the ancient Romans.

Karl The Great revived the Roman and Macedonian practice of using siege messengers ... Moreover, increasing the number of their cavalry, accompanied by a binding mula, he got the opportunity to apply fast and strong blows.

The key element of the Military Strategy of Charles Great was the use of locks and guard towers, which were built along the borders in all obedient provinces and connected to each other. Other paths leading from each border strengthening to the old border were also laid. Filled strengthening reserves became databases for the maneuver of the disciplined Frankish cavalry, and also used by francs to prepare for further operations.

Karl the Great Returned onions in the Arsenals of Western Europe, however, according to obscure reasons, the bow was again discharged in the army of Western Europe after the death of Karl the Great.

Karl the Great has created a magnificent intelligence network. The nature of orders of Charles Great testifies to its own high professionalism and the presence of an effective staff system created by it. "The main elements of the Karl Great system were reflected in five capitulas - the system of recruiting troops; Organization of divisions and parts, weapons, armor, equipment that should have something or a different division; A list of punishments for misconduct, etc. ". All this, together with the Christianization of the population, has contributed to the conquest of new territories and deduction in the obedience of conquered earlier.

Chapter 3. Church in the Empire Karl Great

All the activities of Karl the Great was permeated with a religious spirit. "Karl Great fagged to the church, comparing her with a soul, and the state with a human body."

The church became an instrument for the emperor, which allowed him to take on the spiritual responsibility for the society entrusted to him. The construction of Karl to the imperial throne turned him into a representative of God authorized to establish a procedure in which everyone would occupy the place to him with the Creator, and to establish a world that allows everyone in terms of justice and mercy to participate in the construction of "Grad God" on Earth. "Let everyone live in justice, following the law of God ... Let the clergymen strictly observe the canons of faith, not seeking unrighteous enrichment; Let the monks fulfill the rules of the hostel under a careful look of the mentors; Let the laymen and priests enjoy in fairness and without treachery by law, let everyone build relations among themselves on the basis of mercy and the full world ... Let everyone of his understanding and their forces seek to completely devote themselves to serving God based on the law of God and in accordance with its solemn obligations, because the ruling emperor is not able to cover all and everyone with its supervision and its discipline. "

Karl sought to become the only mediator between God and his subjects separated by three estates: clergy, monks and laity. I wanted to focus in my hands all the power over the church; Although always supported the close connections with the papacy installed by his father, but as the power of God, he would never allow the spiritual power of the Pope, was above his own. "We are trying to correct the mistakes, eliminate what is exemplary, and contribute to what is considered fair ... truly can read in the book of kingdoms about how Josiah led to service the true Lord the kingdom of his, entrusted to him by the Lord, as he walked paths We need, as destroyed the pagan's cap and as the people instructed in faith ... ".

"I say it is not in order to compare my merits with his holiness, but because our duty is to always follow the example of saints, because we must collect all who can only be to lead them To righteous life in honor and the glory of our Lord Jesus Christ. "

It contains the basis of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Emperor Charles, to which he, throughout his life, strictly followed with the help of the Councils, who convened, the capitulas that set out the decisions of the Councils adopted under his leadership and letters where, along with provese, expressed the benevolent advice.

Karl took part not only in Synod meetings (794,798, 800, 813), but also in the development of relevant decisions, contributed to the adoption of them. "Karl considered himself a doctor of faith, becoming an authoritarian position in matters of dogma, disputes about which church was shaken in those years and formulated them in capitulas."

He resolutely fought with adopting and iconocrust. In 1813 The five church cathedrals conducted in different parts of the country have developed a large reform program that the bishops entrusted to fulfill the emperor "... with a pious, loyal servant of the Lord, whose efforts the source of Holy Wisdom, who is tirelessly distributing the holy food to the Lamb of Christ, so that they were grown in the spirit of holy teachings , the true leader who multiply the tireless labor of his number of peoples who believed in Christ ... A genuine leader, surpassed all the kings of the earthly sacred wisdom and his zeal and devilment ... ".

It can be said that the emperor was the true head of the Church of Franks. He sought to rebuild the church hierarchy so that her threads were not to dad, but personally to him. "... the papacy was pushed back to the background: the definition fee was subject. Karl was not only a political, but also the church and cultural head of the empire. In some hands, it combined the secular and church power to cohesion the empire. The emperor created the bishopianism, convened cathedrals, and directed theological discussions, included the clergy into the state organization. "

For the board of Karl the Great, the phenomenon of the gradual complete merger of imperial laws with religious laws is characteristic. As a church legislator, he reported his decisions through capitulas. Some of which are addressed to the bishops and abbates, the synodal decisions of that time are largely repeated. The instructions addressed to the clergymen can sometimes meet in secular capitulas, for example, in the capitula for the envoys. Here is an excerpt from one "priests, deacons and other ministers of the church should not be allowed to go to the houses of women who are not their relatives ... Monks and clerics should not go to drink and eat in taverns ... only canonical books should read in churches ... not allowed to anyone Getting San For Money ... Clearyans should not be watched from the city to the city ... No deacon should be ordained, no virgin must be accepted into the monastery until 25 years of age ... I should not give the honor to false martyrs ... Bishops and other clergymen should be good Know the canonical charter and the obstacles ... ".

Karl was engaged in the arrangement of all church life in his empire. He made decisions on appointments to important church positions, selecting candidates among the courtiers, even from the laity if they were competently competent in religion issues. Personally defined the tasks for each newly appointed. Karl demanded from his bishops and archbishop reports about their activities as they gave him columns and managers. This is evidenced by the epistle of the Bishop of Ledradd 801g. "When you sent me to lead this church, you have learned to point out to me some disadvantages that took place there; You kindly suggested that I caution and care to correct the mistakes made and avoid possible misses in the future. The fact is that this church in those times was deprived of a much needed for its internal and external activities, for its services and buildings, for the performance of other church functions. Sawn out now to listen to what you managed to do after arriving here with your submissive servant with God and your help ... ".

Church reform, he launched his grandfather and his father, was distributed and continued throughout the Empire of Franks. Despite the fact that Karl Christianized the peoples of Europe with the help of a sword, he attended great efforts to spiritual correction of society and the church. By the time of the reign of Charles, the licenses of the morals that reigned in society was fully inherent in the clergy. He personally contributed to the strengthening of discipline and morality among the servants of faith. "You call yourself with monks, then canoniki, or even those and not others. Outstanding your interests and wanting a bad reputation to dispel your dispelment, we chose the rector and the manager for you, causing it from a distant province, in order to put you on the right speeches and our advice, and the good example returned you to the path of truth. But alas! Everything turned out otherwise, and you were servants of the devil and sow a discord between the wise and scientists of the Church. And whether you are monks and canoniki, your wines do not get less, for you showed us unsurdity, which means you will be tried to court, per day who will call you our messenger. "

Being at the top of the church hierarchy of its empire, he was jealously followed, organized and raised the level of intracerer discipline. "The bishop has the right to punish the monks of his province, and if they do not listen to his exhortations, the Archbishop must cause them to the Synodal Court, and if they do not react, then let the bishop bring them to our court." Employed the attention of the management of the clergy management. "Each bishop in his diocese is obliged to distribute priests in rank, according to the canonical law ... Each bishop in his Diocesese is obliged to supervise the priests and clerics, and if he will meet runaway, let them send them to their own bishops ... Bishop is obliged to control the collection of tithe and infuriate for What purposes the priest intends to use it. "

It is the bishops of the Emperor puts into the center of religious life and leads them a big role in the management structures of its administration. "The bishops must make a detour entrusted to them and conduct an inquiry, whether anyone has made a heaven, sacrifice, fratricide, marital treason or other than atrocity, nasty law of the Godsomcom and not allowed by Christian laws."

"Bishops and abbates should have their attorneys who owned their own property in the county, which would be honest and fair and would have a desire to judge the case on honor and in justice."

In 774 Having received from Rome a list of church provinces formed in the late Roman Empire, Charles Great, started the gradual restoration of church metropolis. By 811 21 Metropolitan was restored, later three more who received the status of archbishops, and headed by their clergy of the rank of Archbishopov. Their duties of Carl were spelled out in the capitulia. "... each archbishop is charged with the priests entrusted to him ...". Throughout the board, Charles Great Bishops, and later the Archbishops were the main force in the arrangement of the church, and sometimes the secular life of the territories entrusted to them. The emperor could entrust any instruction, the power over the life of the parishioners, supervision of monasteries.

He was engaged in Karl and bringing uniform to all the formation of church services, rites and sacraments. They were widely introduced Latin to church services. The clerics were given a monopoly on services and prayers, once the former business of the whole people who did not know in their mass. Work was carried out on the unification of liturgy, it was divided into parts. The priest still plays a major role in it, but now clerics, deacons, readers, singing, which, depending on executable functions and according to their specialization, are actively involved in it, come into effect at a certain time of service.

"Trying to us to endure, as at the time of our board, in the middle of the service, the annoying Ear of Solecisms sound, and we instructed Pavel Diaconu, to our friend, to fulfill the work on straightening the sacred texts ... He obeyed us and soon introduced us two collections, where there were texts readable On holidays, every text for your holiday, and texts have been enough for a whole year, and they all have been fixed and without mistakes. Thoroughly reviewing all the collections, we power, we put it, approved them and now send them to you, so you read them in churches. "

The will of the emperor was brought to each china, the Will of the Emperor regarding the choice of texts, the manners of reading, prowance and harmony of chants.

The believers of the laity are listening to the sermons, admire the church decoration, are commuated, but they are not approaching more than the altar, donations report to the priest at the end of the service. They require respect and respect for the house of the Lord on Earth. However, it is not so easy to achieve this, so the emperor falls in its capitulas to repeatedly indicate that the church should have a decent decoration, the Altari must read, according to their greatness. It should not go for the sacred altar, lead in churches idle talk and solve their affairs. "All believers must pass and listen to Mass all entirely, to the most recent prayer ...

Everyone is obliged to observe Sunday, according to the law and according to the decree of the Lord of our emperor. " "Churches and Altari need to keep in order, and priests should not keep in church premises either grain nor the hay ... each church must have a decent decoration, and the Altari must read, according to their grandeur and rank. Mustively allow dogs to run around the house of the Lord and go for the sacred altar. Should also lead idle conversations in churches and solve their own affairs ... only the stone altars are covered ... And if it comes to restoring the church, it should first be convinced whether this church is one to the whole district, or there are several, and if there are several They are in excess, then let the extra destroyed, and the necessary support in due order ... ". Karl was deeply convinced that he thus prepares the salvation of the Christian society by His concerns by the Lord himself. This is exactly what his desire to expand the network of monasteries and reforming their lives, which ceased to be a form of social isolation, designed to redeem the sins of worldly.

To the beginning of IX. The number of monasteries increased from 200 at the beginning of its board to 600. It was constant about the guidance of the order and the establishment of a highly moral, even a ascetic lifestyle of monks, bringing into uniform for all the formation of church services, rites and sacraments. "The bishops should visit the priests in their arrival, check how they conduct the baptism rite and serve Mass, whether they understand the essence of faith correctly, and ensure that baptism is carried out as should, according to the Catholic rite, so that the priests understand the prayers pronounced in Time Massa to sang Psalms as headed by observing the rhythm of poems and stanzor ... ".

Monasteries played a special role in the life of Christians. In his desire to hold reforms in the religious and moral spheres of life, Karl the Great was looking for support primarily at Abbat and Abbatis. Monastery rules were unified. Behind their sample was taken by the charter of the Benedictine Monastery in Monte - Cassino. In the same way, the main place of prayer, this charter also obliges monks and nuns to engage in intellectual and physical labor, the fruits of which could not only be used by the monks, but the laity arrived in the abode. "It seems useful to us that the bishopric and monasteries are entrusted to us by the grace of Christ, they were engaged in the streamlining of the current life and behavior that responds to the Holy Religion would also devote their time to study the Holy Scriptures and serving those who are ready to give themselves to these classes. "

To clarify and assimilation of the Holy Scriptures, schools were needed that began to arise from monasteries. In the monastic workshops, the scripts were created a font, called Caroling Mount, a unified, simplified letter, facilitating access to knowledge - the progenitor of our typographical fonts. The libraries were replenished by manuscripts, schools gradually specialized: for example, at school, in St. Gallensky, the monastery began to teach mainly church singing. Gregorian Choral, who came from Rome, demanded special abilities from performers. The singing should have read the Latin text simultaneously with the nemis, indicated by the coloratura passes, the duration and nature of the voice modulation, the cadence of the musical phrase.

Monasteries were open to laity. In monastery buildings, schools, hospitals, refectory, workshops could meet people of all classes, ranks and states. Even in some villages, parish schools opened. In the letter of Charles to the abbot of the monastery in Fulde Baugulfu read: "We fear that being too ignorant to write correctly, they will not be able to completely interpret the sacred texts to their own. We all know how dangerously make mistakes in writing words, but the mistakes in the meaning of words are even more dangerous. Therefore, we urge with all the care to learn not only a diploma, but also a literature, and to make all forces and humility, as well as zeal, pleasing to the Lord ... When you need to serve, choose people, koi would have both will and the will, and the ability to learn, And also sought knowledge to convey others to others. It is desirable for us so that you are, as appropriate to the soldiers of the Church, and pious, and scientists ... Do not be lazy to send a copy of the letters to all the bishops, in all monasteries, if you want to earn our mercy. "

Another and adviser to Charles Alquinities on behalf of the emperor was adjusted, corrected and is given to a single order of the text of the Bible. Released, fixed from errors and other liturgical works. The works of contemporaries - Annala, the lives of saints, epic poems began to appear. New manuscripts of old works were made, copied and recreated with rare even at that time of copies, thanks to which many of them reached our time. The text of the Faith symbol, as directed by the emperor, should be singing in church services, and not read. Everything, from the ceremony of baptism before the adoption of the last communion, from the solemn Mass to the last worship, was revised, systematized and unified by the will of the emperor. The content, time and address of prayers were identified. Karl took control of the cult of worship of relics and the graves of the Holy, over which chapels were erected. The churches were rebuilt, their number increased, altari in them according to the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome unfolded to the West. The residents of the empire also presented their requirements. The people had to make diligence and learn at least two prayers, our father and the symbol of the Apostolic Faith. "Each priest is obliged to teach the prayer of our father and the symbol of the faith of each person, to observe it to him ... Each priest is obliged not only to teach the prayer of our father, but also clarify the policy of faith. Each layman should know our and the faith symbol. "

In the era of Karl the Great Religion, he was all components of the universe. She was permeated by all society, economics, administration, royal management structures. The idea of \u200b\u200bsv. Augustine on the construction of the "Grad of God", about the divine order on Earth, according to which each of the people was delivered by God on his place on Earth and must fulfill the mission who feels on his share, pretended by Karl Great with the highest possible effort into life so that the place of each was clear and defined.

Chapter 4. Conclusion

Karl Great Book in 754g. The king of francs, died in 814. owner of the imperial title. Having watched the path from the king to the emperor Karl, according to Alquin, becomes the "the beacon of the Christian world", or, as they say now, the namoor of the Western European civilization. The extensive Frankish Empire was composed of a variety of different peoples, only Christianity and the mighty will of Karl Great kept these peoples in unity. That is why the activities of Karl the Great left a deep mark in history. It can be viewed with three main points of view:

) as a warriol and conqueror;

) as administrator and legislator;

) as the patron saint of science, arts and in general intellectual development.

The war of Karl Great was significantly different from the wars of the preceding dynasty. These were not already fighting one tribe with other and not hiking taken with an exceptional goal of mastering and robbery. These were wars systematic, political, caused by plans prescribed by a certain necessity. Having led them, he sought to enslave hostile tribes, destroy their religious beliefs and spread everywhere Christianity as a means of unity of conquered peoples.

Karl the Great as the ruler and the legislator in the state of Frankov managed to introduce the Roman idea, try it with local customs, clarify it and make more accessible. He adapted Roman laws to the world of Franks, to the Christian people. Given the local peculiarities and traditions of the peoples conquered them, for each individual area, its own management model was created - of course, while maintaining a single general manual. In society, the basics of which Karl laid, he promoted the formation of vassal and domal systems.

The multilateral administrative activity of Karl was mainly aimed at the prompting of the people to practical activities - the occupation of agriculture, craft, trade. He created all the conditions for this - safety from external invasions and internal order.

Karl the Great, undoubtedly, can be called one of the prominent Christian rulers. The emperor built his state on a religious foundation, the state structure was subordinated to the Christian principles. Having assumed the mission of the "Defender of the Church", Karl subordinate it to himself, and to strengthen the political influence of his power, he used the preaching of Christianity.

Despite the fact that Karl Christianized the peoples of Europe with the help of a sword, he attended a huge effort to spiritual correction of society and the church, in every way promoted the level of pastoral sermon, which was supposed to become an affordable simple person and serve him by leadership in life. He categorically forbade the clergy to take part in secular affairs: trade, wars, etc., encouraged charity, care for the poor. Attached the maximum effort to the development of religious and secular culture, introduced the primary education for the people, the basis of whose education was the Bible.

As a true great man, Emperor Charles was both warrior, and a statesman, and a commander, and the ruler. They were created by the state, which was associated with many strong peoples inhabited the limits of modern Europe, giving them the state system. It was based on the mind and will of only one great figure - Emperor Frankov - Karl Great, therefore, despite the fact that Karl's empire broke up in less than 30 years after his death on three states in modern borders is France, Germany and Italy. It was Karl's empire who was the ancestral of the appearance of modern European civilization. Becoming at the head of the Christian world, he laid the foundation of a strong state organization and the one he deserved the name "Great", which leads to leaders of a solid foundation of the new world-historical development.

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This manual was prepared in accordance with the program of the course "History of Middle Ages". The proposed publication is considering the main and most important issues necessary for both preparation for the exam and the successful surrender.

9. The internal policy of Karl Great

At the beginning of the IX century. The International Prestige of the Caroling Empire was high: the patronage of Karl sought to get the kings of Scotland and Asturias, the leaders of the tribal Irish principalities. In 812, with the reservations of Karl was recognized by the emperor of Byzantium. Under Carlo, the Great Earlyfodal State has reached its heyday.

In the VIII-IX centuries. It increasingly clearly acted as an instrument of political power to quickly folded the class of feudal. In order to keep the peasantry, losing land and freedom in obedience, for the conquest and development of new territories feudalities needed a relatively strong central government. This explains the temporary strengthening of royal power at the first carolingam, especially noticeable by Karl Great. Twice a year at the court of the king gathered the meetings of the most influential major landowners. On their advice, the emperor published decrees - capitulia– for all issues of public administration.

Control over local authorities was carried out through the "sovereign envoys", which drove around the counties and watched the actions of local officials. Now the military vessels were not meetings of the national militia, but mainly the congresses of royal beneficiaries.

Karl the Great spent a new military reform. Now serve in the army was obliged only by relatively wealthy free landowners. Overall, wealthy people (first of all free peasants) were to unite in groups and for the total score to expose one armed warrior.

Thus, the peasantry, not only dependent, but also free, and more eliminated from military service, which gradually became the privilege of the class of feudal.

Each of the land of the Empire, populated by various breeding groups and peoples, was little related to other and without permanent military and administrative coercion did not want to obey the power of conquerors. Therefore, Karl the Great spent his entire lives in the campaigns, going out every time where the threat arose to really lose one or another territory. Over time, the conquered tribes and nation has become increasingly harder.

Such a form of the empire is an externally centralized, but internally amorphous and fragile association, which has been characterized by the universalism, was characterized for many of the largest early referral states in Europe (Velikomoravskaya Power in the IX century, the Empire of Ottenon in the X century, the powder of the Great Knut, which united in beginning of the XI century. England and Scandinavian countries, etc.).

Contemporaries Caroling Power, especially with Carlo Great, seemed brilliant and majestic. The emperor appeared in the image of the hero, and then entered many legends, tales and songs of the Middle Ages.

Contemporaries delighted the truly outstanding personality of Charles, his tireless energy, the desire to delve into all the details of the extensive state control details, into cases of military, diplomatic, develop education and culture, its successes in military campaigns. They have impressed the appearance of the emperor: high growth, a strong physique, a fraction of the face, and its relative education, interest in literature and poetry, in particular an ancient, the ability to read Latin and in Greek (although he did not have learned).

The image of Karl the Great was strongly idealized by the subsequent medieval tradition, and through it and the Western historiography of the XIX-XX centuries. He was even assigned the role of the defender of the peasants from oppression of feudal feudal.

The real historical Karl is great, although he was an outstanding statesman of his time, held a policy for the consideration of the feudal class, was a cruel and merciless in relation to the folk masses and the population of the lands conquered them.

This text is printed on the basis of scientific work. Historical science in relation to the period of restoration of Bourbon (about which most of them is speaking) gives little information. The personality of King Charles X, the last ruling representative of the older branch of Burbones in the French throne is not at all reflected in domestic historiography, but only in separate passages. Work does not pretend to be unconditional completeness and contains a copyright look at historical personnel. The readers' opinion may be different from the author's opinion.

Chapter I. Count D Day: from birth to throne

The future king of France Karl, Count D`RUITU (Comte D "Artois) was born on October 9, 1757 in the Versailles Palace in Paris in the Dauphine family of France Louis and his wife Maria Josephy, nee Princess Saxon. It is worth saying that Karl became the sixth child and the fifth The boy in the family. Two of his older brothers Prince Louis Joseph, Duke of Burgundy (1751-1761) and Prince Javier, Duke Akvitansky (1753-1754) died in childhood, and two other brothers in the future will be the monarchs of France - Louis XVI and Louis XVIII Immediately after birth, I received the title of Count D`Ratoi. In accordance with the heraldic rules of Karl received the Count Coat of arms: "In a Lazorian field, destroyed by gold lilies (old coat of arms of France) - a wormal tournament collar about three ends, each of which is burdened with three gold tritted castles (one over the other). "

Who were his ancestors? According to his father, he belonged to the ruling family of France of the Bourbon dynasty, which was in power of de Jure since 1589, and de facto from 1593. He was the grandson of the king of France Louis XV, which is ruling in 1715-1774, in turn of the former Right of the King of Louis XIV. According to Mother Dofe, Maria Josephy belonged to the Vetinsky dynasty, whose representatives were ancient times were the rulers of Saxony. Her father was Kurfürste Saxony Friedrich August II, which was in 1734-1763. King of the Commonwealth. According to Grandma, the wife of Louis XV of the Queen of Maria Leshchinskaya also has foreign roots, also associated with Poland. The Last Name Leschinsky appeared in the XV century and named so in honor of the town of Leszno (now the city in the Greater Poland Voivodeship of the Polish Republic). The most famous representative from the genus Leschinsky - Stanislav Leschinsky, who was the father of Maria Leshchinsky and Praded Karl, Count D`aruto. Stanislav Leschinsky twice in the first half of the XVIII century was occupied by the Polish throne.
The first time his reign is commemorated, first of all, with a practically a subane, which he was elected on July 12, 1704, "according to the will of the Swedish king" Charles XII. It is worth noting that these events unfold during the Great Northern War 1700-1721. And during his board, as V.I says Gerier "He had neither material means, nor sufficiently adherents, nor personal abilities." After the loss of the throne in 1709, Stanislav Leschinsky went first in the Duchy of Coloreybryukin (with the permission of Charles XII), then to France. September 4, 1725 issued his daughter for the 15-year king of Louis XV. The wedding ceremony took place in Phonøndeblo. The bride at that time was 22 years old, she had a "quiet and modest temper, ... she is extremely competitive in handling his parents." Probably, it is precisely the desire to return the throne of the Commonwealth forced Stanislav Leschinsky to go for this step, however, after the wedding, the diplomatic corps was notified that the wedding does not have "influence on the relations of France to Poland." After the wedding of her daughter, Leshchinsky received the right to live in the castle Shambor and received sufficient content from his son-in-law. A few years after these events in 1733, he, with the support of Potocksky, was nominated for the throne of speech by compulcient after the death of Augustime II strong, which by origin was Kurfürst Saxony and Fenidrich Fenrya II. France in the face of young Louis XV promised support for Stanislav, but Russia and Austria were against this choice. Thus, on the throne, Stanislav Leshchinsky actually stayed from September 1733 to June 1734, when the throne of the Commonwealth had already taken by Friedrich August II, which was grandfather's grandfather of the mother of the mother and received the throne of speech by compoloned by introducing 30-thousand Russian corps under the direction of Count P.P. Lassi. The armed clash, which entered the story as a war for the Polish legacy of 1733-1738, ended with the signing of the Vienna Peace Treaty on November 18, 1738. Formally, Stanislav Leshchinsky remained the king to the Seima of 1736, when the Polish gentry officially recognized the Friedrich of August II by the King of Poland and the Grand Duke Lithuanian, who ruled there under the name of August III.

Thus, the genealogy of Count D`aruto seems to us an important component of his biographies. The peripetics of genealogy are forced, first of all, think about what dynastic marriages were represented and what they had the importance in issues of foreign policy of Europe.

§ 1. Life before expulsion

About the time of small years of Count D`Ratoi preserved quite a few information. It is known that the baptism of Prince Carl took place on October 19, 1761. The ceremony was led by the confessor of the Royal Court, according to the title "Great Distributor of the Almighty of the Kingdom of the Kingdom France" Charles Anton de la Rosh Isamon in the chapel of the Royal Residence Versailles. Karl's godfather steel daughter Louis XV Princess Sofia Philippie, King of Spain Karl III (spanish bourbon representative), as well as the elder brother Louis (future Louis XVI).

In 1773 he received the title of Duke of the Anguleve and Par France, however, this did not mean the beginning of an active political career in the state and participation in state affairs. The first active participation in the political life of France from Carl he will adopt in 1786, when, at the court of Louis XVI, he will lead the reactionary party. Then, with the crisis, called the "Royal Revolution", the Count D`aruto attempted to reduce the financial privileges of the noble estate, and not social benefits at which the representatives of the ruling estate were insisted.

Different sources say that to the French revolution of the late XVIII century, Carl had big debts (according to different estimated from 40 to 50 million livres). In 1777 acquired the castle of Meson-Luffyt. The castle by that time was subject to restoration and Count D`oruto makes its own changes to the project. The architect of the castle was appointed Francois-Joseph Bellage, who conducts reconstruction within two years: from 1779 to 1781. However, the project of the reorganization will remain completely unfulfilled.

Another project was the construction in the Boulogne Forest under Paris Pavilion Chateau de Bughatel. November 26, 1777 After 64 days of the tireless work of the masters, this pavilion was opened. The total amount spent on the construction and arrangement of the pavilion was about 3 million livres. The construction was led by the already mentioned architect F.-H. Belange.
The family life of the future king also began in the pre-revolutionary period of his life. On November 16, 1773, he married the princess of Mary Teresa Savoy, the daughter of King Sardinia Victor-Amadey III from marriage with Maria Anthony, a pre-infanta infanta, a representative of the Spanish branch of Bourbon. The branch was released in 1700, when the grandson of Louis XIV Duke Anjui Philipp on the will of childless Charles II took the Spanish throne. Princess Maria Teresa, and not becoming a queen, was born on January 31, 1756 in Turin and became the fifth child in the family. Four children were born with a graphist of D`oruto, however, only two were lived to mature age: Duke Angolevsky Louis-Antoine (1775-1844) and Duke Berry Charles Ferdinand (1778-1820). The marriage quickly collapsed and after the birth of children, the spouses went out, although they continued to formally husband and wife, but did not live with each other. The Countess of the D`Ratoi itself died at the age of 49 in 1805 in the city of Graz and was buried in the imperial mausoleium near the Cathedral of Graz. But extramarital connections were a normal phenomenon in that epoch. Favorite Karl X became Maria Louise D'Esparbees de Lusssan, on her husband Marquis De Polastron. She died from tuberculosis in March 1804 in London. There are only fragmentary information requiring separate studies about other relations of Count D`Ratoi.

§ 2. Emigration

Count D`Ratoi became one of the first representatives of the kingdom's name, which emigrated from France with the beginning of the revolution and became one of the few members of the royal family who managed to leave France covered by the revolution. The main goal of forced expulsion is the search for allies among European courtyards to attract attention to events in France and the suppression of the revolution. Was the success in this task Count D`Ratoi?

This question is quite difficult to answer. And the main reason is the lack of information on this issue. However, bibliographic testimonies provide us as follows: from 1789 to 1791. Count D`RUTU visited Turin, Koblenz, Brussels and other cities. In August 1791, he arrived in Pilnits - a country residence of the rulers of Saxony (now included in the city of Dresden) at the Congress, in which the Emperor of the Sacred Roman Empire of the German Nation Leopold II (it is worth noting that he was his brother of Queen France Mary Antoinette) and the King of Prussia Friedrich Wilhelm II. At the end of the congress, on August 27, 1791, the Pilnitskaya Declaration was signed, from where we learn about the presence at the Count Count D`aro. The Declaration says: "After His Majesty, the Emperor, and His Majesty, the King of Prussia, listened to the wishes and ideas of Mr. Count D`oro [my translation. - VCh.] "On the situation in France and considering that these events were a great interest of European states, Austria and Prussia were ready to intervene in the affairs of France to restore the power of the king and called on other European leaders also to contribute to this. Pilnitskaya declaration has become a starting point of creation against France of the first coalition. What caused the actions of the count D`aro and what purpose did they have? There are practically no views of domestic historians to this question, but it seems to us the only possible explanation - the desire to preserve the power of the French king, which remained over the centuries and suppress revolutionary sentiment in French society. Soviet historian A.Z. Manfred calls the Pilnitsky Declaration "Manifesto, proclaiming interventions against revolutionary France." At the same time, he noted that the activity of Count D`aro and Graph of Obovensky, who stood at the head of the counter-revolutionary emigration, was to warm up the ideas of foreign intervention under different European courtyards.

On February 7, 1792, Austria and Prussia entered into a military union against France, covered by the revolution. Different authors argue that Louis XVI supported the intervention, which was probably so. On April 20, 1792, the revolutionary France was first declared War of Austria and Prussia. At first, military actions were not in favor of French revolutionaries. By mid-June, it became obvious that the French army was retreating all over the front. The manifesto deserves attention on July 25, 1792, signed by the Duke of Brownschweig Karl Wilhelm, in which the main goal of the war was to "restore the legitimate power of the king." It is worth saying that in the French newspapers this manifest was published on August 3 and caused a wave of indignation in the revolutionary environment. Already on August 10, revolutionary soldiers took the storm the Tuileries Palace and after a while they captured the royal family led by Louis XVI. On the same day, a revolutionary commune was created. That was how the French monarchy fell in 1792. The days of Louis XVI and Maria Antointetti were considered, and after the trial in which certain sympathies of Louis XVI were expressed by the Girondists, Louis XVI was executed on January 21, 1793. His spouse, who, in the opinion of revolutionaries, was a possible reason for a peace treaty with the participants of the antifranzu coalition, lived longer. However, on October 16, 1793 after a one-day trial, she was hanged.

After the execution of Louis XVI, his son Louis Karl becomes the formal king, the duke of Norman, who receives the dynastic name Louis XVII. It is not surprising that his rule is formal. He became the king, being a prisoner in the castle of Tampl, where members of the arrested royal family were held and so until the end of the life was not released. According to official information, the king-child (and at the time of the formal adder to the throne, Louis XVII was only 7 years old) dies in June 1795, however, the domestic historian of France D.Yu. Bovkin cites a number of interesting facts that are forced to doubt this version. In any case, in 1799, the Duke of Burbonsky wrote his father that Louis XVII is alive. With all these facts in the death of Louis XVII, one cannot doubt, another question is when she happened. This question is still open in the environment of historians.

All these events naturally responded in French emigration. At the end of the first decade of July 1795 in Verona, which at that time as part of the Venice Republic was signed by a manifesto, called the Verona Declaration. In this manifesto, which was addressed to the French, was announced to the French throne of the King of Louis XVIII. Louis XVIII - The younger brother of Louis XVI and Uncle Louis XVII was a middle brother in the family and until 1795 wore the title of Provensky's graph. It is not worth talking about his biography for a long time, it is important to understand the role in the emigration events of Count D`aro.

For the collection of information, two different "sources" were used for the possibility of publication: "Bulletins" of Count D''ANTRAG, who had intercourse with different courtyards of Europe of the time and data trusted; Another source was the "Memorandum" in the form of answers of the Swiss publicist J. Malli Du Pan for 28 questions from Louis XVIII. And in obtaining a second source played an important role of "Count D`RU", which "... ... sent his trustee of Count F. de Saint-Aldegonda" to the publicist. Thus, in the compilation of Manifesto, Louis XVIII, our hero accepted important participation and contributed to the collection of information about what happened in France at the specified period.

Was the future Karl X authority among emigration? The active activity of the Count D`RTU in creating the Verona Declaration makes pay attention to him as to the formation of a political figure. We again have to contact D.Yu. Bovykin. Historian, referring to the data of the Paris periodicals, 1795, gives very interesting information. Bovykin says: "The royalists are divided into five groups. The biggest requires the king of the constitutional, Duke of Chartreski ... The most elegant requires the king of the absolute, Count D`, ... The most committed principles requires the king of legitimate, monsieur. " What gives us this information? Unfortunately, quite a little, but it is clear that the "elegant" part of the royalists was a supporter of the French king to become a Count D`aruto, and the king is absolute. It means that the information can talk about him, likely about a person with a solid and iron will, which should more suit the qualities of the absolute ruler.

Important information about these years of Burbon emigration we find in publications of the Russian revolutionary N.G. Chernyshevsky. In one of them, published in 1858, the following information is given that after the execution of Louis XVI, the heir to the throne was in captivity and the affairs of the "royalists" it was necessary to manage the regent, "But the Graph Provensky (subsequently Louis XVIII) did not like emigrants, and they stubbornly They demanded that he gave way to the power of the youngest brother, Count D`aro. " Foreign courtyards have already recognized the Graph of Oboven and opposed them to their actions, but "the emigrants wrapped off His title of the Kingdom of the Kingdom" for Count D`aro. Given the fact that Louis XVI was executed in early 1793, and the struggle of emigrants, according to the expression of the NG Chernyshevsky, continued "a few months", it turns out that in the same 1793, Count D`, the title of governor of the kingdom. Chernyshevsky, probably, smelled that emigrants did not like Louis XVIII, but, in all likelihood, such a certain group really existed data to D.Yu. Bovykin is confirmed.

Since 1798, Louis XVIII lives in Mitava (now G. Yelgava as part of the Republic of Latvia), which at that time is part of the Kurneda province of the Russian Empire. Together with the monarch, his wife Maria-Josephine-Louise Savoyskaya, Princess Maria-Louise-Charlotte French (Louis XVI daughter), as well as the Duke of Berry and Angolevsky, who were the sons of Count D`aro from marriage with Maria Teresa Savoy. It is noteworthy that the Count D`aruto while still lives in the UK and there is no mention of his life there in the domestic literature, so we have to limit it.

On July 24, 1799, Count D`oruto receives instructions from the older brother, which was to designate his actions in the event of a restoration of the monarchy in France and his arrival earlier than Louis XVIII itself. The case was that the king's advisers in exile wrote about the high probability of restoring the monarchy, that the people can move to the side of Louis XVIII, we also note the crisis of the government of France of this period, complicated by the defeats of the French army at the fronts and administration disorders. The instruction is quite complete for the content makes it clear that the king has come to change the changes in the society that occurred in the administration of France, but in the affairs of the spiritual, he is adamant: "Everything that concerns the spiritual sphere should be immediately returned to the previous state ... All legal shepherds must be returned to their diceses and parishes; Worship services restored, a new calendar canceled ", etc. Louis XVIII demanded that "so that all the staff" of the civil and judicial administration "... brought me an oath of loyalty." This instruction also provides information regarding tax issues, which should be charged temporarily prior to the arrival of Louis XVIII to France, the army, the officers who have preserved titles and positions when choosing the right side. What are the first to say such requirements and what they mean to count D`aro? First, about the limitless trust of Louis XVIII to his brother, secondly, the fact that the grouping of emigrants, which supported the count of D`aro, was not strong enough to twist the will of the king in exile, thirdly, that All the changes in the French society were taken into account and that only the spiritual sphere should be returned to the previous state, fourthly, that the Count D`Ratoi was quite independent and silent to act in conditions of the possibility of restoring the monarchy.

All the facts of the activities of Count D`Ratoi in exile give us a portrait of a man of business and reasonable, in the actions of which a certain logic can be traced. In August 1791, he decides to participate in the Pilnitsky Congress between Austria and Prussia, which subsequently becomes the basis for creating the first antifranzu coalition. In 1793, the title of the governor of the Kingdom receives the title, and in 1795 he takes the most active participation in the preparation of the Verona Declaration - Manifesto on the adoption of the French throne of Louis XVIII. In 1799, it becomes one of those who is counting on his elder brother in the restoration of monarchy in the same year. By telegram Count D`Ratoi, Louis XVIII sees in the younger brother primarily ally and that is why he gives him the authority to act on his behalf in France in the event of the restoration of the monarchy and, as we noticed, the person who was distant politicians could not be content with such powers and public issues. The restoration of Bourbon took place much later than the Louis XVIII planned - in 1814, and we go to this period.

§3. Restoration of Bourbonov

Since the defeat of Napoleon I, in the battle, under Leipzig in October 1813 it becomes clear that his government remains a few months. The Allied Coalition as part of the Russian Empire, Great Britain, Prussia, Sweden, the Austrian Empire and other states leads a rapid attack on Paris, which was taken on March 30, 1814. On April 6, Napoleon I signs an act of renunciation from the French throne. A bourbon dynasty was restored on the French throne, and Louis XVIII became the king of France. On May 30, 1814, the world was signed between France and the countries of the sixth coalition, according to which France returned to the borders of 1795 and lost all the conquests made by her after that. Thus, in the life of our hero, one of the last periods of his life begins.

On May 3, 1814, the royal family returns to France. Soviet historian A.Z. Manfred writes about the column of D`aruto as a finished supporter of the "feudal-absolutist regime". But did it be the way Soviet historians wrote about this? Was it in the actions of Count D`aruto, what reminded about returns to the old orders? What was the internal and foreign policy of France on the eve of the beginning of the reign of a new king? This section is devoted to all these issues.
In fact, two restorations of Bourbon in 1814 and in 1815. After a "one hundred days" of Napoleon, it is very vaguely to understand what happened in French society. The domestic literature of an accurate answer does not give, however, some historians make it clear that few of the French wanted the return of Bourbon to the throne. It was probably the case, because the young generation of the French did not have a clear idea of \u200b\u200bthe dynasty. In any case, it is obvious that Bourbons were planted for the throne with the support of the troops of the antifranzu coalition.

France's political life of the restoration times becomes the object of close attention of historians and public figures. The Russian revolutionary N.G. writes about it. Chernyshevsky. Of course, we understand what a truly strange and paradoxical situation in the leadership of the country.

In 1814, a constitutional charter is adopted. In essence, she installed a constitutional monarchy in France, at which all the fulfillment of the executive in the country belongs to the "exclusively" king (Art. 13), and the legislative power (Article 15) shares the king among themselves, the chamber of the peers (like the Upper Chamber of Parliament) and the Chamber of Deputies from Departments (Lower). The peculiarity of the upper chamber is that during the restoration until 1830, Parity had a hereditary nature, in addition, the members of the Parot Chamber were appointed by the king (Art. 27), only the Chamber of Deputies was elected within 5 years. Interesting and other important moment. Art. 30 Charter says that "members of the Royal Family and Prince of Blood the essence of the Birthday Permit." Thus, the Count D`oro was Pyr France and this confirms to us a historical source and that gives us a certain touch to his biography.

In 1816, the situation was formed on which the "royalists forced the government to such late measures" that it could lead to a new loss of the throne by Bourbon. At the meetings of the Chamber of Deputies, the royalists who constituted the majority "do not want to pay attention to the interests of the reigning dynasty." They put forward their project of electoral law, according to which the county voters choose the second voter, and then they, gathering in the departments, chose deputies. This project was opposed to the project that was filed by the ministry. According to the government project it was proposed that the elections of the deputy occur "directly by all the districts of the district", in addition, a certain number of powers was provided to the king for personal decision to introduce partitions who are not suitable for the requirements of the election law (i.e. have significant property). It turned out that liberals, and not royalists, supported the King's project. The royalists supported their project, which won, and, according to the Metakov, the remark of Chernyshevsky, "the king remained with this election law less power than had a Venetian doge." On September 5, 1816, the Chamber of Deputies was dissolved. Against this, oddly enough, the count of D`aruto, accused of treason to the Minister of Decad, who insisted on the dissolution of the deputies chamber. The new electoral law, adopted on February 5, 1817, was called upon to choose 1/5 of the deputies of the Chamber every year and it turned out that with each election of royalists in the ward remains less and less. The Count D`RUTU appeals to Europe's courtyards with a "secret note" and warns that in the case of new elections, France will again be managed by revolutionary.

So, we see certain contradictions. The Count D`RUTU opposed the fact that the Chamber was negligible, and the position of the Chamber after the adoption of the electoral law on February 5th. What gives us this information? Probably, the Count D`RUTU was under certain pressure from the pianos, and the fact that he himself apparently adjacent to her. But how to explain then his actions regarding the politics of royalists, who has reread the actions of power in his senior brother Louis XVIII? Apparently, he was under the serious pressure of a certain group of royalists, but not only. "During the ten years of restoration," a large number of monasteries "together with Jesuit institutions" has opened. This information explains why after the murder of the duke of Berrhovsky, the son of Count D`Ratoi, on February 13, 1820, Count D`aruto, together with the oldest son of the Duke of the Anguleve and Ride-in-law Princess Maria Teresoy, after the debate in Parliament in favor of the resignation of E. Deza came to Louis XVIII And demanded from him to send the minister to resign. Chernyshevsky directly indicates that "Mysterious Jesuits, who mastered the father of the killed Prince and Brother of the King" who led the congregation, contributed to the speedy resignation of E. Dese and on this basis publishes a secret correspondence found in 1830, the content of which we do not give now.

After the events described, the position of the Prime Minister was "proposed by the Russian soul" Duke de Richelo, who is appointed on February 20, 1820 and his premiership continues until December 1821. He begins his state career for the board of Louis XVI, receiving the court position of Chamber. In addition, the Duke of Rieshelo in the period from 1804 to 1815. It is held by the post of general-governor of Novorossiysk and Bessarabsky, and after the restoration in 1815-1818. Also takes the post of the first minister. He was very friendly with the Russian emperor Alexander I and therefore in the international arena between France and Russia "established complete harmony". At the same time, the "chapter of the royalists" Count D`orus promised, "that his party will support Richelieu." However, it did not happen. As noted by E.V. Polevshchikova, Richelieu himself "The royalist on convictions, he, as a supporter of the strong royal authority, considered, however, necessary to preserve the civil world to strictly follow the established Constitution - the Charter of 1814." The first Minister of France came across the royalists in both the term of his premier. Attacks of royalists for the government did not stop and this time. Richelieu himself after his appointment to the post of Prime Minister on March 5, 1820, wrote about his plans to the head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire V.P. Kochube, with whom he was very friendly and under whose bosses worked in Russia. In the letter it was said: "... I made my choice and make every effort to do not give my post until I fulfill my task and I will not reach the order and monarchy in France." Such words are present in the correspondence of ministers, which was published In 2003, K.I.N. E.V. Polevierchikova. New Counteractions of royalists regarding the law on the municipal structure of France, which was introduced to the House of Deputies by government ministers made a big noise, because the right to appoint the prefect remained behind the king, and the local leadership was chosen by the rich landowners. Thus, in the political life of France, the restoration times remained serious internal tension.

To foreign policy issues of the time of the board of Louis XVIII, we turn only casual, giving them a small characteristic. It seemed that the good relations of the Duke of Richelieu and the members of the Russian government should have far-reaching consequences. Up to the death of Emperor Alexander I, "Neither the slightest cloud did not run between both yards." In addition to creating a kind relationship with Russia, France cared the problem of the loss of territories after the conclusion of the Prague peace treaty. In 1817, France received five cities in India from the UK. In the next few years, Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Guinea, who was the object of claims from Portugal, was returned, but in 1817 it was strengthened by France as a result of the demonstration of the Armed Forces. Several settlements founded by the French in previous periods in Algeria were again occupied by the French. In general, the foreign policy of France during this period was quite clear - it was to return some territories lost by France at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. And what was the situation of the French Royal Court?

Anna Martin-Fuzhier gives some information about the position of the yard of the French king during the restoration period. With Louis XVIII in 1814, the courtyard acquired the Royal Color: The Imperial Guard Napoleon I was abolished, and in return to the Life Guard, the Swiss Guard was restored, 4 companies "Red" Guard were restored, abolished in 1815 after "one hundred days". During the court, the Royal Region Service was very numerous, which, with Karl X, headed Ober-Camera Prince de Talleyran. Interestingly, Martin-Fuzhier describes the ratio of the Count D`aruto to the court. She writes that he considered the courtyard "above all the forge of faithful associates", while his brother Louis XVIII "reigned among his yard as the sovereign of the pre-revolutionary pore." At the same time, all Count D`aruto, she calls the "head of the party". The Minister of the courtyard in the last years of the reign of Louis XVIII and Karl X was the duke de Larancyfuche, who was a supporter of tough discipline at the courtyard and conducted certain "reforms" in the court service, but he turned out to be the only one who resigned in 1827 in protest against RosPuska National Guard. Such is the general background in which France was located in the board of Louis XVIII, it remains to sum up the intermediate results.

Restoration of Burbones in 1814 and 1815 presented us already a new portrait and new features of behavior and political affiliation of Count D`aro. As it turned out, from 1814 after the adoption of the Charter, he became Pyr France. From the found materials, it also follows that the future king was subject to the strong influence of royalists and Jesuits. He resolutely oppose that the Chamber of Deputies was dissolved in 1816 and exhibits a large role in shifting from the post of First Minister E. Decas in 1820. His attitude towards the yard as a "blacksmith of faithful associates" makes it think that the future Karl X expected for immigrants from the courtyard during his own independent policy. The image itself of our main character has undergone major changes: from an independent person, he becomes a certain "toy" on the political arena. Now we take our own gaze to the last period of the lifestyle of Count D`aro - his rule in France.

Chapter 2. Trone and Second Exile.

Louis XVIII dies on September 16, 1824 and his place on the throne occupies his younger brother Count D`, who becomes Karl X. Even before his coronation in Reims on May 29, 1825, Karl X receives two legislative documents that require attention to the characteristics of the further course New king and his environments.

The first law of April 20, 1825 had a meaning in its content, which for actions against items of religious cult followed harsh punishments (to the death penalty inclusive). "This law, never, by the way, who did not apply in practice, aroused public opinion, and Karl X settled against himself a part of society. Arguing from the standpoint of common sense, it is impossible to believe that the religious person calmly looked at the desecration of holy places, in addition, you should not forget the organs of the French of that time - they are deprived of the guardianship of the Catholic Church, which, however, in the Charter of 1814, has a state character. In general, if you believe N.I. Kareyev, this law was actually not applied in practice, which means not to have serious public consequences.

Another legislative act of April 27, 1825 was compiled and proposed by Wilhel, which occupied the first minister since 1821. What provided this law? The law stated that in the form of a cash compensation for lost land, the state pays 1 billion francs to representatives of the noble class. At the same time N.G. Chernyshevsky cites data that every year emigrants received "more than 70 million" francs, and "the income of the places sold did not stretch up to 50 million francs." A.Z. Manfred suggests that this law "caused great discontent in the country." This was written by Chernyshevsky, who expressed his concern that "it is difficult to describe the excitement produced in the mass of the average class", as well as commoners. It should be noted that after the confiscations of the aristocracies and their redistribution in France, more than three decades have passed, but it is important that these lands that were divided into segments could already move into other hands inherited and through trading operations. With all this, we note that it was precisely the remuneration and land, for which people were told, were not returned to their former owners.

Another law, which remained the project was sold in the chamber of the peers by representatives of the Jesuit Congregation and provided for the restoration of the Mayorate system, when all the inheritance of the deceased father passed to the eldest son (exactly the project that was proposed). Thus, in the country, the Grand Institute would be restored, which in the previous epochs of French history occupied a very important place in the fight against royal power. This project was not adopted, to the relief of many contemporaries.

Thus, it turns out that already at the beginning of his board Karl X touulated his subjects against himself and against the top of power. Immediately at the beginning of the Board, the Jesuits were also shown, who tried to restore the Mayoice system of inheritance, but failed. Now we go to a very important event at the board of Karl X - to coronation in the Reimsky Cathedral in 1825.

Many historians, including domestic, are seen in the root of coronation of 1825, the main sign of the return of France to the pre-revolutionary time. The French historian M. Blok described this rite: "The sacred and quasi-free royal power was the last time he tried to hit the world with a pomp of his ceremonies." This ceremony of the unequivocal relationship in the society did not work out. So Viktor Hugo challenged the coronation, the People's poet Bellage ridiculed her, and in general the society referred to this ceremony wary, as he had already felt the influence that was on Karl X Congregation. This coronation is reflected in artistic art. The most famous image of the ceremony belongs to the court portrait of Napoleon I Baron Francois Geraar, written in 1825.

In general, the ceremony of the modernity of the throne of Charles X reminded the pre-revolutionary tradition. It is worth noting that his predecessor Louis XVIII for almost 10 years of his reign was never crowned.

The tradition of coronation in Reims goes back to the IX century, when in 816, Louis I pious became the first French king, crowned in this city in the champagne region. Traditionally, the Archbishop Reimsky's archbishop (during the coronation ceremony of Charles X, they were Cardinal Jean-Baptiste de Latil, who became Archbishop in 1824. And on the day of coronation erected in the Cavalers of the Royal Order of St. Spirit), who served bishops of Lana, Lang, Beauz, Chalon And Nuayon. Each of the bishops assigned a certain role in the ceremony, along with the male representatives of the royal family and the first Aristocrats of France, which were brought during the royal regalia during the ceremony. In addition, an important component of the coronation was the ceremony of laying the hands of the monarch on golden to demonstrate the divine gift of the monarch heal the sick. The discussion around the holding of this rite in 1825 was held in the ruling circles of France, and "March 31, 1825 was the last afternoon, when the European king laid hands on the chiros of golden patients." However, this rite did not cause delight in the ruling circles or in society. Only crazy ultra-richists, as Mark Block notes, were pleased with the return of this tradition.

Thus, the coronation in Reims and the "ceremony" of the healing of golden patients in 1825 entered the story as the last in history. The Reimary Coronation of 1825 was not unambiguously perceived by the French society and thus the last time in the history of France took place the coronation of the French monarch. France's subsequent monarchs Louis-Philipp I and Napoleon III will never be crowned.

§2. Internal and foreign policy of Karl X

Charles X policy, as we have already noticed, could unlikely to be independent with a serious pressure, which provided the Jesuit Congregation, had "such power, which is already not every pianoist could get her patronage." Arguing about this, Chernyshevsky, first of all, makes it clear that a certain union, which, apparently, was between Jesuits and royalists before joining the throne Karl X began to fall apart. Kareyev provides data that in Carlem X there was a clerical nature of the reaction, which the opposition was ultra-rich.

As a result of the elections of November 1827, representatives of the liberal wing were taken to the Chamber of Deputies, and the staff of the Chamber received the following placement, according to N.G. Chernyshevsky: 170 deputies from the liberals and royalists, and 50 deputies-centrists who have departed from the royalist faction. One of the most notable laws that were reviewed by the Chamber of New Conversion is the Law on Press. However, as noted by the historian A.Z. Manfred, he was withdrawn from the Chamber because of the performances of workers in Saint-Marso and the Petition, which was accepted and distributed among the population. A similar alignment and attacks of the new chamber on the actions of the government were forced to resign at the end of December 1827. It is worth saying that the political life of the count on this was not over. In the future, he will be appointed in the Chamber of Peters, in which he will sit until the July revolution of 1830. He graduates his life in Toulouse in 1854 at the age of 80. In rewarding merit to the kingdom Back in 1823, Louis XVIII will be awarded the Royal Ordin of St. Spirit.

A more liberal government of Vilkont Martinyak, "close to the party of constitutionalist-royalists" and alien "Relations with Congregation" came to replace the government. He was born on June 20, 1778 in Bordeaux. By education lawyer. During the directory in 1798 he was secretary of Emmanuel-Josefa Sieyes, who then headed the Council of five hundred. It was famous for his royalties during the first empire. Since 1821, a member of the Chamber of Deputies. After the appointment of the first Minister of France, on January 4, 1828, he received a portfolio of the Minister of Internal Affairs, which retained to resign on August 8, 1829. It makes sense to list the composition of the Ministers of the New Government: Minister of Foreign Affairs of Count De La Ferron (Member of the Republic of Ironistical Movement, since 1815 Member of the Chamber of Peters), Minister of Finance Count De Rua (2-fold Finance Minister in 1818 and 1819-1821, Par France with 1823), Military Minister Viscount de Blakutot de Kau, Marine and Colonial Minister of Count de Nubrol (from March 3 Baron de Nuville), Minister of Justice Count de Portalis, Minister of Spiritual Affairs and Folk Enlightenment Count Freisin (from March 3 Bishop Bovice Füter only As a Minister of Spiritual Affairs), Minister of Education Since March 3, Count de Mateva and Minister of Commerce and Agriculture Count De Saint-Creek. Thus, the new composition of the ministry included representatives of the Rodovitsky nobility, members of the royalist movement headed by the Vicon Martinyak and a number of other ministers.

Since the new Prime Minister was not so strongly connected with Jesuits, he received the opportunity to act in their attitude much calmer and more confident. In connection with the election to the position of President of the Chamber of Deputies Roy-Whala, who represented the left and centries of parliament, turned out that the government has the opportunity to actually act in conducting reforms. The main centers of the attack of the new government were Jesuits, which by this moment there were control over several universities and eight of spiritual seminaries. Martinyak managed to eliminate the political side of the issue of Jesuits, in particular in the field of division of the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Folk Enlightenment, which since 1824 was headed by Count Freisin, for two separate ministries in March 1828. To solve issues from both chambers, a commission was created that determined that many educational institutions were open without official permission, and some of them were trained by people, which was allocated by Jesuits. Charles X were published ordinances, who were prescribed to take away the management of schools from Jesuit and subjugate the royal authorities in the approval of the proposed candidates of directors of schools represented by archbishops and bishops, personally king. These actions of the government were negatively met by spiritual persons who considered it an attempt to violate the Charter of 1814. N.G. Chernyshevsky suggests that French bishops made public a declaration in which they actually talked about the inability to obey the royal power. The French royalists "decided to print a declaration" in the amount of 100 thousand copies for their distribution in the parishes. The approval of the Action of Charles X by the side of the Pope Lion XII also did not cool the branch of the royalists, firmly defending freedom of religion given by Chartia 1814. Art. 5. which states that "everyone confesses with equal freedom of its religion and enjoys the same protection against its religion." After all the speeches of the spiritual persons, Jesuita left France, closing her schools.

The other party to the activities of the Ministry of Martinyak was to conduct several important laws that provided freedom of elections from the administration's intervention, the Government's right to introduce censorship "by royal commands". Martinyak was developed by the Law on Local Self-Government, who offered to introduce the election in the system of appointments of members of the General Councils, which put forward a prefect, the appointment was carried out by the Minister; Members of the municipal councils appointed the prefect of the municipality. This system was introduced during the reign of Napoleon I Bonaparte. However, the liberals and the royalists opposed this project, the first because they were afraid of the influence of local major landowners who, by the project, were prescribed to choose members of self-government, and the second, because in the election system, the norms of revolution were visible, which are not capable of acting during the existence Monarchy. It is so interpreting sources of N.I. Kareyev, on which we refer. Due to the lack of support, this project was rejected. It turned out that the king, along with royalists, was "very glad to defeat Martinyak."

Thus, on August 8, 1829, the Martinyak government was retired, and his place was taken by the "greatest fanatics of the feudal party" Prince de Polynac. Jules Auguste Arman Marie, Prince de Polynac was born on May 14, 1780 in Versailles in the family of Jules de Polignak (at that time of the graph) and his wife, Iolaudna de Polynac, however, there are numerous testimonies of the close connection of Iolanda and Count de Verryl, which some historians are considered Real Father Jules de Polignak. In addition, it is reliably known that for many years he was a close friend of Karl X. His mother was an approximate and close friend of Queen Maria Antoinette. Jul de Polynyak himself was already the piano was already set up. Together with Karl X in 1804 he participated in the conspiracy against Napoleon. In 1820 he received the title of Roman Prince from the Pope Lion XII. Since 1814 he was Pyr France. In 1823, Prince de Polynac was appointed French ambassador in London. "In society they looked at him, as per person, mentally limited and unhapsable, both on the absolutist and friend of Jesuit."

On August 8, 1829, Prince de Polynyak, who combined the post of Head of the Cabinet and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Finance Count de Shabrol de Crosul, Minister of Internal Affairs Count Laburdonne, Minister of Folk Enlightenment Baron de Monteble, Military Minister Count De Gene De Burmon (Marshal since 1830), Marine and Colonial Minister Count de Rigni (Admiral), Minister of Justice de Couviazier. The new office came to power, when serious economic and political tensions began in the country. To combat the new government, bourgeois circles were based on organizations whose goal was to refuse to pay taxes to the government. As the Historian Manfred indicates, there were 1.5 million people in the country who had a poverty allowance. Salary decreased by 22%, and the prices of goods rose by 60%.

At the beginning of next 1830, the opposition newspaper "National" (LE National) was founded, at the head of which Armen Carrel (historian), L.A. Thier (in the future, the Prime Minister, as well as the 1st President of the Third Republic, Historian), F.-o. Minier (author of the work on the history of the reformation, the French revolution, from 1836. Member of the French Academy). The first issue of the newspaper published an article in which it was said that the newspaper is ready to maintain a dynasty, but only in case of accurate compliance with the Charter 1814.

The gap in the relationship of the government and parliament occurred during the throne speech of Charles X 2 March 1830. Then the monarch directly demanded support from side in his actions "to the commission of good" and noted that if the forces would appear that the king's power would appear, he would "be able to defeat them in ... determination to protect public peace." It was required to take the answer to the throne speech of the king. The new president of the Chamber of Deputies was once again elected Royal Collar, who presented a response address in the name of the king, who was adopted by the Chamber of 221 Voice against 181. This phrase is presented in the address: "France also wishes a little anarchy as you [Karl X. - V.Ч.] Little desire despotism. " The answer was the king before the choice between those, "who detects such a complete lack of understanding of your nation, calm, quiet and faithful" and those who "with a deep conviction in their rightness of those who have thrown to the footsteps of your majesty Mount of whole people who craves respect and confidence of their king " This address was announced at a solemn audience on March 18, 1830 by the President of the Chamber of Deputies Roy-Collar. Note that the second part of the shutter speed was drawn up by actually liberals. In the response word, Karl X expressed his chagrity by the fact that "deputies from departments refuse me" in the assistance "to fulfill the well-conceived MOG." As can be seen, Karl X spoke by common phrases and it was not entirely clear what purpose the French monarch pursues. On March 17, 1830, the meeting of the Chamber was delayed until September 1, and on May 16, the Chambers were dissolved with the appointment of elections on June 23 and July 3, but so that the meetings began on August 3.

I do not seek to give some assessment of France's foreign policy to the Board of Charles X, we define the main milestones and directions. In general, in the foreign policy of France, in general, the entire restoration period has developed two main vector: southern and oriental. The southern direction of foreign policy was characterized by the participation and desire of France colonize the territories of North Africa (Maghreb Countries): Algeria and Tunisia. However, we note that during the restation times, the Algerian direction was paid to the Algerian direction, which was only partially implemented. On May 25, 1830, the 37-thousand French corps headed by the Military Minister of Count De Burmon went from Toulon to Algeria. According to Cherkasov P.P., for the crossing of the troops, 103 combat and 350 shopping ships led by Admiral Dupere took. On July 5, 1830, the Fort of the Emperor was taken and the local rulers agreed to the surrender, but the uprising under the leadership of ABB al-Qadir, which lasted for more than 20 years, did not allow the French to consolidate in these territories finally. As a result, just a few days before the July revolution, Karl X confirmed its intention to preserve the French contingent in Algeria "for an indefinite period". It was on this that the southern direction of the foreign policy of Charles X was over. The revolution of July-August 1830 did not allow the opportunity to complete the final attachment of Algeria, but the successors of Charles X will perform this task and at the end of the XIX century Algeria will become French territory.

The Eastern Direction of the Foreign Policy of Charles X is primarily marked by a successful campaign of the Russian Empire in the war 1828-1829. With the Ottoman Empire. Prince de Polynac in August-September 1829 presented to the discussion of the Secret Royal Council, which was proposed by the Tuilder Court by Russia, for which France of that time was an allied. It was assumed to finally dismember the Ottoman Empire and if France and Russia were acting together, "they would acquire the dominant position in the Council of the Great. At the same time, Prince de Polynyak, first of all, requested not to forget that the primary task in the framework of the Eastern Question was the weakening of the UK's positions at the sea, the fleet that was very numerous. In addition, he remembered the injustice of contracts of 1815, when France was obliged to return to the pre-revolutionary boundaries. He proposed to include the territory of Belgium to Maas in France. In addition, Dofe France Louis, Duke Angulele said that the UK will not allow the implementation of such ideas of the head of the French Cabinet. The debate on all above the designated issues of the collapse of the members of the Council, and the first meeting on this issue did not rule out a single decision.

At the second meeting on this issue, Prince de Polynyak won. Decisions of this meeting represents S.S. Tatishchev. Belgium would go to France, at the same time to Russia, Moldova and Valahia. Austria is moving Serbia and Bosnia, and the remaining part of European Turkey "was to compile one Christian state under the rule of the King of the Netherlands, and other Turkish owners in Asia and Africa - the state of Muslims with Megan-Ali, Pasha Egyptian, headed." However, the project did not have time to walk to St. Petersburg to the Adrianopol Peace Treaty on September 2, 1829.

In the same essay Tatishchev S.S. We find other curious details of the Russian-French relations of the 1820-30s. So Tatishchev, with undisguised regret, states that Count K.O. Pozzo-di Borgo "managed to buy over the prince the same influence as he enjoyed the most part of his predecessors, unfortunately, only in external, and not in the internal affairs." Most likely, the speech here is the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire in 1816-1822. The column of John Capodistria, which by the time he was already president of Greece.

So, summing up the externally and intra-political courses of France the era of the restoration, we note the reincarnation and the interesting behavior of the French monarch. He boldly makes it possible to deal with the hated French Jesuits, determines and directs the government of Prince de Polynyak along the way, which was not officially announced. In foreign policy, we caught Karl X's desire to participate in the colonial section of the world on the example of Maghreb countries: Algeria and Tunisia, as well as in trying together with Russia to complete the Eastern question in their favor.

The direct reason for the revolutionary events of July-August 1830 was the publication of four royal ordinances. The first canceled the freedom of the press and restored censorship. Newspapers began to be published in Paris and departments only by royal order, renewed after 3 months. The second Ordonance dismissed the chosen chamber of deputies. The new Chamber of Deputies was elected in mid-July and representatives of liberal circles strengthened the position of opposition in parliament. 202 deputies were re-elected, and the total number of liberals increased to 272. The third Ordonance limited the voting law and allowed only representatives of rich landowners to him. The fourth Ordonance announced new elections to the Chamber of Deputies on September 6 and 18, while the convocation of the Chamber was planned as of September 28, 1830. Ordonans were signed by Karl X in Saint-Complets on May 25 and published the next day.

On the first day of the official publication of the indignation, only from deputies of parliament and journalists were heard, who had the opportunity to become the first to familiarize themselves with the well-known documents. The next day, journalistic articles were published who expressed protest to the government. On the same day, many "printing houses" dismissed their workers. On July 27, an active protest from the masses began. On July 28, it was marked by the strengthening of protest moods by the people, "the crowd took advantage of the town hall and hoisted a three-color banner on it." On the night of July 28-29, barricades appeared in Paris, and the next day the rebels were taken by Tuileries and Louvre.

All this time, Karl X, being in Saint-Clock, and then in Rambuy, tried to lavish, but only on August 1, recalled published ordinances and tried to keep the throne with the assistance of the appointment of the new government. However, this option was unable to pacify the rebellion, both on the street and in parliament, where there was already a living discussion of the candidacy of the Duke of Orleans Louis-Philippe for the throne of the kingdom (the discussion took place, starting from July 30). The duke itself Orleans arrived from the suburban residence Palee-Royal on the night of July 30 to July 31. After meeting with members of the House of Deputies, Duke Orleans accepted the invitation of parliamentarians to take the French throne, however, at first he received the title of the governor of the Kingdom.

On August 2, Karl X, being in the suburban estate of Rambuy, makes a decision to renounce the throne for himself, and for his son Duke of the Anguleve in favor of the grandson of the Duke of Bordossky (the son of the Duke of Berry killed in 1820), but which will be more famous as Count Shambor . On August 9, 1830, Louis Philipp I became a new French monarch, which will rule until 1848. Karl X himself was forced to emigrate from France, and goes to England, where he lives until 1832. Karl X dies in 1836 in the city of Gersz, who at that time was located as part of the Austrian Empire (now Italy). The official cause of death is called Cholera infection, which the French monarch in exile is infected during the move to Gersz. He was buried in the Church of the Annunciation in Kostanyevice, which is now in Slovenia.

Explain the specific specifics of the situation arising in 1830 with the renunciation of Karl X, expressing a subjective point of view and a look at the problem of legitimism. Charter 1814, as we already know, did not give the opportunity to renote the French monarch from the throne, this item was not even included in the Charter. Therefore, the formal renunciation of Charles X could not deprive him neither the title of the ruling French monarch or the throne. We also note that some historians consider the Duke of the Anguleve ruling monarch of France on August 2, 1830, motivating the fact that he signed his own act of renunciation a few minutes later his father and therefore a number of historians see in the Duke of the Angulent Louis XIX. This cannot be relevant and on a legal aspect, as well as according to supporters of the King - Monarchists-legitimists. Therefore, despite the renunciation, the Duke of Anguleve could actually be considered the Dofee of France, by the way, which became the last in history. Duke Angolevsky could count on the title of France's title only after the death of Karl X, which followed in 1836, and since that time, the legitimists are considered to be the "king of France" and the head of the French Royal House. The practice of adopting a monarch title in exile or de-jura monarch is known to XX. So, after the murder of Emperor Ethiopia Haile Selassi I in 1975, his eldest son in 1989 Amha Seliassia I declared himself an emperor Ethiopia in exile and kept this title until his death in 1997. Such examples are present in the history of Russia, Albania, Bulgaria and other European countries. Regarding the duke of Bordossky, we also note that he retained all his titles, but preferably used the title of Count Chambore, but in the environment of legitimists there is another name "Heinrich V". In fact, he was never a monarch, but had a chance to take the French throne in 1873 during the presidential term of Marshal McMagon, but the unplantent character of the Count Chambore did not allow the restoration of the monarchy in France. After the death of the Duke of Angolevsky in 1844 to 1883. He was the head of the French royal house, therefore it has the full right to use this name. After the death of Count Chambore in 1883, the eldest branch of the Bourbon house was stopped, and the primacy in the dynasty passed to the Orleans branch of the dynasty, which still continues its existence.

Conclusion

Having studied all the available processes that took place all the lifetime and reign of Charles X, more famous as a count of D`aruto, the political portrait is pretty complete.

Born in 1757 in the family of the heir to the throne of Dofina Louis, he was predetermined from the birth of the state men. To the French revolution of 1789, he does not show himself as a very brave and strong politician, this period can be described as a period of its preparation for the service of France.

The revolution of 1789 and the subsequent events of almost 30-year expulsion did not pass in a gift for Count D`, and it is this period that can be described as a period of the policy. He actively participates in the life of the royal house in exile. Takes part in the Pilnitsky Congress of 1791, which served as the basis for the creation of the first antifranzu coalition next year. He is a reliable support of Louis XVIII in compiling the Verona Declaration of 1795. In addition, during the news from France in 1799 on the possible restoration of the monarchy in the same year, the instructions from Louis XVIII, which gave him great powers, and only a person with a certain degree of awareness in the political and public sphere could implement them. From 1798/99 He lives in the UK and up to the restoration of Burbones in 1814-1815. Does not appear on the political arena.

His board, which lasted without a small 6 years in 1824-1830. It is interesting enough characterizes it as a policy. We agree with Anna Martin-Fuzhier, that he was the head of the party, however, we did not get a response. It seems to us that this politician is a completely new, who did not correspond to the image of the Christian monarch and, even more so a supporter of absolutism, as a majority of historians represent it.

Martinyak and Polyniak governments were apparently exactly the tools of Charles X in his politics were able to drive out Jesuitis from France, who at that time were able to take a serious position in the country and even had an impact on Karl X. In addition, the internal policy is characterized by an attempt to avail the monarch between liberals and royalists. However, if under the Martinyak government, the internal political course has a specific logic, then it is very difficult for the Martinyak government to recognize it. Apparently, he succumbed to the influence of royalists, to whom many domestic historians and publicists were counted, and could not keep the balance between the two parties.

Foreign policy Karl X is quite transparent. He seeks to actively participate in the resolution of the "Eastern Question" in close cooperation with the Russian Empire, but this fails. In addition, the first Minister of Prince de Polynyak proposes to revise the contracts of 1815, who obliges France to return to the pre-revolutionary borders, however, the ratio of Charles X to this issue could not find out. The territory of Algeria at the end of his rule is proceeding under the control of France, however, France will finally consolidate in this area only by the 1850s.

In the court policy, we see his desire to make it a certain blacksmith for faithful associates. At the court, the Loube Guard was restored to Loube-Guard, instead of the abolished Imperial Guard. A sufficiently large number of court states, but at the same time with Louis XVIII, and with Charlem x in the beard of the royal court under the control of the Duke de Larochefuky, a tough discipline reigned in it, which suggests that the French restoration monarchs were extremely tight and demanded that the courts from the courtiers.

The end of the board of Charles X was marked by the July Revolution of July-August 1830. During the release of 4 Ordonans on July 26, protests of journalists began, deputies, smoothly flowed into the strike. Attempts to lavish ended unsuccessfully, and under the influence of the environment on August 2, 1830, he rents from the French throne and leaves France. His life in England and Austria was not long. He dies in 1836 on the 80th year of life.

In general, we note that the political portrait of the French king of Charles X, the last representative of the older branch of the Bourbon dynasty on the throne of France, and the last crowned monarch of France appears before us in a certain logic of development, which received apogee during its 6-year-old government. Apparently not wanting to succumb to the influence of Jesuits, it allows Martinata to use all means to drive them out of the country. Foreign policy is logical and quite definite. We can conclude that the life and board of Karl X, which historians were given very little attention, it seems to us a certain synthesis of old France with the magnificent of coronation of 1825, and the realities of the new political and public life, with which his brother Louis XVIII and, judging by his brother Everything, Karl X, it is strange to think that such a businesslike person seems to be desired that France will return to the pre-revolutionary orders. This is impossible neither logically or in fact. He is a politician, head of the party, here such as two words can be characterized by the whole life and political portrait. It only remains to regret that it is so little told about him in domestic historiography.

List of sources and literature.

Sources:

1. Constitutional Charter of France 1814. URL: http://constitutions.ru/archives/8690. (Reference date 1.05.2014).
2. Materials related to stay in Mitava French Krubago Family in 1798 / said K.A. Military // Russian Starina, 1896. T. 85, No. 2. P. 377-380.
3. Letters of Emperor Paul I to M.I. Lamdarf, Kurland Governor, 1797. / Said K.A. Military // Russian Starina, 1893. - T. 80, №2. P. 372-394.
4. Chernyshevsky N.G. Works in 2 tons. T. 1. - M.: Thought, 1986. - 805c., 1 l. Portrait. - (philosophical heritage).
5. Pillnitzer Punktation. Vom 08/20/1791 // Eroche Napoleon: Von Der Bastille Bis Waterloo. URL: http://www.epoche-napoleon.net/quellen/1791/08/27/pillnitz.html (reference date: 04/14/2014).

Literature:

1. Block M. Kings-Wonderworkers: Essays of ideas about the supernatural nature of the royal power, commonly predominantly in France and in England / Per. With Fr. V.A. Milchina. Preport. J. Le Goff. Scientific ed. And aftergot. AND I. Gurevich. - M.: School "Languages \u200b\u200bof Russian Culture", 1998. - 712С.
2. Bovykin D.Yu. Verona Declaration of Louis XVIII // New and Newest History, 2013, №3. P. 118-129.
3. Bovykin D.Yu. "Nothing forgotten and learned a lot ...": monarchy restoration projects in 1799 // French Yearbook, 2005. URL: http://annuaire-fr.narod.ru/statji/bovykine-2005.html#_ftn16 (date of appeal : 04/13/2014).
4. Bovykin D.Yu. Recognition of Louis XVIII (view from Russia) // Russia and France of the XVIII-XX century. M., 2003. Issue 5. URL: (Date of handling: 04/13/2014).
5. Bovykin D.Yu. Religion and church in the political projects of Louis XVIII and his environments (1795-1799). // French yearbook, 2004. URL: http://annuaire-fr.narod.ru/statji/bovykine-2004.html#_ftn7 (date of handling: 04/13/2014).
6. Bovykin D.Yu. Death of Louis XVII: Archive of Duke De La Headla. // The French Revolution. URL: http://larevolution.ru/bovykine-3.html (date of handling: 04/23/2014).
7. Bovykin D.Yu. "I think in a different ..." Louis XVIII and constitutional monarchists (1795-1799). // Europe: International Almanac. Vol. 5. Tyumen, 2005. URL: (Date of handling: 04/10/2014).
8. The history of France / under the general edition of J. Cappelier, F. Lebedna in collaboration with E. Cappelier, etc.; Preport. J. Le Goffa; Per. With Fr. M. Nekrasov. - SPb.: Eurasia, 2008. - 607С. from.
9. Kareev N.I. Political history of France in the XIX century. - SPb.: Type. Ac. Society. Brockhauses-Efron, 1902.
10. Manfred A.Z. (ed.). The history of France. In 3 volumes. T. 2. - M.: Science, 1973. - 666c.
11. Martin-Fuzhier A. Elegant life, or as "All Paris" originated, 1815-1848. / Lane With Fr. O.E. Greenberg and V.A. Milchina; Enters. Art. V.A. Milchina - M.: Publisher. Sabashnikov, 1998. - 480s.
12. Polevshchikova E.V. "We are here in the thick of the battle against anarchy ..." (the political life of the restoration era in the letters of A.E. Richelieu V.P. Kochubayu). // French Yearbook, 2003. URL: http://annuaire-fr.narod.ru/statji/polevshikova-2003.html (Date of handling: 04/13/2014).
13. Sergienko V.Yu. The French revolution with the eyes of constitutional monarchists (emigration experience). // French Yearbook, 2001. URL: http://annuaire-fr.narod.ru/statji/sergienko-2001.html (Date of handling: 04/21/2014).
14. Tatishchev S.S. Emperor Nikolay and foreign yards. Historical essays. - SPb.: Type. I.I. Skorohodov, 1889.
15. Cherkasov P.P. Fate of the Empire. Essay on the colonial expansion of France XVI-XXVV. - M.: Science, 1983.

NOTE

The title of the heir to the throne in France.
By the name of the historical region (county) in the north-east of France, now located in the Department of Pa de Cala.
Description (blazon) of the coat of arms composed by M.Yu. Medvedev, Corresponding Member of the International Academy of Heraldry.
Gerie V. I. Fight for the Polish throne in 1733. - M.: In the printing house V. Gracheva and Ko, 1862. P. 115.
Ibid. P. 12.
Ibid. P. 405.
Pototsky - the gentle of the Commonwealth. Probably founded in the XIII century. Began to elevate in the XVI century. In 1733-1734 Some representatives of the Potocksky clan occupy important posts in the state. So, Yuzef Pototsky was a Kiev governor and commanded the troops of Stanislav Leschinsky, Francissek Pototsky was a member of the Seima from Chernigov.
Charles Anton de la Rosh Imont (1696-1777). Catholic Cardinal. From 1752 - Archbishop Narbonsky, from 1763 - Archbishop Reimsky. He served as the great distributor of the Almighty of the Kingdom of France in 1760-1777.
Pillnitzer PunkTUATION VOM 08/20/1791 // Eroche Napoleon: Von Der Bastille Bis Waterloo. URL: http://www.epoche-napoleon.net/quellen/1791/08/27/pillnitz.html (reference date: 04/14/2014).
Manfred A. (Ed.) The history of France in 3 TT. T. 2. - M.: Science, 1973. P. 32.
Ibid. P. 31.
Louis-Henri-Joseph (1756-1830). Up to 1818 Duke Burbonsky, from 1818 - Prince Conde. Representative of the younger branch of the Bourbon House. The father of the Duke of the Energiene, executed by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1804. Died in the 1830th year with unexplained circumstances.
Bovykin D.Yu. Death of Louis XVII: Archive of Duke De La Headla. // The French Revolution. URL: http://larevolution.ru/bovykine-3.html (date of handling: 04/23/2014).
Bovykin D.Yu. Verona Declaration of Louis XVIII // New and Newest History, 2013, №3. P. 120.
Bovykin D.u "I think in a different ..." Louis XVIII and constitutional monarchists (1795-1799). // Europe: International Almanac. Vol. 5. Tyumen, 2005. URL: (Date of handling: 04/23/2014).
Chernyshevsky N.G. Works in 2 tons. T. 1. - M.: Thought, 1986. P. 487.
Materials related to stay in Mitava French Royal Family in 1798. / Said K.A. Military // Russian Starina, 1896. T. 85, No. 2. P. 377.
Bovykin D.Yu. Religion and church in the political projects of Louis XVIII and his environments (1795-1799). // French Yearbook, 2004. URL: http://annuaire-fr.narod.ru/statji/bovykine-2004.html#_ftn7 (date of appeal: 04/23/2014).
Bovykin D.Yu. "Nothing forgotten and learned a lot ...": monarchy restoration projects in 1799 // French Yearbook, 2005. URL: http://annuaire-fr.narod.ru/statji/bovykine-2005.html#_ftn16 (date of appeal : 04/23/2014).
Manfred A. (Ed.) The history of France in 3 TT. T. 2. - M.: Science, 1973. P. 171.
Kareev N.I. Political history of France in the XIX century. - SPb.: Printing ACC. Society. Brockhauses-Efron, 1902. P. 92.
Constitutional Charter of France 1814. URL: http://constitutions.ru/archives/8690. (Reference date 1.05.2014).
Chernyshevsky N.G. Decree. cit. P. 494.
Ibid. P. 495.
Chernyshevsky N.G. Decree. cit. P. 505.
Tatishchev S.S. Emperor Nikolay and foreign yards. - SPb.: Type. I.I. Skorohodov, 1889. P. 132.
Ibid. P. 133.
Chernyshevsky N.G. Decree. cit. P. 507.
Polevshchshchikova E.V. "We are here in the thick of the battle against anarchy ..." (the political life of the restoration era in the letters of A.E. Richelieu V.P. Kochubayu). // French Yearbook, 2003. URL: http://annuaire-fr.narod.ru/statji/polevshikova-2003.html (date of handling: 1.05.2014).
Tatishchev S.S. Decree. cit. P. 134.
Martin-Fuzhier A. Elegant life, or how "all Paris" arose, 1815-1848. / Lane With Fr. O.E. Greenberg and V.A. Milchina; Enters. Art. V.A. Milchina - M.: Publisher. Sabashnikov, 1998. P. 37.
Ibid. P. 63.
Kareev N.I. Decree. cit. P. 111.
Chernyshevsky N.G. Decree. cit. P. 520.
Manfred A. Decree. cit. P. 211.
Block M. King-Wonderworkers: Essays of ideas about the supernatural character of the royal power, commonly predominantly in France and in England / Per. With Fr. V.A. Milchina. Preport. J. Le Goff. Scientific ed. And aftergot. AND I. Gurevich. - M.: School "Languages \u200b\u200bof Russian Culture", 1998. P. 545.
Block M. Decree. cit. P. 549.
Chernyshevsky N.G. Decree. cit. P. 524.
Manfred A. Decree. cit. P. 215.
Chernyshevsky N.G. Decree. cit. P. 527.
Ibid. P. 530.
Constitutional Charter of France 1814. URL: http://constitutions.ru/archives/8690. (Reference date 2.05.2014).
Kareev N.I. Decree. cit. P. 115.
Ibid. P. 117.
Chernyshevsky N.G. Decree. cit. P. 551.
Kareev N.I. Decree. cit. P. 117.
Manfred A. Decree. cit. P. 216.
Chernyshevsky N.G. Decree. cit. P. 552.
Kareev N.I. Decree. cit. P. 119.
Ibid. P. 120.
Cherkasov p.p. Fate of the Empire. Essay on the colonial expansion of France in the XVI-XXVV. - M.: Science, 1983. P. 28.
Tatishchev S.S. Emperor Nikolay and foreign yards. Historical essays. - SPb.: Type. I.I. Skorohodov, 1889. P. 136.
Ibid. P. 138.
Tatishchev S.S. Decree op. Pp. 140.
Kareev N.I. Decree. cit. P. 126.
Ibid. P. 122-123.